Index

A

Accumulation, 269 , 273 ;

of money, 262 , 267 ;

of pigs, 190 , 229 , 230 -231;

of plumes, 228 -229;

of shells, 141 , 229 , 230 , 258 , 303 ;

of steel tools, 229 , 230 , 303 ;

of valuables, 237

Aesthetics: of decorations, 76 ;

and value 194 , 290 , 312

Age groups: and pig ownership, 143 -145;

and shell ownership, 138 -140;

and trading, 247 -253 passim, 316 -318

Agnation, 32 , 36 , 338 -339

Agriculture. See Coffee; Crops; Gardens

Allies, 32 , 102 , 158 , 160 , 163 , 164

Am yundem (girl's puberty payments) 155 -157, 163 , 164

Arrows, 89 , 121

Assassination, 41 , 48 , 112 , 162

Astrapia, Princess Stephanie's. See Bird of Paradise, Princess Stephanie's

Axes, 89 , 142 , 215 . See also Steel tools; Stone axes

B

Baal, J. van, 6 , 327 , 330 , 341

Bailer shells, ownership of, 135

Bamp kunda yu. See Big-men

Bargaining, 280 , 380 n. 8;

absence of 128 , 209 , 324 -325;

recent emergence of, 248 , 270 , 298 , 317 , 324

Barlow, K., 3

Barter. See Trade

Baruya, 301 , 311

Beehler, B. M., 360

Belshaw, C. S., 3

Big-men, 40 -41, 48 , 108 , 150 , 162 , 269 , 372 n. 11, 376 n. 12;

and dance magic, 74 ;

and hunting, 110 , 112 ;

recruitment of allies by, 160 ;

and shell ownership, 141 -142;

and trade, 251 -252, 335

Bird of Paradise, xiv , 7 , 87 , 119 , 122 , 374 n. 9;

Black Sicklebill, 67 , 71 , 80 , 87 , 122 , 176 , 246 , 259 , 273 , 275 , 295 ;

breeding of, 94 , 111 , 121 , 122 ;

Brown Sicklebill, 87 , 122 , 259 ;

display of, 80 , 106 ;

display sites of, 92 , 100 , 104 -108 passim, 113 , 121 , 122 ;

King of Saxony, 67 , 71 , 80 , 83 , 87 , 103 ,111 , 229 , 281 , 283 , 292 , 293 , 295 ;

Lesser, 61 , 67 , 68 , 70 , 71 , 73 , 80 , 83 , 87 , 90 , 106 , 115 , 176 , 182 , 187 , 209 , 227 , 245 , 247 , 292 , 293 , 295 , 299 , 307 , 309 , 325 ;

molt of, 112 ;

Parotia, 92 ;

Princess Stephanie's, 67 , 71 , 80 , 87 , 90 , 92 , 103 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 111 , 113 , 122 , 209 , 246 , 259 , 273 , 275 , 283 , 290 , 293 , 297 , 301 ;

Raggiana (Red), 63 , 70 , 131 , 169 , 176 , 179 , 186 , 203 , 226 , 259 , 273 ;

sex ratios of, 123 ;

Superb, 80 , 87 , 92 , 104 , 111 , 229 , 281 , 290

Bird populations, 8 , 58 , 115 , 116 , 123 -126, 241

Birds, 13 ;

breeding, 9 ;

as decorations, 60 -65, 360 -364;

kinds of, 87 , 360 -364;

plume-bearing, xiii , xiv , 87 , 120

121 ;

as property, 104 -105. See also Bird of Paradise; Buzzard; Cassowaries; Cockatoo; Eagle; Goura; Hornbill; Kingfisher; Lory; Parrot; Plumes

Bisa (Central African people), 11 , 373 n. 2

Bisnis , 54 , 122 , 378 n. 8;

plumes as, 115

Bohannan, P., 268

Bosboi , 42

Bourdieu, P., 127 , 342

Bows, 89 , 121

Bridewealth, 7 , 129 , 149 , 152 -153, 156 , 157 , 163 , 164 , 297 , 305 , 312 , 322 ;

negotiation of, 150 , 347 ;

return gift for, 138 -141 passim, 152 -153

Brookfield, H. C., 232

Brown, P., 27 , 258

Brunton, R., 339

Buchbinder, G., 25 , 34 , 43 , 118 , 119 ,146 , 168

Bulmer, R., xv , xvii , xix , 3 , 87 , 92 , 122351 , 376 n. 9

Burial, changing practices, 43

Bush fallow, 20 , 21

Bushknives, 89 , 142 . See also Steel tools

Buzzard, Long-tailed, 65 , 71 , 87 , 93 , 176

C

Carrying capacity, 27 -28

Cassowaries, 2 , 13 , 60 , 131 , 175 , 222 -223, 290 , 293 , 307 , 312 ;

in decorations, 73 ;

hunting of, 94 , 98 , 104 ;

ownership of, 148 ;

and spirits, 47 ;

trapping of, 90

Cemetries. See Raku

Center. See Central highlands;

Ultimate plume consumers

Central highlands: accumulation of wealth in, 267 ;

demand for forest products in, 333 ;

demand for plumes in, 7 , 60 , 299 ;

economic development in, 262 , 266 ;

European penetration of, 12 , 234 , 258 ;

exchange rates in, 296 , 297 ;

pig kills in, 148 ;

shells in 194 , 230 , 232 , 258 -261, 296 ;

as source of money, 202 ;

trade goods from, 206 , 278 , 280 , 295 ;

trade links with, 174 , 219 , 236 -238, 243 , 253331 ;

use of plumes in, 259 -260

Ceremonial exchange, 3 , 5 , 127 , 276 , 303 , 307 , 327 , 347 , 351 . See also Prestations

Chambri, 271

Chappell, J. 196

Child reclamation payments, 157 -158

Chimbu. See Simbu

Christians, and food taboos, 45

Clan clusters, 29 , 30

Clans, 29 , 30 -34 passim, 356 ;

fission of 30 , 33 ;

and land rights, 31 , 56

Clan subclusters, 31 -32;

and land rights 56

Clark, J., 200

Clarke, W. C., 1719 , 20 , 22 , 36 , 42195

Climate, 17 -18

Clothing, 68 , 265

Coates, B. J., 360

Cockatoo, White (Sulphur-crested), 6163 , 65 , 71 , 83 , 180 , 209 , 281

Coffee, 26 , 54 , 262 , 267 , 269 ;

income from, 26 , 262 -263, 273 , 275 , 333 , 378 n. 5;

plantations and groves, 20 -21

Cognatic clusters, 32 -34, 36 , 372 n. 8;

and land rights, 56

Colonial authority, 234 , 250 , 269 , 333

Committee member (L.G.C.). See Komiti

Commodity exchange. See Trade

Compensation payments, 103 , 107 , 162 -163. See also Disputes

Conservation, of game, 115 , 119 , 120121 -126

Conus shells, ownership of, 135

Cook, E. A., 30 , 31

Councillor (L.G.C.). See Kaunsil

Cowrie shells 190, 237 , 258 , 280 , 289 -290, 293 , 296 ;

ownership of, 135

Crops, 13 , 21 , 22 ;

pandanus, 21 ;

sweet potato, 22

D

Damon, F. H., 301

Dancegrounds, 64

Dancers, 41 , 74

Dances, 67 , 73 , 74 , 129 , 134 ;

and gender, 78 , 80 ;

and trade, 214 , 253322 -323, 325 , 328

Death-payments, 129 , 149 , 153 -155 156 , 157 , 163 , 164 ;

return gift for, 138 -141 passim

Decorations, ix , 7 , 68 -71, 134 , 207 , 309 , 312 , 316 , 360 -364, 365 -367;

attract women, 76 , 312 ;

changing styles of, 70 , 180 ;

meanings of, 78 -80, 312 ;

occasions for, 70 ;

passed in trade, 132 , 214 , 319 , 322 ;

production of, 86 ff.;

social significance of, 68 -70, 71 -80;

and warfare, 73

Deforestation, xiv , 7

Delayed exchange. See Trade transactions

Dependence, on central highlands, 237261 , 266 -267, 317 , 332 , 348

Devaluation: of shells, 258 , 261 , 274 -

275 , 290 , 296 -297, 379 n. 6;

of steel tools, 296 . See also Exchange rates

Development, 262 , 267 , 334 , 378 n. 8

Diamond, J. M., 360

Diet, 13 , 119 , 120 ;

protein in, 88 , 95 ;

salt in, 186 , 214

Disputes: over hunting rights, 102 -103, 106 -108, 115 , 374 n. 11;

over land, 56 ;

over trade, 320 -321

Divorce, 151

Dogs, 2 , 13 , 148 , 184 ;

used in hunting 93

Dogwhelk shells, 184190 197 ,199 , 237 , 258 , 280 , 289 -290, 293 , 296 ;

ownership of, 135

Dornstreich, M., 95

Downes, g., xv

Dutton, T., 3

Dwyer, P. D., 95 , 96 , 98 , 99 , 122

E

Eagle, Harpy, 71 , 87 , 93 , 281 , 325

Ecological specialization, 1 , 10 , 210 ,216 -217, 233 , 276

Ecological zones, 18 -23

Eels: and spirits, 47 ;

trapping of, 90

Egality, 150 , 347 -349 passim

Enemies, 32 , 102 , 112 , 239

Environment, 15 ff.

Epidemics. See Sickness

Epstein, T. S., 3 , 271

Equilibrium. See Homeostasis

Ernst, T. M., 217 , 311

Ethnic identity, 28

Etoro (Etolo), 95 -99 passim, 217 -218

Europeans, contact with, 48 , 123 , 240 , 258 , 260 -262, 274 , 378 n. 4, n. 5. See also Central highlands

Exchange, 1 , 34 , 127 , 232 , 269 , 347354 ;

and definition of groups, 149 , 338 -340 passim, 355 -356;

modes of, 128 , 230 , 268 , 270 , 272 -273, 311 , 314 , 350 , 351 . See also Ceremonial exchange; Gifts; Prestations; Trade transactions

Exchange rates, 132 , 172 , 209 , 271 -313 passim, 318 , 342 ;

as cash equivalent, 281 -283, 306 -307;

of cassowaries, 294 -295, 297 , 305 -306, 307 , 309 ;

changing fashions, 289 ;

constancy of, 275 , 294 -296 passim, 297 , 308 -309;

of forest products, 293 -295, 297 ;

of marsupial skins, 307 , 310 ;

of pigs, 292 -296 passim, 305 -306, 307 , 309 , 310 ;

of plumes, 281 , 292 -297 passim, 299 , 307 , 309 , 310 ;

and prestations, 303 -306, 310 ;

and quality of goods, 280 -281, 306 ;

and quantity of goods, 280 -281;

regional variations in, 307 -310;

of shells 194 , 274 , 290 -292, 294 , 308 -309, 310 ;

of steel tools, 290 -292, 294 , 295 , 308 -309, 310 ;

of stone axes, 308 ;

temporal changes of, 273 , 275 , 278 -310 passim;

and trade partnerships, 300 -301, 346

Exotic goods, 253 , 254 -255, 278 , 314 ;

in prestations, 169 , 223 -226, 227 . See also Pigs; Shells; Steel tools

F

Feachem, R. G., 145

Feathers. See Plumes

Feil, D. K., 3 , 235 , 352 , 354

Feld, S., 76 , 80

Fight magic man. See Big-men

Filer, C., 304

Firth, R., 301

Forest: area of, 25 ;

area of montane 19 ;

area of secondary, 21 ;

exploitation of, 24 ;

lower montane, 23 ;

primary montane 19 , 87 ;

secondary 19 -20;

types of, 18 -20

Forest products, 12 , 299 , 333 ;

and bisnis , 122 ;

dominate structure of trade networks, xiv , 207 , 267 ;

exchangeability of, 278 ;

production of, 86 ff., 226 ;

as trade goods, xiii , 8 , 60 , 175

Forge, A., 354

Fowls, 2 , 13 , 148

Furs: of marsupials, 2 , 133 , 175199 , 292 ;

in prestations, 226

G

Gadio Enga, 95

Gainj, 13 , 28

Gambling, 262 , 265 , 266 , 325 , 378 n. 6

Game, 13 , 87 ;

abundance of, 119 , 125 ;

kinds of, 88 -89;

as property, 105 ;

restricted, 100 -101

Gardens, 22 -23, 24 , 35 , 57 , 58 , 374 n. 12;

altitudinal distribution of, 22 ;

area of, 22 , 371 n. 4;

fallow, 22 -23, 372 n. 6;

and land tenure, 55 ;

ownership, 55 ;

and spirits, 52

Genealogies, 38 , 357

Generosity: in prestations, 150 , 303 , 347 ;

in trade, 300 -301, 303 , 343 -349 passim, 361

Gewertz, D. B., 1 , 3 , 271

Gift exchange. See Prestations

Gifts, 128 , 138 , 303 , 318 , 327 , 330 , 344 ;

of plumes, 63 , 64 , 135 , 179 . See also Prestations, minor

Gilliard, E. T., 360

Godelier, M., 2 , 268 , 271 , 301 , 302 ,311 , 341

Gold, 262 , 263 , 334

Goodale, J. C., 151

Gouldner, A., 347

Goura. See Pigeon, Goura

Government officer. See Kiap

Grassland, 23 , 24 -25;

area of, 23 , 25

Greensnail shell, 139 , 245 , 276 , 280 ,289 , 290 , 295 , 296 , 379 n. 8;

declining supply of 194 , 304 ;

origins of 194 ;

in prestations, 227

Gregory, C. A., 127

Guns, 89 , 114 -115, 121

Gunts, 17 , 118 , 119

H

Habitat destruction, 120

Harding, T. G., 1 , 3 , 200 , 278 , 315 , 327 , 330 , 347 , 353 ;

on regional trade, 232 , 334

Hart, D., 232

Headdress, 64 , 70 -71

Healey, C. J., 3 , 9 , 25 , 32 , 47 , 51 , 58 , 83 , 106 , 116 , 120 , 122 , 123 , 149 , 161 , 211 , 237 , 259 , 270 , 295 , 312 , 339 , 352

Heaney, W., 258 -259, 273

Heider, K. G., 2 , 95 , 212

Henty, E. E., 23

Hide, R. L., 235 , 258 -259, 375 -376 n. 8

Highlands Labour Scheme: and cash earnings, 262 ;

and trade, 240

Hill, P., 266

Hogbin, H. I., 3

Homeostasis, 4 , 8 -9, 11 , 58 , 125 -126

Homesteads, 20 -21, 35 -36

Homicide bribes, 161 -162

Hornbill, 63 , 65 , 71 , 131 , 180 , 281

Hospitality, 272 , 324 , 342 -343. See also Trade partners, hospitality given to

Houses, 34 -36

Howlett, D., 267

Hughes, I., 1 , 6 , 187 ,193 , 195 , 196 , 197 , 212 , 213 , 235 , 240 , 258 , 261 , 274 , 315 , 327 ;

on highlands trade, 2 , 10 , 216 , 217 , 229 , 232 ;

on sorcery fears and trade, 239

Huli, 217

Hunter-gatherers, 119 -120, 374 n. 5

Hunters: abilities of, 94 -95, 118 , 120 ;

density of, 116 -120;

prominent, 94 -95, 96 , 109 , 374 n. 6;

and yield, 95

Hunting, 58 , 60 , 86 -126 passim, 269 , 301 , 353 ;

of birds, 63 , 86 -126 passim, 309 ;

by children, 88 ;

declining yield of, 95 , 121 ;

definition of, 86 -87;

effects on prey populations of, 118 -126 passim;

equipment used in, 88 , 89 , 114 , 121 ;

and gender, 86 ,88 , 89 , 120 , 373 n. 1, 374 -375 n. 13;

influence of spirits on, 47 , 52 , 90 -91, 102 , 110 ;

intensity of, 94 , 110 , 116 -121, 122 , 374 n. 8;

magic used in, 88 , 90 , 91 ;

of mammals, 92 -93;

methods of, 86 -94;

productivity of, 95 -99, 116 -118, 373 n. 2;

rates of, 123 -126, 243 ;

and ritual cycle, 112 ;

seasonality of, 93 -94, 111 , 121 ;

selectivity of prey in, 98 , 99 , 110 , 111 , 116 , 119 , 120 , 123 ;

and subsistence, 119 -120;

supplies trade, 15 , 176 , 181 , 203 , 206 , 207 , 222 , 228 , 241 , 243 , 267 , 314 , 318 ;

and taboos, 110 , 112 , 120 ;

use of blinds in, 89 , 90 , 92 , 103 , 105 , 121 ;

use of lures in, 90 , 103 ;

voluntary restraints on, 110 -111, 113 , 122 ;

and warfare, 110 , 112 , 121 ;

by women, 88 , 89

Hunting rights, 100 -116 passim, 118 , 122 ;

of individuals, 103 -109 passim, 113 , 121 ;

inheritance of, 106 ;

and kinship, 101 ;

purchase of, 106 ;

and territories, 100 -103, 121 . See also Disputes

Hunting territories, 100 , 103 , 373 -374 n. 4;

personal, 108 -109, 122

Hyndman, D. C., 95 , 96

I

Income. See Coffee; Labor migration

Inflation. See Exchange rates; Prestations, inflation in

Intermediate plume suppliers, 8 , 241 ,273

J

Josephides, L., 3 , 354

K

Kalahari San (Bushmen), 120 , 373 n. 2

Kalam, 13 , 28 , 29 , 48 , 71 , 87 , 153 , 161 , 168 , 180 , 184 ,195 , 239 , 322 , 360 ;

pigs among, 148 , 207 ;

plume use among, 179 , 182 . See also Semi

Kamungga (primary montane forest). See Forest

Kandawo, 13 , 240 , 368 ;

plume use by 67 , 83 , 131 , 180 ;

population, 29

Kapferer, B., 127

Kaunsil , 42 , 102 , 108 , 115 , 116 , 330 ,335 , 372 n. 13

Kauwatyi clan duster, 119 ;

compared with Kundagai, 339 -340;

decoration styles of, 71 ;

population density of, 27 ;

and territorial expansion, 57 ;

trade by, 238 ;

and war, 38 , 53

Keil, D. E., 1 , 2 , 232

Kelly, R. C., 2 , 217

Kiap (government officer), 42 , 55 , 100 ,112 , 115 , 372 n. 12

Kina, 258 , 276 , 280 , 289 , 290 , 296 , 307 ;

declining supply of 194 ;

origins of 191 -192;

in prestations, 139 ,191 ,194 , 215 , 274 , 376 -377 n. 8

Kingfisher, Common Paradise, 61 , 63 ,65 , 67 , 71 , 131 , 176 , 180 , 281

Knowledge, and property rights, 105 -106

Koinambe (mission station), 25 , 48 , 73 ,142 , 264 , 333

Komiti , 42 , 115 , 330

Konj kaiko (pig-killing ceremony), 25 , 29 , 32 , 40 , 48 , 49 , 73 , 110 , 112 , 129 , 145 , 146 193, 238 , 249 , 253 , 322 , 323

Konj kura (salt pork prestations), 158 -161, 163 , 164 , 214

Kopon, 13

Kormondy, E. J., 4

Kot. See Disputes

Kula ring, 378 n. 1

Kuma, 240 , 360 ;

decorations, 71 ;

demand for plumes by, 259 -260, 273 ;

plume use by, 308 , 352 ;

shells in, 258 -261, 274 -275;

trade with, 176 , 181 , 250 , 266 , 325

Kwapena, N., 85

L

Labor: and property rights, 105 -106;

and value, 300 -302, 307

Labor migration, 200 , 252 , 267 , 305 , 335 ;

as source of money, 201 , 262 ;

as source of plumes, 63 -64, 273 ;

as source of shells 194

Land: deserted, 53 ;

purchase of, 53 -54, 57 ;

rights to, 31 , 33 , 51 , 54

Land redistribution, 51 -53, 57

Landslides, 18

Land tenure, 49 -57 passim, 109

Landtman, G., 3

Language, xxi , 28 , 240

Leahy, M. J., 240 , 258 , 261

Lederman, R., 3 , 354

Lee, R. B., 120 , 373 n. 2

Lipset, D. M., 3

LiPuma, E., 30 , 32 , 36 , 39 , 51 , 54 , 150 , 313 , 354 , 375 n. 2;

on Maring social organization, 33 -34, 38 , 149 , 339 -340

Local Government Council, 24 , 42 , 56 , 90 , 113 , 266 , 316 , 320 ;

and hunting restrictions, 100 , 112 -114, 115 . See also Kaunsil; Komiti

Lory, Fairy, 80 , 87

Lory, Papuan, 64 , 65 , 67 , 71 , 80 , 87 ,104 , 172 , 179 , 181 -182, 292

Lowman, C., 30 , 38 , 40 , 44 , 54 , 73 , 372 n. 14

Lowman-Vayda, C. See Lowman, C.

Luluai , 42 , 108 , 330 , 335

M

McArthur, M., 186

MacIntyre, M., 3

Maclean, N., xvii , 30 , 36 , 157 , 261 ,376 -377 n. 8, 378 n. 8

Madmen, 42 -43

Mae Enga, 37 , 132 , 133 , 145

Magic, 41 , 74 , 90 , 106

Majnep, I. S., 87

Malinowski, B., 3 , 5 , 353

Mammals, 13 , 99 , 110 , 184 ;

hunting of, 92 -93, 98 ;

kinds of, 87 , 366 . See also Marsupials

Manner, H., 22

Markets, 3 , 9 , 64 , 183 , 280 , 299 , 322 378 n. 2, 380 n. 3

Marks, S. A., 11 , 373 n. 2

Marriage, 355 , 375 n. 3;

with allies, 37 -38;

within clan cluster, 36 ;

with enemies, 36 -37;

forms of, 38 -40 passim;

and land grants, 51 -54 passim;

patterns of, 36 -40, 149 , 163 -164, 166 -169, 237 , 332 , 357 -359;

reasons for, 38 -39

Marsupials, 87 , 120 , 183 , 376 n. 5;

as decorations, 73 -74, 366 ;

hunting of, 93 , 119 . See also Skins

Marx, K., 301

Massim, 3

Mauss, M., 6 , 129

Meggitt, M. J., 3 , 37 , 132 , 133 , 145 , 351

Melpa, 151 , 240 , 274 , 352 ;

trade, 176187 , 193 , 195 , 299

Mendi, 85

Mianmin, 95

Middlemen in trade, 3 . See also Traders act as intermediaries

Mimola beetle, 70 , 135 , 366

Minerals, 2 , 175

Mining, xvii , 334

Missions, 49 , 200 , 253 , 333

Modjeska, C. N., 272 , 280

Money, xxii , 131 , 133 , 237 , 245 , 268 , 274 , 278 , 283 , 284 , 290 , 296 , 333 , 377 n. 13;

facilitates trade, 132 ;

lost in trade, 266 -267, 269 ;

in prestations, 153 , 157 , 158 , 162 -163, 200 -201, 230 , 261 , 262 , 266 , 269 , 274 , 304 , 312 ;

sources of, 262 -266 passim;

as valuable, 200 -201, 268 -270, 281

Morren, G. E. B., 95

Narak, 13 , 28 , 240 , 360 , 368 ;

decoration styles, 71 , 83 , 180 ;

pig use, 148 , 207 ;

plume use, 67 , 83 , 131 ;

population, 29 ;

traders, 239

Necklaces: animal-tooth, 2 , 132 , 184 190;

vegetable-bead, 2 ,190

Newton, J., 200 , 304

Nihill, M., 200 , 201

O

O'Hanlon, M., 76

Onabasulu, 217 -218

Oral traditions 19 , 23 , 47 -49, 58 , 235

P

Paine, B. G., 43

Parrot, Vulturine, 61 , 83 , 180 -181, 208 , 227 -228, 247 , 260 , 283 , 291 , 292 , 293 , 297 , 302 , 308 , 325

Pati , 73 , 253

Patrol Officer. See Kiap

Pearlshells. See Kina

Periphery, highland. See Primary plume suppliers

Persson, J., 378 n. 1

Pharoah, P. O. D., 43

Pigeon, Goura, 180 , 237

Pigments, 2 , 132197 -199

Pigs, 2 , 3 , 13 , 106 , 131 , 133 , 175 , 183 , 184 , 187 , 200 , 207 , 245 , 276 , 278 , 290 , 296 , 299 , 301 , 307 , 310 , 312 , 375 n. 6;

census of herd, 142 -143;

disposal of, 231 -232;

effects on environment of, 24 , 58 ;

feral, 24 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 98 , 99 , 119 , 374 n. 12;

herd dynamics, 25 , 145 -148, 231 , 305 , 375 -376 n. 8, 379 n. 10;

housing of, 35 ;

hunting of, 89 ;

ownership of, 143 -145;

in prestations, 148190 , 214 -215, 231 , 267 , 305 , 327 ;

ratio to people, 145 -146;

sickness of, 145 , 147 ;

size of, 147 -148 190 , 280 , 292 , 320 ;

slaughter of, 145 -147, 160 , 305 , 377 n. 22

Plantations. See Coffee

Plumes, 2 , 7 , 8 , 60 -85 passim, 131 , 133 , 175 ,197 , 199 , 200 , 245 , 292 , 298 ;

acquisition of, 63 -65, 125 , 134 -135, 226 -228, 316 ;

age of, 65 -68;

availability of, 63 , 80 -85, 175 -176, 219 , 243 , 297 ;

cultural meanings of, 76 -80;

damage of, 67 ;

as decorations, 61 , 64 , 175 , 297 , 309 , 312 ;

ownership of, 61 , 81 , 361 -364;

in prestations, 7 , 67 , 131 , 169 , 226 , 243 , 258 -260, 273 , 297 , 308 , 309 ;

social significance of, 71 -80 passim, storage of, 65 -68

Poachers, 104 , 107

Podolefsky, A., 5 , 27

Polanyi, K., 6

Population, 34 -36;

density, 26 -28, 99 , 119 ;

distribution, 29 ;

trends, 25 , 26

Pork: and prestations, 145 , 226 , 374 -375 n. 13;

sale of, 146 -147, 263 -264, 305 . See also Pigs; Prestations

Pospisil, L., 95

Pratt, T. K., 360

Prestations, xiv , 5 , 127 , 148 -169 passim, 235 , 266 , 304 , 307 , 314 , 350 , 354 ;

changing goods in, 133 , 153 , 236 ;

character of, 128 -129, 347 , 351 ;

defined, 127 -130;

flow of valuables in, 149 , 163 -169 passim, 226 -227, 230 , 237 , 333 ;

fund trade, 226 -232 passim;

goods used in, 131 , 261 ;

ideal of equivalence in, 149 -150, 268 -269;

inflation of, 153 , 155 , 163 , 230 , 237 , 258 -261 passim, 266 , 267 , 273 , 274 , 303 , 304 -306 passim;

major, 129 , 131 , 237 , 304 , 344 ;

mandatory, 164 -168 passim;

minor, 63 , 129 , 163 , 222 , 226 , 272 , 276 , 330 ;

poor recall of, 149 -151, 223 , 227 , 347 , 355 . See also Ceremonial exchange; Gifts

Primary plume suppliers, 8 , 169 , 174218 , 227 , 241 , 327

Production, xv , 3 , 34 , 60 , 125 , 129 , 172 , 207 ;

ecology of, 4 , 86 , 116 , 126 , 314 , 350 ;

for trade, 219 -229 passim, 270 . See also Hunting

Profit, absence of, 128 , 298 , 318

Protein. See Diet

Pryor, F. L., 210

R

Raku (cemeteries and pig-killing groves) 21 , 32

Ramu Valley, 13 , 119 ,195

Rand, A. L., 360

Rappaport, R. A., xiii , xvii , 2 , 4 , 17 ,19 , 22 , 24 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 36 , 40 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 70 , 73 , 74 , 95 , 145 , 147 , 157 , 160 , 200 , 305 , 338 , 372 n. 14;

analysis of Maring trade, 211 -216 passim, 380 n. 2;

on dances, 76 ;

on hunting pressure, 110 , 122 , 374 n. 8;

on land grants, 51 , 54 ;

on Maring marriage, 37 , 38 ;

on utility of salt, 186

Reay, M., 2 , 258 , 259 -260

Reciprocity, 5 -6, 128 , 130 , 163 , 214 ,272 , 327 , 341

Refugee payments, 161

Roads, 15 , 56 ,190 , 242 , 253 , 333

Rofaifo, 96 -99 passim

Rubbish-men, 41 -42, 251

Ryan, D'A., 29

S

Sacrifice: and hunting success, 91 ;

and land rights, 52 , 55 ;

of pigs, 305 , 312

Sahlins, M.D., 120 , 127 , 271 , 272 , 298 , 315 , 327 , 330 , 341 , 347 ;

on exchange and reciprocity, 5 -6, 128 , 130 , 163 , 280 , 380 n. 10;

on exchange rates, 275 , 300 -303 passim

Salisbury, R. F., 3 , 95 , 200 , 271 , 274 , 278 , 307 ;

on exchange rates, 280 , 299 , 301

Salt, 2 , 132 , 183 , 186 -187, 212 -213, 214 -215, 261 , 292 , 293 , 301 ;

and cretinism, 43 , 376 n. 7

Sansom, B., 311

Schwartz, T., 1 , 3 , 334

Schwimmer, E., 301 , 312

Self-interest, 128 , 130 , 349

Seligman, C. G., 3

Semi (Kalam initiations), 73 , 182 , 322 ,323 , 376 n. 9

Settlement: duration of, 25 ;

history of 47 -49;

patterns, 20

Shaman, 40 , 45

Sharanahua, 120

Shells, 2 , 131 , 133 , 175 , 211 , 226 , 235 , 276 , 280 , 292 , 296 , 310 ;

acquisition of, 135 -140, 224 -225, 274 , 316 , 379 n. 5;

declining supply of, 227 , 261 , 274 , 303 -304;

disposal of, 140 -141, 224 -225;

ownership of, 135 -140;

in prestations, 135 -141 passim, 223 , 228 , 258 , 260 -262, 275 , 303 -304, 312

Siane, 301

Sickness, 25 , 37 , 45 , 47 , 49 , 305 , 372 -373 n. 15

Sillitoe, P., 3 , 76 , 80 , 151 , 377 n. 19

Simbai Patrol Post, 17 , 142 , 264

Simbu: accumulation of plumes in, 85 ;

exchange rates of plumes in, 297 -298;

pigs in, 207 ;

shells in 193 , 194 , 260 -261, 274 -275;

trade with, 174 , 176 , 242 , 273 , 281 , 299 , 327 ;

use of plumes, 7 , 235 , 258 -259, 275 , 297 , 308 , 352

Siskind, J., 120

Skins: acquisition of, 134 -135;

of marsupials, 2 , 60 , 131 , 133 , 175 , 293 . See also Furs

Sociability, in trade, 5 , 128 , 210 , 341 -356 passim

Social organization, 28 -34, 338 -340

Soil, 18 ;

fertility, 22 , 23 Songs, 73 , 80

Sorcery, 49 , 239 , 251 . See also Witches

Spears, 89

Spheres of exchange, 271 -272

Spirits, 21 , 44 -47, 52 , 239 , 250 , 372 n. 14;

and fertility, 46 ;

and game, 47 , 90 -91;

and hunting success, 90 -91;

inhabit forest, 46

Steel tools, 131 , 133 , 175 , 206 , 211 , 215 , 226 , 232 , 274 , 276 , 280 , 290 , 292 , 296 , 310 ;

acquisition of, 224 -225;

declining supply of, 274 , 303 -304;

disposal of, 224 -225;

ownership of, 142 ;

in prestations, 142 , 223 , 227 , 228 , 258 , 260 -261, 303 -304, 312 . See also Axes; Bushknives

Stone axes, 2 , 131 , 132 , 175 , 183 , 184 , 187 ,196 , 212 -213, 215 , 232 , 245 , 280 , 290 , 292 , 293 , 296 , 308 , 377 n. 11

Strathern, A. J, xvii , 2 , 3 , 7 , 41 , 73 , 76 , 78 , 85 , 151 , 212 , 269 , 271 , 274 , 278 , 299 , 351

Strathern, M., 7 , 73 , 76 , 85 , 299

Subclans, 30 , 33 -34

Substance, and kinship, 34 , 338 -339 ,355

Supply and demand, 4 , 273 , 296 , 298 , 300 -301, 303 , 304 , 306 , 308 -309, 310 -311, 315

T

Tabibuga Government Station, 17 , 142 ,197 , 240 , 242 , 333

Taboos, 252 ;

dietary, 40 , 45 , 98 , 121 ;

and hunting intensity, 110 ;

on inter-dining, 37 , 239 , 250

Talk Man. See Big-men

Tep yu. See Big-men

Territory, divisions, 47 , 49 -57 passim 102 . See also Land tenure

Theft, 380 n. 8

Thurnwald, R., 128

Tiesler, F., 3

Time, and value, 301 -302

Tischner, H. 195

Tobacco, 2 , 20

Tolai, 271 , 280 , 299

Trade, xiv , xv , 1 , 60 , 63 , 272 ;

anomalous patterns explained, 178 -179, 181 -183 197 , 207 -209, 216 -218;

in axes 197 ,199 ;

in bailer shell 195 ;

in bushknives 197 , 199 ;

case material, 171 -172, 175 , 213 , 222 , 223 , 230 , 238 , 240 , 247 , 280 , 317 , 327 , 336 ;

in cassowaries, 185 , 206 , 219 -222, 232 , 246 ;

in cats, 185 ;

changing patterns of, 170 -233 passim, 234 -270 passim;

in coffee seedlings, 186 ;

and colonial authority, 170 , 234 ;

and construction of kinship, 316 , 338 , 340 -346 passim, 349 , 353 ;

in conus shells 195 -196;

in cowrie shells 193 ,195 , 236 , 289 , 326 ;

decline of, 237 , 268 , 317 , 319 , 348 ;

definition of, 5 -7, 127 -130, 327 -328, 350 , 375 n. 2;

in dogs, 185 , 219 -222;

in dogwhelk shells 193 , 195 , 206 , 236 , 289 ;

ecology of, 12 , 170 ff., 210 , 232 , 314 , 350 , 351 , 352 , 353 ;

and European contact, 186 ,193 , 197 , 206 , 232 , 234 -270 passim, 296 ;

in European goods 199 -200;

in exotic vegetables, 186 ;

in forest products, xiv , 8 , 122 , 169 , 224 -225, 228 , 232 , 236 , 246 , 253 , 254 -255, 267 , 296 , 316 , 317 ;

in fowls, 185 ;

funds prestations, 222 , 226 -227, 230 , 268 , 304 , 314 , 352 , 353 ;

geographic regions, 167 , 172 -175, 368 -370;

in greensnail shell 193 , 194 -195, 206 , 236 , 246 ;

in highlands, 2 , 216 , 315 , 354 , 380 n. 9;

initiative taken in, 209 , 241 -242, 326 -327, 328 , 346 ;

intensification of, 123 , 237 , 247 ff.;

in iron 197 ;

in islands, 3 ;

with kin, 209 , 214 , 323 , 329 , 330 -334 passim, 336 -349 passim;

in kina 191 -194, 206 , 236 ;

in lowlands, 3 ;

in marsupial furs and skins, 183 -184, 206 , 219 -222, 232 , 236 , 246 ;

in mimola beetles, 184 ;

model of, 7 -10, 174 , 182 , 206 , 215 , 232 , 354 , 380 n. 2;

in money, 200 -203, 204 -205, 237 , 245 , 257 , 262 , 266 , 333 ;

moral pressure in, 212 -214, 331 ;

with non-kin, 329 , 330 -331, 332 ;

occasions for, 242 , 332 -337 passim;

phases of historical development of, 235 -237, 352 ;

in pigments 197 -199;

in pigs, 146 , 148 , 184 , 187 -190, 191 , 203 , 206 , 208 , 229 , 231 , 236 -237, 242 , 245 , 256 , 270 , 280 , 306 , 320 ;

in plumes, 9 , 63 -64, 132 , 175 -183, 203 , 206 , 208 -209, 211 , 212 , 219 , 227 -230, 232 , 236 -247 passim, 256 , 309 , 326 ;

and prestations, 130 -131, 151 , 169 , 236 -237;

in salt, 182 , 186 -187, 203 , 212 -215, 236 , 326 ;

in shells, 136 , 139 , 169 ,190 -196, 203 -206, 212 , 228 -230, 232 , 236 -237, 245 , 256 , 267 ;

and social integration, 269 , 315 , 334 , 341 , 349 ;

and social relations, 314 -356 passim;

in steel tools, 169 ,197 , 198 -199, 203 , 228 -230, 232 , 236 -237, 245 , 256 , 267 ;

in stone axes, 176 ,196 -197, 203 , 212 -215, 230 , 236 , 308 , 326 ;

with strangers, 299 , 317 , 330 , 334 , 341 , 348 ;

in tobacco, 186 ;

in tooth necklaces, 184 , 206 , 236 ;

within Tsuwenkai, 171 , 208 , 334 ;

in vegetable-beads, 186 , 236 ;

with women, 337

Trade expeditions, 242 , 299 , 322 , 323 ,325 , 330 , 348

Trade goods, 2 , 130 -131, 132 , 206 , 316 , 365 -367;

changes in, 234 -267 passim, 284 -289, 296 ;

cultural meanings of, 233 , 307 , 311 -313, 321 -322;

exchangeability of, 275 -278, 279 , 306 -307;

production of, 86 ff., 172 . See also Production; Valuables

Trade networks, 9 , 126 , 170 ff., 210 ff., 236 -237, 258 , 267 -268, 309 , 352 , 354 ;

expansion of, 238 -243 passim, 307 , 332 ;

information flows in, 298 -299

Trade partners, 5 , 130 , 175 , 210 , 240 , 270 , 326 -327;

formal, 300 , 315 , 330 , 335 , 345 ;

friends as, 335 -336;

hospitality given to, 335 , 342 , 349 ;

kin as, 303 , 321 , 336 -349 passim;

reputations of, 214 , 319 -320, 326 , 343 , 345 ;

strangers as, 325 -326, 327 , 335 , 336 ;

trust in, 331 , 342 , 344 -345, 346 , 349 ;

variation of exchange rates between 275 ;

and witchcraft fears, 214 , 240 , 319 , 321 , 331 , 343

Trade rates, 247 -257 passim, 273 , 296 , 306 ;

and age, 247 -250, 252 ;

and European contact, 249 , 256 , 298 ;

of individuals, 247 -253 passim;

inhibited by war, 249 , 252 , 253 ;

of objects, 253 -257;

and status, 251 -252;

stimulated by ceremonies, 253

Traders, 241 ;

act as intermediaries, 316 -321 passim, 329 , 377 n. 15;

goods sought by, 242 ;

motives of, 129 , 170 , 209 -210, 233 , 315 , 316 -322 passim, 343 , 352 -353;

vigorous, 251 , 318 , 345 . See also Trade partners

Trade stores, 264 -265, 266

Trade systems, xiv , 3 , 4 , 10 , 210 , 211 ,232 , 353 -354

Trade transactions, 209 ff., 245 , 342 ;

character of, 128 , 299 , 307 , 323 -327 passim, 347 -348, 351 ;

cultural meanings of, 233 , 342 , 352 -356 passim;

defined, 172 ;

delayed, 209 , 303 , 319 , 326 , 328 -331, 344 , 345 ;

failed, 319 -320;

immediate, 328 , 329 , 330 , 341 ;

recall of, 150 -151, 227

Traps, types of, 90 . See also Hunting

Tree oil, 2 , 217

Trobriand Islands, 5 , 129 , 272

Tsembaga clan cluster, 17 , 38 , 122 ;

pig herd, 145 ;

pig-kill by, 160 ;

sorcery sent by, 49 ;

spirits, 44 -46 passim;

trade, 212 , 239 ;

war with, 29 , 48

Tueting, L. T., 1 , 5 , 327

Tultul , 42

U

Ultimate plume consumers, 234 ;

demand for plumes, 274 , 297 , 309 ;

location of, 8 , 174 , 219 ;

supply of trade goods, 10 , 227 , 283 ;

trade with, 169 , 230 , 241 , 273 , 327 , 332

Use value, 300 , 302 , 306 -309 passim 319 , 325

Utilitarianism, 5 , 11 , 233 , 315 , 352 -353

Utility, of objects, 130 , 212 , 215 -216 300 , 311 , 315 , 319

V

Valuables, 3 , 215 ;

acquisition of, 134 -142 passim, 227 ;

census of, 60 -61, 133 ;

as decorations, 131 , 365 -367;

defined, 131 ;

hierarchy of, 132 , 134 , 275 -276, 283 , 284 , 296 ;

ownership of, 133 -145;

production of, 1 , 11 , 301 -302, 350 , 354 ;

storage of, 65 -67. See also Prestations, goods used in; Trade goods

Value, 133 ,194 , 215 , 271 , 276 , 283 , 295 , 311 ;

of pigs, 131 ;

theories of, 300 -302

Vayda, A. P., 27 , 30 , 31 , 73 , 240

Vegetation, 18 -26. See also Bush fallow; Forest; Grassland

Vengeance payments, 161 -162

Vicedom, G. F. 195

Vitiaz Strait, 3

W

Wage labor, 266 , 333 . See also Highlands Labour Scheme; Labor migration

Wagner, R., 149 , 312

Wahgi Valley: accumulation of plumes in, 85 ;

communications with, 15 , 242 ;

exchange rates of plumes in, 297 -298, exploits lower Jimi, 348 ;

pigs from 190 , 306 ;

pigs in, 207 ;

shells in 193 , 275 , 296 ;

steel axes in 197 , 296 ;

stone axes from 196 , 308 ;

trade with, 83 , 174 -178 passim, 183 , 189 ,193 , 196 , 197 , 280 , 281 , 299 , 304 , 327 ;

use of plumes in, 7 , 180 , 259 , 297

Wallerstein, E., 174

Warfare, 37 , 45 , 48 , 49 , 158 , 160 , 164 ,249 , 251 ;

and display, 73

Warriors, 40 , 41

Weiner, A. B., 272 , 312

Widegren, O., 349

Wigs, 67 , 70 -71

Witches, 41 -44 passim, 107 , 162 , 240 ,250 , 321 , 344 , 373 n. 4

Wola, 151 , 377 n. 19

Women, 304 , 312 , 347 , 354 -355;

and care of pigs, 142 -145;

and konj kaiko , 160 ;

as traders, 3 , 171 , 337

Wopkaimin, 95 -99 passim

Work. See Labor

Wright, H., 212

Wurm, S. A., 29

Y

Young, M. W., 3

Z

Zeder, M., 212

Zimmerman, D. A., 360

1. I substantiate these assertions elsewhere (Healey 1980).

2. See Healey (1977; 1980; 1986) for various such elaborations.

3. More importantly at this stage is that through analysis one can disattend to, or account for, apparent disconfirming evidence that is almost certain to be discovered in field research. By its very nature, anthropological fieldwork amounts to a constant challenge to theory.

1. Some botanists and biogeographers would call it lower-montane forest (Paijmans 1976).

2. All identifications are tentative. Some are my own, but most were made by matching Maring terms I recorded with those listed by Clarke (1971) and Rappaport (1968).

3. A contraction of rawa ku , "spirit stone."

4. This estimate represents seventeen ha. per person, surely a gross exaggeration (cf. Rappaport 1968: 287 ff.) and is no doubt a consequence of crude survey methods. The area of gardens is not derived from measurements of individual plots but from the total area of gardens entered onto a master map, partly by reference to compass points and partly by dead reckoning. The use of this method is obviously prone to high degrees of error, especially when dealing with very small areas. Estimates for areas of other vegetation types are more accurate and are partly derived from aerial photographs.

5. Garden sites are occasionally cleared but not planted.

6. It appears from figures given here that there is insufficient secondary forest to sustain a sixteen-year fallow cycle. I am confident, however, that the Kundagai are correct when they say they have more than enough secondary growth in reserve. Extensive areas of forest I estimate at twenty-five years old support their judgment. The problem evidently lies in my own inadequate surveying rather than in actual agricultural practice (see n. 4).

7. There are two more Maring populations to the southwest of the Kundagai: the Went—Kai and Kolomp—Kambek at Rinyimp. I was unable to determine whether they are clans or clan dusters.

8. Rappaport (1968: 20 ff.) has used the term "cognatic cluster" to refer to similarly constituted associations of clans, where cognatic connections stem not from presumed common ancestry but from repeated intermarriage over time and the obliteration of territorial divisions following affinal transfers of land.

9. The occasional exception is classificatory affines (e.g., "Z"H, W"B"), which may use agnatic terms in preference to assuming an affinal relationship and its attendant avoidances regarded as a nuisance where close contact is maintained.

10. Such marriages are proscribed among the Tsembaga (Rappaport 1969).

11. Lowman-Vayda (1971) identifies six categories but notes that there are variable conceptions of big-man status in different Mating groups. Differences between my own and Lowman-Vayda's material are detailed elsewhere (Healey 1977: 115 ff.).

12. The kiap is nonetheless feared to some extent. To the Kundagai many of his directives bear the stamp of irrational anger. The replacement of Australian administrators by national staff has not made the kiap any more accessible to the Kundagai. Indeed, the kiap and the government he represents are now seen as even more distant. For a detailed analysis of the impact of the state on local and regional political organization, see Maclean (1984b ).

13. Some kaunsils of other settlements have other views concerning their rights to demand labor of their constituents. I was told that some kaunsils threaten to bring before the kiap those who refuse to work in their coffee gardens.

14. The material here differs in some significant respects from that provided by Rappaport (1968; 1979) for the Tsembaga and Lowman-Vayda (1971) for several, mainly Simbai, Maring groups. My own brief inquiries among the Manamban yielded yet further differences. I am confident that divergences in Maring testimony reflect real variations in conceptions of the supernatural and further support the contention that the Maring are not a composite of structurally and culturally unitary groups, aside from the obvious broad similarities. This conclusion undoubtedly fits other "societies" in New Guinea. It must also be admitted that some of the differences may be a product of idiosyncracies in collecting or presenting information on the part of both ethnographers and informants.

15. Briefly, the Mating etiology of illness is as follows: spirits and witches are considered to be the most frequent causes of illness and injury. This is also true statistically. Many minor ailments are not ascribed to supernatural causes.

Illness caused by contagion following the transgression of taboos or from contamination with polluting agents occurs less often. See also Lowman (1980).

1. See Patterson (1974-1975) for a list of species available in the market.

2. Prior to contact skins of females of these species were also used.

3. Men and women have the nasal septum and alae and earlobes pierced, and may wear pegs and spikes in the holes. Noses and ears are no longer pierced.

1. Although this concentration on tree-dwelling game is partly determined by the fact that there are few large terrestrial animals available, I should stress that it is also bound up in the ideology of gender. Briefly stated, the forest, high altitudes, the space above the ground, and thus arboreal animals, are associated with maleness and vitality. This by no means exhausts the symbolic properties of the environment in relation to gender.

2. Surprisingly, all three New Guinea groups compare favorably with hunting yields of the Kalahari San (Bushmen), among whom, of course, hunting assumes far greater nutritional and ideological importance, although the environments and fauna are very different. The San favor large prey, such as antelopes, but more often rely on medium- to small-sized prey. On the one hand, Lee's (1979: 265 ff.) work diary of one camp shows that seven hunters spent 78 man days to kill 18 animals, or a mean of 4.3 man days per kill. This is a much slower rate than those shown in table 8. On the other hand, the weight yield was 2.6 kg. per man day, which is probably a higher rate than the Wopkaimin. Lee does not indicate the number of hours in a work day, so a more precise comparison cannot be made.

3. This and other cases are all brief summaries based on informants' recollections, since no public disputes over hunting rights occurred while I was in the field.

4. I recorded several conflicting accounts of the significance of these markers. In 1972 I was told that one set marked the site where a cassowary had been killed. Another suggestion was that the stakes had a commemorative or mystical significance, marking the place where a Kolomp man was killed by witches. This explanation can be discounted since the man died after 1972. On another occasion as I rested by the stakes, one man began to explain their significance but was silenced by a Kolomp clansman. In the light of this incident

I suspect that the stakes have some further supernatural significance beyond being territory markers.

5. This is an interesting contrast with foraging societies, where property rights to game are typically collective or absent, and a parallel with certain predatory herding societies, such as the Reindeer Lapps, where communally pastured wild beasts are owned individually (cf. Ingold 1980).

6. Irrespective of Yekwai's perhaps modest views, he is undoubtedly one of the keenest, most knowledgeable, and skillful natural historians and hunters in Tsuwenkai. A reputation as a prominent hunter derives as much from real success as from broadcasting that success. Yekwai represents himself as somewhat reticent in the face of others' braggadocio.

7. That is, female birds, and immature males whose plumage for the first few years resembles the females'.

8. Rappaport (pers. comm.) states that there was no such intensification during the Tsembaga kaiko he observed.

9. Many individuals recognize an unnamed taxonomic category that conforms to the scientific family of birds of paradise. Maring ethnozoological categories, however, lack the neat exclusivity normally associated with taxonomies in most studies in ethnoscience.

10. Indeed, many government officers share this view, which further confused the issue.

11. Early in 1979 such kots became legalized under the system of Village Courts managed by locally elected officers. These courts in theory are not under the control of councillors. See Maclean (1984b ) for a detailed analysis of Maring kots .

12. Possibly the Kundagai spend less time on gardening tasks than the Kauwatyi and many others. Kundagai gardens are not as tidy or carefully weeded, nor the fences as tall or sturdy, as among the Kauwatyi, which all bespeaks less intensive garden work. Further, unlike other Maring, the Tsuwenkai Kundagai do not have to fence distant gardens against the depredations of feral pigs, which are generally absent. In short, the Kundagai may have more available hunting time than most other Maring groups.

13. Certainly men say that wives and children are often hungry for meat, but the principal focus of such desire is the domestic pig. Although women are responsible for the care of pigs, men represent themselves as bearing the prime responsibility for decisions concerning the slaughter and distribution of pork. Men do not vie for prestige in competitive gifts of pork or other valuables, but a man who does not live up to his obligations to make prestations of pork to his affines and matrikin, or to assist his agnates in their own like gifts, suffers a loss of prestige. By contrast, among Amazonian horticulturalists, who lack domesticated, meat-yielding animals, a man's prestige is dependent on his gifts of meat from wild animals (Siskind 1973; Turner 1979). Here, male gender identity is strongly linked to prowess as a hunter, in opposition to female gender identity, which is associated with horticultural activities—this notwithstanding the material importance of the male contribution to horticulture, a contribution which is ideologically suppressed (cf. Turner 1979). Among the Maring, however, male gender identity focuses more on domination and control of processes

of production and reproduction in general. Domestication of animals here arguably shifts the "token" of prestige from the material object of meat, made socially meaningful by the act of presentation (as in Amazonia), to the act of presentation itself, made socially meaningful by the symbolic properties of pork. On the cultural meaning of domestic pig flesh see Healey (1985b ).

14. Another reason may be that there is a natural bias toward males—a common feature in many species—which is reduced to near equality by human agency.

15. The paper in question expands and corrects a similar argument in my Ph.D. dissertation (Healey 1977). Much of the limited biological data on which this argument is based is supported by Kwapena (1985).

16. None of the species listed in table 12 are regarded as more scarce now than in the past. Some informants, however, do consider that the two Sicklebill Bird of Paradise species were more numerous a few decades ago. They are now rarely killed in Tsuwenkai.

1. Sahlins (1963) is one influential example, but there are numerous such statements, often as asides in the course of some other argument.

2. There are a number of examples of such a characterization in the literature. A similar distinction has been made recently specifically for the Maring by LiPuma (1988: 5), who distinguishes between what he calls "commerce" and "exchange." In his treatment, commerce is dominated by a desocialized, economic orientation involving those who do not otherwise engage in the sociability of sharing within a clan or in gift exchange between clans. My fundamental disagreement with this view on theoretical and ethnographic grounds should become evident in this and subsequent chapters.

3. Women are mostly married between the ages of twenty to twenty-five, men a few years later. Thus, a woman who is an eldest child will not be married until her father is at least forty-five to fifty.

4. Contributions from real fathers, brothers, or sons are seldom repaid.

5. Data were collected by two literate assistants who filled out cards for each pig owner. These assistants spent several days collecting information by asking men and women about their pigs and the pigs of absentees, on visits to homesteads, community work projects, and at a church service.

6. Recently the Kundagai have acquired by trade several crossbred pigs of part-European strains which are prized for their higher meat yields. They are reputed to have higher fertility rates than indigenous sows, which may be a further factor of increase in local herds. The Kundagai, however, may be faced with the problem of ensuring the survival of piglets, and, irrespective of litter size, it is possible that they are unable or unwilling to care for more than a certain number of piglets from a litter.

7. Although many pigs are later killed by recipients, e.g., among the Enga and Melpa.

8. Robin Hide (pers. comm.), who has studied pig husbandry among the Sinasina Simbu, suggests that in areas such as Maring lands with lower popu-

9. Ralph Bulmer (pers. comm.) informs me that although this is technically correct, the Kalam do in fact make payments to both categories of affines (ZH etc. and WB etc.) at semi initiation festivals. In contrast, death payments (see below) are specifically divided into portions for which a return gift is and is not expected.

10. For a discussion of anomolous circumstances see Healey (1979).

11. A man refers to his sister's daughter as wamb wump nako , "daughter planting-material mine." Wump also refers to seedling runners, corms, and cuttings of, mainly, domesticated plants.

12. A bamp kunda yu may perform protective ritual and magic for allies of other clan clusters. Although Atikai clan had its own bamp kunda yu during the last war with the Tsembaga, who performed magic against the enemy, a Kanump-Kauwil ally performed some of the necessary ritual for Atikai.

13. E.g., between FMBS and FZSS.

1. This material is a summary of more detailed tables in Healey (1977: app. 7).

2. This assertion can be verified with reference to more detailed quantitative data in Healey (1977: chap. 13, apps. 7 and 8).

3. Tables and subsequent text take the cutoff date as 1956, the year Tabibuga Patrol Post was established in the Jimi and Tsuwenkai was first officially visited by a patrol (see chap. 1).

4. Other valued species traded are excluded for insufficiency of cases, and the Common Paradise Kingfisher and Raggiana Bird of Paradise are omitted because of special patterns as indicated in the text.

5. The species are: three locally recognized forms of the silky cuscus, Phalanger vestitus ; one of the terrestrial cuscus, P. gymnotis ; and one of the ringtail possum, Pseudocheirus cupreus . Their loose fur and sometimes the pelts of P. vestitus are traded. Drumskins are made of painted ringtail, Pseudocheirus forbesi (other possum and reptile skins, even of the introduced Cane Toad, Bufo marinus , found in some coastal areas, are also used as drumskins but are not traded).

6. The main species used were Phalanger gymnotis and P. vestitus , and the giant rat, Mallomys rothschildi .

7. However, the Maring are (or were) subject to iodine deficiency, which may contribute to hyperthyroidism and cretinism (Buchbinder 1973; Pharoah 1971). Iodine salts may be important in lessening the incidence of these conditions. Sale of noniodized salt is now illegal.

8. Neil Maclean (pers. comm.) found in 1980 that kina was beginning to

be replaced in prestations by money, at least among the eastern Maring. By 1985 it had all but dropped out of Kundagai exchange also.

9. This is the Maring rendition of the more orthodox talbum .

10. See Healey (1978c ) for a discussion of types of stone and steel cutting tools and their classification.

11. Hence the specific names for this blade, meaning "Goipai Creek stone" and "Kant River product." The second name was used to identify the stone when talking to those unfamiliar with Tsuwenkai geography, who would be more likely to know of the Kant River than its tributary, Goipai Creek.

12. The imprecise number results from my inability to determine if two axe names referred to different stones or were alternatives for one type.

13. Called mani or ku mani , "stone money." Coins are sometimes called ku meng , "stone fruit."

14. I am grateful to Neil Maclean (pers. comm.) for drawing my attention to such behavior.

15. In this last case, of course, the recipient of the desired item acts as a carrier on behalf of the initiator of the arrangement. But the Kundagai see this as a trade transaction, munggoi rigima .

16. See appendix 4 for a list of settlements and their locations.

17. Indeed, Ernst (1978) importantly questions this aspect of Etoro-Onabasulu trade, couched as it is in a normative framework.

18. I am aware of the commercial connotations of the term "fund." The term is used for convenience without any formalist intentions.

19. This is in marked contrast to Sillitoe's (1979) claims for the Wola. Although he provides the only other detailed numerically based study of exchange in Melanesia, regrettably Sillitoe's data are not amenable to a numerically comparative analysis, since they are presented in chart form and actual numbers are not always evident.

20. Since these figures include plumes acquired by gift that were not later traded, the numbers differ from those in table 31.

21. This is a greater percentage than indicated in table 26. The present figure includes undated transactions, which are not considered in the table.

22. For example, of the sixty-six pigs killed during 1973-1974, twenty-seven or 40.9 percent were distributed in major prestations. The discrepancy between these figures may be accounted for if the Kundagai tend to choose homebred rather than imported pigs for prestations. I do not have adequate data on life histories of pigs to evaluate this suggestion, although informants deny such preference.

1. See Heaney (1982) for similar changes in Kuma use of plumes, which began somewhat earlier and must also have had a more direct effect upon Kundagai trade.

2. Bear in mind that histories of only a few men aged in their seventies in 1974 stretch back to the 1920s.

3. All distances are in a straight line. Actual distances traveled would in many cases be considerably greater.

4. The Kundagai are not organized into formal age grades. Men of similar ages may be termed komba rangwai, "marita-pandanus one," a reference to having ritually assumed the mamp ku gunc (stained with marita oil) at the same time. The practice was discontinued in the late 1950s or early 1960s.

5. The figure for the first period is based on a small sample of growers: 10, of whom two had no trees bearing yet. The remaining growers had produced beans for 2 to 8 years, mean yearly income range K1.41 to K19.50. The sample for the period to 1978 includes 18 men, with a mean yearly income ranging from K2.25 to K78.50. The sample to 1985 includes 16 men, with a mean yearly income ranging from zero to K35.40.

6. Maclean (1984a) provides an excellent analysis of Maring gambling and its relation to group definition and modern politics.

7. I use the term "exploitative" here in the simple sense of impelling surplus production in order to engage in trade. At the height of its development, Kundagai participation in trade was self-sustaining without any necessity to produce in order to participate.

8. See Maclean (1984a; 1984b; 1989) who provides a detailed analysis of bisnis practice and ideology among the Tugumenga Maring. Importantly, markets, gambling, coffee production, and so forth are all conceived of as a bisnis and implicated in a commitment to "development." Maclean argues persuasively that these activities are preeminently political and ideological, rather than economic.

1. See also Persson (1983) on the kula ring as a whole, where in different sectors valuables may be rediverted by their use in bridewealth and mortuary payments. Note also that the kula is not an insulated system but is connected to other exchange systems in the southern Massim and mainland. See also Bohannan (1955) on the legitimate process of conversion between spheres in Tiv economy.

2. With the recent exception of the purchase of rare or exotic foods for small sums of money, and recently established weekly markets in some settlements (but not Tsuwenkai) (Maclean 1989).

3. Sahlins (1972) recognizes much the same point in his chapter on "The Sociology of Primitive Exchange."

4. European presence and the imposed peace it brought may itself have been an agent for increasing desire for plumes. With peace some highlanders have sought other forms of intercommunity competition, such as intensifying ceremonial exchange (Strathern 1971) with its attendant competitive dances. Thus, occasions for increased plume use probably occurred. In areas where plumes are used in prestations there was also inflation in the numbers required (e.g., Heaney 1982; Hide 1981). In contrast, I have already noted the decline of ceremonial activity requiring plumes among the Kuma.

5. By the time Europeans entered the Jimi, policy had shifted away from

the large-scale use of traditional valuables in payments for goods and services. This meant that the Maring could not enter into direct relations with Europeans for access to traditional wealth but had to seek such goods in exchange for other valuables from trading partners. Shells were therefore acquired at a greater productive cost. In that sense colonial penetration further stimulated production and strengthened newly realigned trade networks, and reproduced the structural dependence of such peripheral communities as the Kundagai on the central highlands as a source of wealth (see Healey 1985a ; 1989).

6. See Meggitt (1971: 202-203) for the Mae Enga, Hide (1981) for the Sinasina Simbu, Dubbeldam (1964) for the Kapauku, Ernst (1978) for the Huli-Onabasulu trade, and Kelly (1977: 15) for Mendi-Etoro trade. The Wola of the southern highlands, by contrast, have opted for accumulation of kina at the expense of other valuables (Sillitoe 1979:153 ff.). See also Hughes (1978).

7. Or rather, the equivalence of these "items" is agreed to by custom. That a woman's agnates expect repeated prestations for her suggests that the Kundagai (as others) do not put a material value or price on their womenfolk and offspring, and acknowledge the necessity of counterprestations from wife-givers to wife-receivers.

8. Greensnail shells hold these qualities above all others, which may explain the higher esteem in which they continue to be held by the Kundagai, whereas kina is now regarded with disfavor.

9. I use the terms "buy" and "sell" here and elsewhere as shorthands for "exchange for money," on the understanding that money is used as a valuable, not a currency.

10. Men said that in some other settlements pigs and most gardens have been separated by a single, communally maintained fence running from valley bottom to above the range of foraging pigs in high-altitude forest. This obviates fencing individual gardens. The Kundagai say they tried this once, but the fence fell into disrepair because people could not agree to a program of maintenance. In fact, there is much mingling of herds in pig-foraging land, although any larger congregations of pigs tend to split up in the evening as beasts return to their accustomed places for receiving rations from their mistresses. New Guinea pig-raising strategies form an interesting contrast with pastoralists, especially those dependent on meat rather than milk, where there is an impetus toward unlimited accumulation of private herds that are nonetheless pastured on a collective basis (cf. Ingold 1980).

11. There have been a very few exceptions to this observation, involving only lower-value skins.

12. It is true that the range of cash values of Lesser Bird of Paradise, kina, and pigs overlapped marginally. Yet these extremes—specially minima of K2 for pigs—were seen by the Kundagai as exceptional.

13. See Godelier's (1977) discussion of similar variations in Baruya salt trade.

14. A similar effect is discernible in Vitiaz Strait trade but not in the Huon Gulf. Both systems have a different structure from the Yir-Yoront trade (Sahlins 1972).

15. My interpretation of Maring concepts of value, especially of pigs, differs

in some key respects from LiPuma's, though this is not the place to go into detail.

1. Much of this chapter is a revised and expanded version of my paper, "Trade and sociability: Balanced reciprocity as generosity in the New Guinea highlands," American Ethnologist 11 (1) 1984, 42-60.

2. Rappaport's (1968:106 ff.) influential model of Tsembaga trade, which I have already discussed in chapter 5, is an example of such an approach. See also Hughes (1977) and Brookfield with Hart (1972).

3. I use the term "trade gathering" in preference to "market." Although these meetings brought together men whose primary goals were to trade with one another, I found no indication that traders competed for commerce. As such, they did not constitute markets properly so called (cf. Sahlins 1972: 297-301), which were generally absent in highlands New Guinea (cf. Keil 1977).

4. These delays are not enjoined by etiquette; it is not thought impolite for host and visitor to hand over their wares at the same time.

5. See Kelly (1977: 14) on the Etoro ban on trade with tribal kinsmen and Meggitt (1974: 169) on the Enga insistence on immediate exchange in trade.

6. There are difficulties in choosing a suitable label. "Fictive kin" has a special meaning in Latin American studies and, with Bloch's (1973) distinction between "real" and "artificial" kin, suggests that such people are somehow not kinsmen at all. This seems contrary to the Kundagai view that sees kinship as qualitative not absolute.

7. As already noted, deliberate attempts to cheat, by refusing to give a return or by giving an inferior or damaged return, are rare. In the past unknown strangers might be waylaid by armed parties and robbed of their trade goods. The Kundagai said the practice was very rare and is now unheard of. It is certainly liable to discourage further visits, to the detriment of the robbers. That weaker form of hostile relations—bargaining—is mainly practiced between strangers rather than previously known partners.

8. Some were introduced to the Koriom man by Giewai (as in the example of Pinai given earlier), others sought him out on their own account in their travels up-river.