Appendixes
The following appendixes describe two empirical studies carried out in July 1990 in conjunction with this project. I chose to interview children from two sites in Los Angeles that were part of my son Victor's ordinary social network: his summer day-care program, and his favorite video arcade (he is a subject only in the latter study). In making these choices I hoped to contextualize the data from the case study of Victor in chapter 1 (that is, to determine whether his responses were idiosyncratic), as well as to capture some of the rich ethnic and racial diversity of Los Angeles.
Because these studies involve only a small number of subjects, they provide neither a solid basis for the ideas expressed in this book nor an adequate test of them. Rather, these interviews are exploratory: they raise new issues (such as the effect of ethnic, racial, class, and gender differences on children's entrance into supersystems like the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle network), ones that could become the focus of more thorough and systematic research in the future. In both studies I was aided by two research assistants, Walter Morton and Michael Sinclair, who documented the interviews on video.
Appendix 1
Procedure
On July 18, 1990, I showed a thirty-minute videotape titled "April Foolish" (the episode of the animated "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" television show discussed in chapter 4, and one of four episodes sold at Burger King in conjunction with the release of the movie) to a group of eighteen "school-age" students in the summer day-care program at the Anna Arnold Bing School, University of Southern California, which is available to children of students, faculty, and staff.
After introducing myself as a USC professor and as Victor Bautista's mother, I told the children that I was going to show them a videotape of a TV show that some of them might already have seen, that we were going to film them while they were watching it, and that then we were going to ask them some questions. I assured them that this was not a test; there were no right or wrong answers. We merely wanted to find out how they responded to the tape.
As soon as the tape started, the children spontaneously started singing along with the theme song, and they remained attentive throughout the entire episode. Following the screening, we interviewed eleven children between the ages of five and nine (with a median age of six and a half)—five girls and six boys. (Originally there were to be twelve subjects; however, the Asian-American girl we selected decided she did not want
to be interviewed.) We purposely selected children who represented the multicultural and racial diversity of Los Angeles: there were four black or mulatto African-Americans (subjects a, c, e, f), three Caucasians (b, h, g), one Latino (i), one Asian-American (k), one Indian-American (d), and one Iranian-American (j). Four spoke a foreign language in the home (d, i, j, k—Tamil, Spanish, Persian, and Korean respectively). We interviewed one subject at a time in a separate room so that the children would not be influenced by each other's answers.
Plot Summary of "April Foolish"
In this adaptation of "The Prince and the Pauper," television reporter April O'Neil is invited to a masquerade ball at a foreign embassy. Substituting a princess costume for her traditional unisex yellow jumpsuit, she is immediately mistaken for Princess Mallory, who has left the embassy disguised as a commoner so that she can enjoy some freedom. Thus, when Shredder and his henchmen come to kidnap Princess Mallory in order to obtain her father's lidium 90 ("the most valuable element on earth"), they inadvertently capture April. In search of their friend April, the Turtles crash the party, chase Shredder to an art museum, where they fight the villains and save the captive, but fail to recapture the lidium 90. Fortunately for the heroes and humanity, this valuable but dangerous substance loses its power and deconstructs when exposed to atmospheric variables.
Questions and Answers
About the Children and Their Family Households
1. What is your age and grade?
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2. Do you have any brothers or sisters? How many? What age?
Yes—6 (3 [b,e,i] had one younger sister; 2 [a,h] had one older sister; 1 [k] had one brother)
No—5 (c,d,f,g,j)
3. Do you live at home with both your mother and father?
Yes—9 (b,c,d,f,g,h,i,j,k)
No, only with my mother—2 (a,e)
4. Do you have a Nintendo entertainment video game system at home?
Yes—6 (a,c,e,f,h,k)
No—5 (b,d,g,i,j)
5. Do you have a VCR that plays video tapes like this?
Yes—9 (a,b,c,e,f,g,h,i,j)
No—2 (d,k)
6. Do you have a TV set in your home?
Yes—11
No—0
7. Is there a computer in your home? Do you ever get to use it?
Yes/Yes—6 (a,b,d,e,f,g)
Yes/No—2 (h,i)
No—3 (c,j,k)
Discussion
The fact that these families are connected with the university as faculty, staff, or students may explain in part why they deviate from national norms (for example, why they have only
one or two children, and why so many have personal computers).
About Their Reaction to "April Foolish"
1. Have you ever seen this show before? How many times?
Yes — 7 (4 once [a,b,e,j]; 2 twice [c,k]; 1 many times [h])
No — 4 (d,f,g,i)
2. If so, did you see it on TV or did you get your tape from Burger King?
TV — 4 (a,b,e,k)
Tape — 3 (c,h,j)
3. Did you like this tape? Why or why not?
Yes — 10
a: I liked the part where they thought April was the princess.
b: It's neat.
c: I liked when April goes in the window and when Shredder says go and blast them.
e: I liked when they were climbing on the roof.
f: Lots of bad guys and funny parts, Turtles got their job done and Shredder got away.
g: I liked when April hit them with the door.
j: I liked the fighting.
d,h,k: I don't know.
Somewhat — 1
g: Some parts were stupid, like when there just happened to be a window there when they
needed it.
Discussion
Two girls and one boy mention April in their reasons for liking the tape — a response that may be specific to this particular story, in which April is named in the title and has a leading role. Three boys and two girls mention action — a response that may be more typical for all episodes in the series. The two oldest boys showed some ironic distance either by finding fault
with the tape (g) or by enjoying the humor and rooting for Shredder, the villain (f).
4. Do you think girls or boys would like it better? Why?
Boys — 6
a: Boys like Ninja Turtles, and girls like Barbies.
f: Boys like Turtles, girls like April.
g: Boys like fighting.
i: Boys like to see the Turtles fighting and getting Shredder. h,k: I don't know
Girls — 1
e: I don't know.
Both — 4
b,c,d,j: [no reason cited]
Discussion
Five boys said "boys," and two of these mentioned "fighting" as the reason. Only one girl (a) said "boys" and then cited Barbies as the alternative preferred by girls, yet without making it clear whether she herself preferred Turtles or Barbies; on following questions she named Michelangelo as her favorite character, yet said she wanted to wear a princess costume. The other girls who said "girls" or "both" gave no reasons for their answer; neither did the one boy who answered "both."
5. Which character do you like best? Why?
April — 3
c: She always covers stuff.
d: She writes about things I like to read.
e: I don't know.
The Turtles — 1
b: [no reason cited]
Leonardo — 2
h: The blue turtle.
j: Because he's the leader.
Michelangelo — 3
a: [no reason cited]
g: I like the name.
k: He has a blue mask [it is actually orange].
Donatello and Raphael — 1
i: They don't say words like "dude" so much.
Shredder — 1
f: He tells the others what to do.
Discussion
Three girls chose April and two gave definite reasons linked to her active role as a reporter. The other two girls violated cultural gender coding by picking a male turtle as their favorite character but gave no reasons for their preference. All of the boys picked male characters, and when one of the older boys (f) violated traditional moral coding by picking Shredder, his reason was linked to power.
6. If you were going to a costume party, what costume would you like to wear? Why?
Princess — 2
a: 'Cause I can go to the tower and to the princess's room.
b: I already have a fairy princess costume and I think it's pretty.
Ninja Turtles — 3
h: Leonardo [no reason cited]
j,k: [no reason cited]
Tiger — 2
e: [no reason cited]
i: I like tigers.
Horsey — 1
c: [no reason cited]
Black Arrow — 1
f: [describes the costume — mask, black cape, and sword]
Freddy Krueger — 1
g: I like him.
Discussion
The girls either chose the princess (for her possessions or prettiness) or a nongendered animal outside the Turtle net-
work (a tiger or horsey). Five of the boys chose definitely male costumes — the three youngest chose the Turtles, the two oldest found more formidable male media costumes from outside the Turtle network. The boy who previously said that the tape appealed both to girls and boys (g) chose a nongendered animal costume, the tiger.
7. Did you like April better in her jumpsuit or when she was dressed like a princess? Why?
Princess — 9
a,b,c,d,e,g,h,i: She looks prettier/better.
k: [no reason cited]
Jumpsuit — 2
f: Then I know who she is.
j: [no reason cited]
Discussion
Only boys preferred her in the jumpsuit, and the one older boy who gave a reason explicitly saw gendered clothing as a key indicator of identity, even though the unisex jumpsuit violated traditional gender boundaries. Perhaps he preferred the jumpsuit because it disavowed differences in gender, which may start to become threatening to a nine-year-old.
About Their Experience with the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (TMNT)
1. How did you first find out about TMNT?
Television — 5 (a,d,f,g; i specifically mentioned TV advertising)
Tapes — 2 (c,h)
Movie — 1 (e)
From my friend — 1 (j)
From my mom — 1 (b)
Don't remember — 1 (k)
2. Did you see the movie? How many time
Yes — 8 (4 once [a,c,f,g]; 2 twice [b,h]; 1 ten times [e]; 1 twelve times [k])
No — 3 (d,i,j)
3. Have you played the home video game?
Yes — 5 (c,e,f,g,h: 3 boys, 2 girls)
No — 6 (a,b,d,i,j,k: 3 boys, 3 girls)
4. Have you played the arcade game?
Yes — 5 (a,f,g,h,j: 4 boys, 1 girl)
No — 6 (b,c,d,e,g,i,k: 4 girls, 2 boys)
5. Have you read any of the TMNT comic books?
Yes — 6 (c,d,e,g,h,j: 3 girls, 3 boys)
No — 5 (a,b,f,i,k: 2 girls, 3 boys)
6. Which do you like best — the movie, TV show, comic book, video game, or arcade game? Why?
The movie — 2
b: 'Cause it's longer.
k: Because it has color.
The arcade game — 1
f: It's big and for a quarter you can be Leonardo.
The movie and the arcade game — 1
g: They are designed to be fun, and I liked the way they made the turtles in the movie.
j: 'Cause I like to watch TV.
The tapes — 1
a: 'Cause there are no commercials.
The comics — 1
h: [no reason cited]
The cards — 1
e: 'Cause they show pictures.
I don't know — 2 (d,i)
Discussion
The answers are totally spread out on preference, yet there are gender differences in experience for the arcade game and to a lesser extent for the home video game, but not for the
movie or comic books, which appear to be equally accessible to both genders.
7. Do you have any TMNT toys? Any clothes? Which ones?
Toys:
Yes — 5 (f,h,i,j,k: all boys)
No — 6 (a,b,c,d,e,g: 5 girls, 1 boy)
Clothes:
Yes — 4 (a,h,j,k: 3 boys, 1 girl)
No — 7 (b,c,d,e,f,g,i: 3 boys, 4 girls)
8. Do you eat TMNT cookies or cereal or drink the juice?
Yes — 6 (b,e: cookies; c: cereal; h,j: juice; k: cookies and juice: 3 girls, 3 boys)
No — 5 (a,d,f,g,i: 2 girls, 3 boys)
Discussion
On these products, which are primarily purchased by parents, there is, surprisingly, even heavier gender coding on toys than on clothes and, not surprisingly, little or no gender coding on the food. This finding supports Susan Willis's claim that "in today's toy market there is a much greater sexual division of toys defined by very particular gender traits than . . . has ever existed before."[1]
9. Which is your favorite Turtle? Why?
Michelangelo — 6
a: I like him better.
b: 'Cause orange is one of my favorite colors.
c: He's the funniest.
e: [no reason cited]
g: I like the name.
k: He has a blue mask [actually orange].
Leonardo — 2
h: [no reason cited]
j: He's the leader.
Raphael — 1
f: He has those little swords.
Raphael and Donatello — 1
i: They don't use words like dude so much.
No favorite — 1 (d)
Discussion
Four girls preferred Michelangelo and the other girl had no favorite; all of the reasons cited (both by girls and boys) for preferring Michelangelo had nothing to do with power, fighting, or weapons.
10. How do you tell them apart?
The colors of their masks and bands — 4 (a,b,g,i)
Their names or initials on their belts — 2 (e,j)
I don't know — 5 (c,d,f,h,k)
11. What does mutant mean?
f: A kind of animal.
h: Turtle powers.
i: Let's go.
j: Ninja.
I don't know — 7 (a,b,c,d,e,g,k: 5 girls, 2 boys; one girl [b] said, "My father told me but I forgot")
12. What does ninja mean?
a: A guy wearing a black costume.
c: When you wear a mask.
f: A guy who knows karate, Chinese or Japanese.
g: Karate-type thing.
h: Ninja turtles.
i: Fight.
j: Like karate.
I don't know — 4 (b,d,e,k: 3 girls, 1 boy)
Discussion
On the question concerning "how you tell the Turtles apart" (which was in no way linked to gender), the gender split was precisely equal both for those who knew and those who did not
know the answer. However, on the questions concerning the definition of mutant and ninja (words that were associated by many of the children, either correctly or erroneously, with martial arts power), the girls were much more willing than the boys to admit they did not know the answer. Indeed, no one really knew the definition of mutant , yet four of the boys guessed or thought they knew, whereas all of the girls (and only two of the boys) admitted they did not know. When asked for the definition of ninja , the girls either admitted they did not know or gave a definition that focused on costuming or masquerade, whereas all but one of the boys gave an answer that stressed the link with fighting or karate. At least two answers (one from a boy, the other from a girl) implied that a ninja is a male or "guy" — though historically ninjas included both genders (a fact that is not acknowledged in the TMNT narratives).
13. How do you know they are teenagers?
a: If they were older, their voices would be deeper.
b: By the name.
c: 'Cause they're younger.
e: Because they're big.
f: The game says they're fifteen or sixteen.
g: I'm not sure they are.
i: By how old they are.
j: [retells the plot of how Splinter found them when they were babies]
I don't know — 3 (d,h,k: 1 girl, 2 boys)
Discussion
At least four of the answers were relative, comparing this stage of adolescence with either earlier or later stages of growth and implying that being a teenager is a transitional or liminal stage. Also, two of the girls gave what Piaget would call a centralized answer that may have related to their own situation: (c), a six-year-old who is younger than most other second-graders, said, "'Cause they're younger"; whereas (e), a tall six-year-old
who is probably bigger than most other youngsters in her first-grade class, said, "Because they're big."
14. Why do you think they are so popular?
a: They fight and like to help.
b: The movie and the turtle are neat.
e: Because they're green.
f: They save the day and find April and take her where she should be.
g: Maybe they like the names because they were sculptors and artists.
i: Kids like how they do tricks.
j: Because they're ninjas, they fight.
k: Because they fight.
I don't know—3 (c,d,h: 2 girls, 1 boy)
Discussion
Five of the answers (from four boys and one girl) concern action (fighting and/or doing good). The other three answers (two from girls and one from an older boy) concern nonaggressive qualities—being neat, their color, their link with famous artists. Almost all of the answers point to characteristics in the Turtles; none acknowledges any cultural or marketing factors such as how they are commercially promoted. These answers may support Susan Willis's claim that "children have difficulty conceiving of their toys as having been made."[2]
General Discussion
Two of the children who speak a foreign language in their home (d,i) showed the least engagement with the Turtle network (in terms of owning commodities like the Nintendo system, a VCR, TMNT toys or clothes, or being exposed to the food, movie, or video tapes). While the girl (d) tended to say "she didn't know" or that she had no favorites among the Turtles, the boy (i) gave answers that challenged the cultural gender coding (for instance, answering that the tape was liked by
both girls and boys, and choosing a nongendered tiger costume) or challenged the Turtles themselves (preferring Raphael and Donatello because they didn't use words like dude so much, as if implying that they were the least offensive of the Turtles rather than the best). The other two children from homes where a foreign language is spoken seemed more plugged in to the Turtle network in terms of commodities and exposure; one of them (k), however, had the second highest number of "I don't know" responses (8), whereas the other child (j) gave only three such responses. Since both children are six, this difference cannot be accounted for by age, but may be due to the different proficiencies in speaking English ([k] is in the first grade, [j] in the second) or to other cultural differences from their respective Korean and Iranian ethnic backgrounds.
In further research, it might be interesting to explore the various kinds of cultural resistance waged by different ethnic groups from various economic brackets to determine whether such resistance decreases with time spent (in this case) in an American urban culture or is deliberately adhered to as alternative cultural expression within the home. Does resistance differ according to ethnic background—that is, whether the family comes from India, Asia, Latin America, Africa, or Europe?
Age differences also appeared to be a significant factor in the children's responses. While the two oldest male subjects (f and g, one black, the other Caucasian) created some ironic distance from the Turtle network by calling it humorous, stupid, or unrealistic or by preferring other more mature popular heroes (like Freddy Krueger, the popular villain from the Nightmare on Elm Street film and TV series, and Black Arrow, an identity temporarily adopted by D.C. comic book hero Green Arrow and passed on to his girlfriend in the "Black Arrow Saga"), one wonders whether a similar resistance would be found in girls of the same age or in boys from different class or ethnic backgrounds? The youngest child (h, age five) tended to say yes to every question, even if that answer was improbable (as was his claim that he was only three, not five) and to answer simply
"because" whenever he was asked "why." Yet he did not hesitate to define both mutant and ninja when several of the older children said they did not know the answer. Would a five-year-old girl or a five-year-old boy from a different class, ethnic, or racial background respond in a similar way? There were not enough subjects in this study to answer such questions; at least six subjects in each category or "cell" would be needed to obtain statistically significant results.
Particularly interesting was the frequency with which some of the girls answered "I don't know," in contrast to the boys, who usually guessed or assumed they knew. While this response was undoubtedly more candid than that of the boys on the definition of mutant , when asked to define ninja the boys did tend to know the answer, whereas the girls (both those who gave a definition and those who said they did not know the answer) tended to disavow the violence—a pattern that is observable as well in their reasons for preferring the character of Michelangelo and on the final question about popularity. When a girl (a) did directly confront the violence and the cultural gender coding of the Turtles network in contrast to Barbie dolls, her answers were contradictory: she chose Michelangelo as her favorite character (instead of April O'Neil, whom most of the other girls picked), yet wanted to wear a princess costume ("so I can go to the tower and the princess's room")—a response that may involve an awareness of class difference and buying power as much as differences in gender.
This study made me want to spend more time interviewing children like (a), (g), (f), (i), (j), and (k) to find out more about how they negotiate the meanings of cultural production and how they are being formed as gendered subjects by supersystems like Barbie dolls and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.
Appendix 2
Procedure
On July 22, 1990, a sunny day in Los Angeles, I went to the Playland Arcade on the Santa Monica Pier, an arcade that draws players from all parts of the city, and videotaped interviews with twelve children who were playing at one of two Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles arcade machines. My crew was there for five hours (11:00 A.M. to 4:00 P.M.), during which time some forty-five children played with these two game machines. All of these children were males; approximately 40 percent were black (18), 30 percent Caucasian (13), 15 percent Latino (7), and 15 percent Asian (7).
We tried to select subjects who would reflect the racial representation of the players; however, all of the Asian players declined to be interviewed, as did many of the Caucasian children (or their parents). We interviewed ten boys, three of whom we had brought with us—my son, Victor (H), and two male friends from his class (F and J). Since no girls were playing Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, we requested interviews with one black girl (B) who was playing a nearby machine and with a Latino girl (A) who was not playing any arcade games but was wearing a TMNT t-shirt. In all, then, we conducted twelve interviews with children aged six to fourteen (with a median age of eight and a half). Five of the children were black (B,D,I,K, L), four Caucasian (C,F,G,J), and three Latino (A,E,H). Three
spoke a foreign language in the home: one Hebrew (C) and two Spanish (A,E).
The TMNT Arcade Game
In this arcade game, produced by Konami, four players can play at once. Each player occupies a separate playing post with its own control panel containing two buttons, marked "Attack" and "Jump," and a knob for controlling directional movements. Each player identifies with and controls the moves of one of the four color-coded Turtles, each feeds quarters into a separate slot, and each has a separate tally indicating the current point total and the number of remaining lives.
Regardless of how many players are playing, the Turtle(s) encounter the same enemies in their quest to free their friend April O'Neil and their rat guru, Splinter, who occasionally appear in bondage as static images on screen. Both are being held captive by the villainous Shredder and his henchmen—the Stone Warriors, the evil scientist Baxter Stockman, Rock Steady, Bebop, and Krang—and their fleet of anonymous Foot soldiers, mousers, and robots. The more Turtles in action, the greater their chances of defeating the enemy; thus there is a narrative (as well as an economic) incentive to have all four playing posts occupied.
The game is structured in five "scenes" of nonstop combat, each with its own explicit mission (for example, scene 1, "Fire, we gotta get April out!"; scene 4, "We gotta save Splinter"; and scene 5, "We gotta find the Technodrome") and its own settings and enemies (battling Rock Steady in a burning high rise; fighting in the sewers against a helicopter piloted by Baxter; skateboarding down city streets while confronting enemies on motorcycles, skateboards, and helicopters; seeking out Krang, Shredder, and the latter's masked double for the final showdown in the Technodrome; and so on). If a Turtle is hit by Shredder in this climactic battle, he turns into an ordinary turtle and loses a life.
Each Turtle begins the game with two lives and gains new
energy whenever he eats a pizza. When a Turtle kills Bebop, the Turtle Van drives up to take the amphibious warriors to the next scene, and April appears on screen, kisses a Turtle, and says, "I owe you one." When a Turtle kills one of the Stone Warriors in scene 4, he frees Splinter, who says, "Thank you, my Turtles." In battle, the Turtles receive nasty messages from the enemy, which help to strengthen the players' identification with their heroes. For example, Rock Steady says, "Say your prayers, Toitles"; Bebop taunts, "You're dead, shell brain," or "Watch your mouth, slime ball"; and Shredder mocks, "Tonight I dine on turtle soup." In addition to being printed on the screen like dialogue in comic books, most of these remarks are also spoken as part of the soundtrack—along with the music, explosions, and cowabunga 's; however, because of the noise level in most arcades, they are usually difficult to hear.
Whenever a Turtle is defeated in battle, the words Shell Shock appear on the screen and he loses one of his lives. When a Turtle loses both lives, the suturing identification is broken, for a series of messages appears that directly addresses the player: Game Over, To Continue, Insert Coin . If a player rapidly inserts another coin, he can continue from where he left off and retain his previous score, which is the only way ever to "win" the game. If the player waits too long, the message Game Is Over is repeated in big red letters in the center of the screen and he has to start all over from the beginning of scene 1. Thus, the structure of the game motivates players to come prepared with plenty of quarters (or tokens).
Questions and Answers
About the Children and Their Family Households
1. What is your age and grade?
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2. Do you have any brothers or sisters? How many? What age?
Yes—10 (1 [A] had five sisters, older and younger; 2 [B,D] had three younger sisters and brothers; 2 [I,K] had two younger brothers; 1 [C] had one younger sister; 2 [H,J] had one older sister; 1 [E] had one younger brother; 1 [F] had one older brother)
No—2 (G,L)
3. Do you live at home with both your mother and father?
Yes—8
No, only with my mother—4 (B,C,I,L)
4. Do you speak another language besides English at home?
Yes—3 (Hebrew [C] and Spanish [A,E])
No—9
5. What do your father and mother do for a living?
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6. Do you have a Nintendo video game system at home?
Yes—6 (E,F,G,H,K,L)
No—6 (A,B,C,D,I,J)
7. Do you have a VCR?
Yes—11
No—1 (L)
8. Do you have a TV set?
Yes—11
No—1 (I)
9. Is there a computer in your home? If so, do you ever get to use it?
Yes/Yes—4 (C,F,J,K)
Yes/No—3 (D,G,H)
No—5 (A,B,E,I,L)
Discussion
It immediately became clear that the responses of the children were not always reliable. Some subjects were too young to understand some of the questions or to know some of the answers. Others wanted (either consciously or unconsciously) to have their answers reflect their desire rather than reality. Or for whatever reason (class, pride, embarrassment, disavowal), they simply did not want to divulge certain information. These denials and evasions became most obvious in the responses of my own son (H), who claimed that he had no siblings (he has an older sister) and who said that his mother and father "work," without specifying what they do. When I later inquired why he gave these answers, he said that he didn't realize I was asking him what kind of jobs his parents had and that his sister didn't live with us anymore (which is true). Similar omissions or distortions were also present in the responses of his friends (F and
J), whose family situations and experience I know about from other sources. For example, (J) said his mother is a lawyer, yet actually she works with lawyers but is not one herself.
Discrepancies were also detectable in the interviews with two of the children from the lowest economic bracket (B and I), who, before the interview, introduced themselves as sister and brother, but whose responses were frequently contradictory. For example, although the girl (B) presumably was counting him as one of her younger brothers, he claimed he had only brothers, no sisters. When asked what their mother did for a living, she gave no reply, but he said, "She cleans up." When asked whether they had a TV set, she said yes and he said no.
Children from higher economic brackets were also reluctant to admit that they did not possess certain hardware, like the Nintendo Entertainment System. For example, (J) (whose parents intentionally bought him a more expensive computer instead) gave a pained expression, and (L) added (a few questions later), "No, but I'm gonna get one." Unlike the Bing school (the site of the investigation described in appendix 1, where, despite ethnic and racial diversity, the economic and educational status of the families were more similar), here the range was considerably wider. Thus this section of the interview was apparently a painful reminder to some subjects of what they did not or could not have.
About Their Experience with the Arcade Games
1. Have you ever played the TMNT home video game?
Yes—7 ("Yes, I have it" [G,H])
No—5 ("No, but I'm gonna get one" [L])
2. If so, which do you like better, the home video game or the arcade game? Why?
Arcade game—6
C: Everybody gets to play, it's not as hard.
D: You can play all four men and get help.
E: It has bigger men and they fight outside.
F: It has better graphics.
G: It's more funner.
H: I like the graphics better.
Home game—1
K: It's more fun.
3. How many times have you played this arcade game?
Lots or quite a few times—3 (D,G,H)
About 100 times—1 (F)
40 times—1 (C)
10 times—1 (E)
7 times—1 (J)
4 or 5 times—1 (L)
Twice—2 (B,I)
Never—1 (A)
I don't know—1 (K)
4. Which Turtle do you like to be? Why?
Leonardo—5
C: He has the longest reach.
D: His stick reaches to the victims and kills them better.
I: I like how swift his sword is.
J: He has swords and can chop down metal.
L: I like the way he got those swords . . . I wish I been him.
Michelangelo—3
A: He's cool.
E: He's a party dude.
F: He has the best weapon—nunchucks.
Raphael—2
G: He's funny.
H: He can roll.
Donatello—2
B: I think he's fresh and neato.
K: He hits people with a stick.
Discussion
No matter which Turtle they pick, the reason given by the girls for their preference is an adjective reflective of their own judgment or feeling ("he's cool," "he's fresh and neato") rather
than describing his weapons or his actions, which is what the boys tended to focus on. This difference may be explained in part by the fact that the boys know the game better because they play it more frequently, but this same pattern was also observed in the previous study at the Bing school.
5. Do you like to stick with one Turtle or to switch from one to the other? Why?
Switch—7
D: If I don't like one, I can change.
F: It's easier.
G: I just like to change.
H: Some Turtles are better for some things.
I: I like it.
J: Then I get more practice on all of them.
K: Because.
Stick—2
B: I don't know why.
C: I get used to their maneuvers.
I like both, it doesn't matter—2
E, L
I don't know—1
A (has never played the game)
Discussion
Subjects either gave a strategic reason for switching Turtles (D,H,J,C) or merely expressed an intuitive preference (F,G,I,K,B). Despite the varied reasons cited, apparently most children like to shift identification and become a sliding signifier, or, as (G) puts it, they "just like to change."
6. Why can't you choose to be Splinter or April?
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7. Do you think this arcade game is made for both boys and girls, or just boys?
Both boys and girls—11
Just boys—1 (J: Because boys like Turtles and girls don't, girls won't play them, they like Barbies . . . disgusting!)
Discussion
With the exception of (J), all subjects disavowed the masculine orientation of the arcade game—even though not a single girl was seen playing it all day and even though on the previous question (which dealt with the gender issue more indirectly) many answers did acknowledge gender difference. Except for (A) (a female subject who admittedly has never played the
game), all subjects gave a reason for why Splinter could not be picked: because of structural reasons in the game (F,G,J), or because of his role in the narrative as teacher (C) or captive (H,K), or because of his personal characteristics—age (B,I), species (D), or passivity (E).
With regard to April, in contrast, two subjects (B and I, sister and brother) said they did not know why she could not be picked. Of those who did give reasons for her exclusion, four boys (D,E,G,L) mentioned gender, while five others mentioned some structural reason in the game that may or may not relate to gender ("You gotta save her," "She is captured," "She can't fight that well," "She's a reporter," "There's no April in it"). Not surprisingly for this age group, no one criticized or questioned the structure of the game and its treatment of gender difference.
The two oldest boys came close to a kind of parity by explaining that neither Splinter nor April is a Turtle, yet (D) elaborated by naming their species and gender as the respective reasons for their exclusion while (C) (who lives with a single mother) disavowed the gender issue by referring to their respective roles as teacher and reporter. Only two boys (H and J) gave the same structural reason for both Splinter and April ("They are captured," "They are not in it"); interestingly, both these boys have mothers who are career women. Yet on the following question (where children were asked whether the arcade game was made for both boys and girls or just boys), (J) was the only subject who directly confronted the gender issue by answering "boys." Moreover, his response ("Because boys like Turtles and girls don't, girls won't play them, they like Barbies . . . disgusting") was the most overtly negative remark about females in both sets of interviews; instead of stating that the Turtles were designed for boys and Barbies designed for girls (as the question implied), he explicitly blamed the girls for willfully choosing dolls over video games. Like the other children, he denied the responsibility of the manufacturers or the media for this difference and accepted them uncritically as a
benevolent force. These answers seem to support Susan Willis's contention that most children merely accept the world of the toys and all of its ideological assumptions without "conceiv[ing] of such a universe as having been produced."[1]
While all the explanations of the older children (from age eight to fourteen) referred only to the characters (Splinter, April, and the Turtles), three of the younger children also described themselves—their own preferences ("I like Splinter too"), desires ("I always want to be Splinter"), and gender ("Because I'm a boy"). This pattern is consistent with Piaget's observation that decentration occurs with cognitive development. Yet interestingly, the youngest child (L), who gave subjective reasons for the exclusion of both figures and who lives with a single mother, was the most emphatic about excluding April on the basis of gender ("Well, I ain't no girl"). The ambiguity about whether he wanted to be Splinter, though, had more to do with the character's role as a teacher/authority ("I don't care if I be Master Splinter"), as in the more intellectualized explanation of the oldest child (C).
8. Do you think this game is very violent? Do you like that aspect of the game—the fighting? Why or why not?
Is the game violent?
Yes—4 (B,F,I,K)
No—6 (C,D,E,G,H,J)
I don't know—2 (A,L)
Do you like this aspect, the fighting?
Yes—11 (3 [B,G,L] try to justify the violence morally):
B: Yes, they can beat them up cause Shredder is the one what told them to get him.
G: Yes, because the foot soldiers are just robots.
L: I like to watch the Turtles fight Shredder's men.
5 (C,D,E,F,I) give no justification beyond "it's just fun/action":
C: I like fighting, it's fun, it's action!
D: It's exciting.
E: I like the action.
F: It has lots of action.
I: It's fun.
3 (H,J,K) give no reason
9. After playing the game, do you feel like fighting with someone in real life?
Yes—0
No—11 (L: "No, I don't like fighting")
Discussion
All eleven subjects who answered these questions claimed that they liked the fighting in the arcade game, yet after playing the game they had no desire to fight in real life. This apparent contradiction could be interpreted to mean (in part or in combination) that the children are disavowing the violence because they know it is socially disapproved behavior, that they are using the games to channel their aggression, or that their disavowal reflects that of the culture as a whole. The contradictions are most obvious in the responses of the youngest subject (L), perhaps because he is still too young to perceive them. Although he says he does not know whether the game is violent, he nevertheless admits that he likes to watch the Turtles fight Shredder's men, and then he insists, "I don't like fighting." He could be distinguishing between fictional fighting (which he likes, particularly when it is morally justified by being against bad guys) and fighting in real life (which he dislikes because his family and society claim to condemn it).
Interestingly, only four subjects (B,F,I,K) admitted the game was violent—three of whom were black and from a low economic bracket; the other subjects denied it or said they didn't know whether it was violent or not. Only three subjects (B,G,L) tried to justify the violence on moral grounds; the others replied that it was fun, or redefined it euphemistically as "action" as if they were inseparable, or simply gave no reason for why they liked the fighting. The only subject who both acknowl-
edged the violence and tried to justify it morally was (B), a black female.
10. When you are playing TMNT, do you ever talk to the other players? What kinds of things do you say?
Yes—5
B: Like the water, Our mom, School.
C: Get him, Look out, Hurry up.
D: Get that guy, Go after him.
F: Do you have any quarters left?
H: I try to tell them that something's coming—like a
Foot soldier is going to jump out of the sewer and
throw the sewer top.
Sometimes—
E: How do you beat this guy? What level does this go up to?
J: Hello, Why do the Turtles jump in without your making them?
No—4 (G,I,K,L)
G: I just pay attention to the game.
L: But when we went to Pizza Hut with my cousin, I was talking to her to show her how to play it.
11. Why do you think they made the game so that four players can play at the same time?
C: So it would be easier to play.
D: Because they have all these men attacking you at once.
E: So other people can get a chance to play with their friends and family.
F: They thought it was easier for little kids to play.
G: So it can be more funner.
H: Because it would be harder for just one player.
I: 'Cause.
J: So they can beat the bad guys.
K: 'Cause there are four Turtles.
I don't know (B,L)
12. When you come to the arcade, whom do you usually come with?
Friends—5 (C,D,F,I,J)
Family—7 (B,E,G,H,I,K,L: cousins and brother; family; my dad; mom and dad; sister and friend; dad,
brother, and sister; mother, father, cousins, aunties and uncles)
Discussion
All of the subjects said that they usually came to the arcade with friends or family (which may not be the case for older players). Most of them appreciated that four players could play TMNT at the same time, and most enjoyed talking to other players, even if they didn't know them. These responses, which were corroborated by the video taping of the action in the arcade, challenge the claim that video games foster alienation.
Subjects reported three kinds of verbal interaction: to tell other players what to do (C,D); to seek help, information, or money (F,E,J); and to offer assistance to others (H,L). The idiosyncratic response of (B) ("Like the water," "Our mom," "School") may indicate that she has not really played the game. All other responses focus on developing cognitive skills to improve one's ability to play the game, which may suggest the kind of interaction that helps players move across Vygotsky's zone of proximal development.
13. How often do you come to the arcade?
Lots of times—1 (G)
Three times a week—1 (F)
Every weekend—2 (D,K)
Twice a month—2 (C,E)
First time today—2 (I,L)
Not much—1 (J)
I don't know—2 (B,H)
14. How much money do you usually spend in the arcade?
How much have you spent so far today?
B: $50; today a quarter
C: $5; today $1.25
D: Once I spent $15; today only $1
E: $5–$6; today $5
F: $10; today around $20 [he actually spent $25]
G: Lots; not much because we just got here
H: $5 or something; today, I don't know [he spent $25]\
I: I don't know; today fifty cents
J: Not much; today, about a hundred cents [he spent $25]
K: $100; today $2
L: I don't know; I don't know
Discussion
Some subjects tended to exaggerate the frequency of their visits (such as J, who was actually there for the first time, and F), and several simply didn't know. Most subjects were similarly unreliable in reporting how much money they were spending. There were large discrepancies between the reported average (which seemed highly exaggerated) and the amount they had spent that day (which seemed more realistic), particularly for youngsters in the lower economic brackets (B: $50 versus a quarter, K: $100 versus $2); in contrast, middle-class subjects (F,H,J) tended to underestimate what they had spent both for the average and that day. These findings may support Willis's claim that the erasure of production within commodity fetishism helps to keep children ignorant of how money works in a consumerist culture.[2]
15. What other arcade games do you like to play?
Double Dragon—4 (E,F,H,L)
Cars and motorcycle games—3 (B,E,I)
Final Fight and After Burner—1 (C)
Super Mario and Motor Cross—1 (D)
Robo Cop—1 (E)
Super Contra—1 (F)
Off Road—1 (G)
Skeeter Ball—1 (J)
Castle Vania—1 (L)
All the games—1 (K)
16. W hich is your favorite arcade game? Why?
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles—10
It's fun (C,D,G)
Lots of action (C,F)
I like the Turtles (H,I,L; I: They're cool; L: I wish I been one of those 'cause they like to eat pizza and I like to eat pizza, too)
They fight (B: They fight, and you get more than three turns, you can have four people play; J: It does a lot of fighting and I really like them)
All of them are my favorites—1 (K)
Discussion
Clearly "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" falls in the category of fast-paced action games, which were favored by most subjects because they're "fun," but it is distinguished from other games by allowing four players to play at the same time and by its distinctive heroes, who apparently are more appealing sites of identification than most other video game heroes.
About Their Experience with TMNT
1. How did you first find out about TMNT?
The movie—2 (A,D; D: I saw the movie and then went to the arcade and it was there)
Cartoons—3 (E,K,L; L: I saw a game and a cartoon)
The store—2 (B,I; B: At the liquor store I saw the cookies)
My friend—2 (F,J)
Arcade—3 (C: I went to an arcade and it was there; D and L also mention the game, along with the movie [D] and cartoons [L])
TV commercial—1 (H)
I forgot—1 (G)
2. Did you see the movie? How many times?
Yes—8 (6 once [A,D,E,G,J,K]; J: But I haven't seen Turtles II ; 2 twice [F,H])
No—4 (B,C,I,L)
3. Do you watch the TV show?
Yes—7 (A,D,E,F,J,K,L; J: Sometimes, but sometimes I sleep late and miss it)
No—5 (B,C,N,H,I; H: I don't know what channel it's on)
4. Do you have any of the tapes?
Yes—6 (B,E,F,H,J,L; J: All four from Burger King, plus two others)
No—6 (A,C,D,G,I,K)
5. Have you read any of the TMNT comic books?
Yes—10 (B,C ["a little"], D,E,F,G,H,J ["only one"], K)
No—2 (A,L)
6. Which do you like best—the movie, TV show, comic book, video game, or arcade game? Why?
Arcade game—5
G: It's fun.
H: I just like it.
J: Because you can move the guys yourself and in the movie and the tapes, you can just see them.
C, I: [no reason cited]
Movie—4
D: It shows them in person.
E: They show how it all began and how Splinter throws Shredder off the building.
F: It's more real.
A: [no reason cited]
Comics—1
B: They're funny.
Cartoons—1
K: They're fun.
Game and cartoon—1
L: [no reason cited]
7. Do you have any TMNT toys? Any clothes? Which ones?
Toys:
Yes—7 (E,F,G,H,J,K,L)
No—5 (A,B,C,D,I)
Clothes:
Yes—5 (A,E,G,H,L; A,E,G,H were wearing TMNT t-shirts)
No—7 (B,C,D,F,I,J,K)
8. Do you eat TMNT cookies or cereal or drink the juice?
Yes—4 (E,H,J,K)
No—8 (A,B,C,D,F,G,I,L; C: Yuck!)
Discussion
At least two subjects explicitly mentioned a combination of two exposures (movie and arcade game, or game and cartoon) as their entry point into the network, which may indicate that the perception of the transmedia tie-in was part of the appeal. Most subjects in the lower economic brackets had as their entry point the arcade and the store. Thus, all classes may have access to this supersystem but with a different combination of entrances. Some subjects were quite perceptive in distinguishing among the different modes of image production, especially when describing the movie as more realistic (D,F) and the arcade game as more interactive (J).
9. Which is your favorite Turtle? Why?
Leonardo—6
C: He has the longest reach.
D: He's more active.
F: He's the oldest and the best one.
H,I: He's cool.
J: He's just my favorite.
Michelangelo—2
A: He's cool.
E: He's a party dude and says a lot of weird things.
Leonardo and Donatello—2
K: They're fun.
L: [after a long pause, he added Michelangelo] They fight better.
Donatello—1
B: He's fresh and neato.
Raphael—1
G: He's funny.
10. How do you tell them apart?
Colors—5 (D,E,F,G,H; G: Different colored masks;
H: Donatello is purple, Leonardo is blue, Michelangelo is orange, Raphael is red)
Language—2 (E,J; E: Colors and the way they talk;
J: 'Cause they don't say the right things, Michelangelo thinks about dudes, Raphael thinks about pizza, Donatello thinks about fighting, and Leonardo thinks about Splinter)
Weapons—1 (C)
Their belts—1 (K)
Don't know—4 (A,B,I,L)
Discussion
As in the study at the Bing school, regardless of which Turtle is chosen, the reasons that girls give for their preference have nothing to do with action or weapons but single out adjectives (or semes) that express their approval ("He's cool," "He's fresh and neato"), whereas several boys give reasons connected with action and weapons (C,D,E,L). Neither of the girls knew how to tell the Turtles apart (probably they are less familiar with the game); the two boys who did not know were the youngest (L) and one of the most economically disadvantaged (I). All the other boys knew, and two gave highly detailed answers concerning colors (H) and language (J).
11. What does mutant mean?
C: Not human, a cross between two things.
G: They used to be regular turtles but some slime hit them and they turned into big turtles with muscles.
I: Teenagers.
I don't know—9 (A,B,D,E,F,H,J,K,L; D: I'm not sure; E: I have no idea)
12. What does ninja mean?
C: A form of martial arts.
D: Just plain ninjas.
E: Karate person who fights.
F: A Chinese fighter.
G: Like someone who kicks and has weapons.
H: Someone who fights.
I: Ninja turtles.
J: They fight.
L: Some man's karate.
I don't know—3 (A,B,K)
Discussion
Unlike the study at the Bing school, here only three subjects (C, G, and I, all males) tried to define mutant , and all of them were at least on the right track (even the boy who said "teenagers"—which are natural transformers). The rest of the subjects readily admitted that they did not know what the word meant. Perhaps these subjects were more willing (than those in the other study) to admit this because they were in a setting linked to leisure and play rather than in a school environment, where lack of knowledge is interpreted more negatively.
Only three subjects did not try to define ninja —both girls and one boy. Most of the boys offering definitions mentioned fighting or karate, and two (D and I) gave tautological answers, merely repeating the phrase ("just plain ninjas" and "ninja turtles"). The youngest boy (L) was the only subject who mentioned gender ("some man's karate").
13. How do you know they are teenagers?
A: I don't know.
B: One is fifteen, the other is sixteen.
C: I don't.
D: They were young at first and then they just grew up.
E: I have a poster that shows they're fifteen and sixteen.
F: They act like teenagers—saying "cowabunga" and things like that.
G: Because they speak and act like them.
H: At the arcade game it tells their age.
I: One is sixteen, the other is fifteen.
J: Because they're not that big.
K: They're fifteen or sixteen.
L: 'Cause they're so young.
Discussion
Only one subject (A, a female who has never played the arcade game) did not know how we know the Turtles are teenagers. Five subjects (B,E,H,I,K) merely stated the specific ages and/or the source of this information (the poster or arcade game). As in the Bing study, those subjects who mentioned teenage characteristics tended to draw attention to qualities that described themselves: (J), who is very big for his age, said, "Because they're not that big"; (L), the youngest, said, "'Cause they're so young"; and (D), who is a very tall twelve-year-old just on the verge of his teens, said, "They were young at first and then they just grew up." With considerable epistemological sophistication, (C) (the only teenage subject in the group) denied that he actually knew they were teenagers.
14. Why do you think they are so popular?
B: 'Cause they fight, they beat people, they beat Shredder and save the world.
C: Because they're different, they're not ordinary, people like that.
D: Because everybody likes them.
E: They are selling a lot of stuff in stores and usually I buy things like that.
F: Everybody knows about them and they have lots of stuff.
G: Because they're really funny and lots of people like them.
I: Because they do all kinds of stuff.
L: Because they're cool.
I don't know—4 (A,H,J,K; J: Don't know, they just like them)
Discussion
Unlike the Bing school study, here only two children (B and I, sister and brother) mentioned action when explaining the Turtles' popularity. Others (C,G,L) mentioned nonaggressive qualities (they're "different," "funny," or "cool"). Two subjects (D,G) said, "Because everybody likes them," defining what popular means instead of citing a reason for their popularity. Four (A,H,K,J) claimed they didn't know why the Turtles are so popular. Most interestingly—and again, in contrast to the Bing study—here two subjects (E and F, a ten-year-old Latino and an eight-year-old Caucasian) mentioned the Turtles' commodification—the fact that stores sell lots of goods that carry their image. Both boys seemed to regard this phenomenon as positive.
General Discussion
Although this study involved too few subjects (particularly females and Latinos) to draw conclusions about gender, class, and racial differences, nevertheless some provocative issues are raised.
Gender difference is even more pronounced in the TMNT arcade game than on the "April Foolish" tape, for in the TV drama (and movie) at least April is one of the main characters, whereas here she is merely a passive captive; moreover, a flat, static image of April in a sexy pose adorns the outside of the machine. This subordination may have led to some of the male subjects' negative comments—particularly on the questions about whether the game was designed for both boys and girls and why April and Splinter were excluded from the action.
As in the study at the Bing school, here we find a black female subject (B) who (like [a]) has contradictory responses to
the representation of gender in the Turtle network. On the one hand, she, like most girls in the Bing study, cites nonaggressive qualities as the reason for preferring Donatello over the other Turtles ("He's fresh and neato") and for preferring the comics over other modes of image production ("Because they're funny"). Yet of all the subjects in both studies, she confronts the violence most directly, both admitting that the game is violent and attempting to justify the fighting on moral grounds. She also says she prefers the TMNT arcade game because of the fighting and thinks the fighting is what makes them so popular. Moreover, she likes other fast-action video games like cars and motorcycles. No wonder she has no idea why April O'Neil is excluded.
Although all the subjects were cooperative, some of the questions (particularly about possessions) may have aroused anxiety in those youngsters who could not afford much, possibly even provoking them to lie or exaggerate. This dynamic was particularly true in subjects from lower economic brackets, who were certainly aware of the TMNT network but may have exaggerated the degree of their own participation.
Yet the subjects universally showed little understanding of money—of how much they or their parents spend on the games, or of the manufacturers' economic motives. For example, no one mentioned that one reason for having four players play at the same time is to quadruple profits. In contrast, at least two children acknowledged that the great number of goods carrying the Turtles image contributed to their popularity, a dynamic that they seemed to approve. The subjects apparently all viewed consumerism positively—even if it aroused some unconscious anger or resentment in the have-nots. These findings support Susan Willis's arguments about the toy industry. She states: "Not too many generations ago, children were brought into capitalist production as workers when they were ten or eleven years old. Today the situation is different. Now capitalism seeks to incorporate children as the reproducers of
society. Children learn and want to be consumers at an ever earlier age."[3]
I argue throughout this book—and it is an argument consistent with the answers in these two sets of interviews—that children's television, video games, and the intertextual super-systems in which they are positioned function as the primary means by which children are interpellated as interactive consumers, and that physical, emotional, and cognitive growth and the ability to read and generate narratives are appropriated as forms of expanded consumption. In this way, our postmodernist consumer culture guarantees its own reproduction.