Natharam and the Indarman Akhara of Hathras: 1892-1920

At the close of the nineteenth century, major changes in the organization, style, and subject matter of Svang took place. The popular theatrical activity that had been diffused over a fairly expansive area converged on the town of Hathras, where the most visible changes occurred. Hathras is in the district of Aligarh in western Uttar Pradesh. Located in proximity to both the Vaishnava pilgrimage sites in Mathura district and the former Mughal capital at Agra, Hathras became an important

independent Jat kingdom under the chieftain Daya Ram in the early nineteenth century. The area around Hathras was renowned for its unusually rich commercial agriculture, with cash crops of indigo and cotton providing the base for a prosperous economy.^[11] It continued to flourish even after the British seizure of Daya Ram's kingdom in 1817 and the revolt of 1857.^[12] The town had a large population of money-lenders (sahukars ); together with the wealthy agriculturists they formed a sizable patron class to the service groups, including artisans and performers. Affluent individuals like Hanna Singh Dalal are said to have squandered fortunes on the maintenance of Svang members, construction of their houses and stage facilities, and expenses of special events.^[13] As a railway junction later in the century Hathras continued to thrive, a commercial center in a predominantly agricultural region. The constant flow of travelers to festivals and fairs ensured a ready audience for the folk theatre.

The organizational basis of Svang acquired greater structure and visibility with the development of the akhara system in Hathras. The akhara (wrestling-ground or arena) was already associated with teams and lineages of folk poets of lavani and khyal . The first and foremost of the Hathras Svang akharas was founded by a poet named Indarman, who immigrated from Jahangirabad in Bulandshahr district sometime in the 1880s.^[14] A Chhipi (from the artisan caste that prints cloth), he was prevailed upon by his fellows in Hathras to visit and initiate them into the art of poetic improvisation for which he was well known. As a devotee of the goddess, Indarman enjoyed the reputation of a seer and, although he himself was illiterate, exerted a spiritual leadership among his followers. The most prominent of these were Govind Ram and Chiranjilal, both Chhipis and prolific poets in their own right. Under their leadership, the Indarman akhara began exhibiting Svangs in Hathras, probably in the 1880s.

Although it is said that Indarman only dictated verses to his disciples and authored no Svang himself, a text has come to light in the London collections that is almost certainly a composition of Indarman—but whether he was the Indarman of Jahangirabad and Hathras we cannot be sure. The work, Khyal puran mal ka (1892), is not a Rajasthani khyal but a Khari Boli Sangit in the style that soon became the standard for the Sangits of Hathras. One of the first to be printed using machine-made type, it was published in Calcutta by Ganesh Prasad Sharma. Indarman's name does not appear on the title page, but it is scattered in signature verses in at least ten places throughout the play, in various

forms such as Indarman, Indraman, Indar, or Inda.^[15] New poetic structures characterize the text, and it bears a distinctive cover design, lending credence to the idea that it was an innovative work. The meter daur is introduced for the first time here.^[16] The title page is enclosed by a simple border, with the name of the play printed at the top, then the publisher's name, mention of registration under Act XXV of 1867, a small picture of the elephant god Ganesh, and lower on the page the address and name of the printer, the Christian era date, number of copies printed, and price. This bare but elegant format became the basis for Hathras Sangit covers in the following years.

Whereas we know little about Indarman, we are on firmer ground with his most illustrious disciple, Natharam, called Nathuram or Nathumal in his early plays and later renowned as Natharam Sharma Gaur. Born in 1874 in the village of Dariyapur to a Brahmin family, Natharam came to Hathras as a child guiding his blind father, Bhagirathmal, and singing for alms. With his sweet voice and charm, he attracted the attention of Indarman's disciple Chiranjilal and was soon adopted into his akhara , where he learned the arts of singing and dancing as well as reading and writing. He quickly became a star, playing the female parts with irresistible flair; he later revealed great skills as a poet, organizer, and publisher.

The Indarman akhara had its headquarters at Kila Darvaza in Hathras. Nearby was a temple, Dauji ka Mandir, where an annual festival was held. Natharam rehearsed and presented a new play every year for the large crowds who frequented the festival (baldev chat ka mela ); after building up a reputation in this way, he was invited to tour outside the city. Around 1890 Natharam and his teacher Chiranjilal organized a professional troupe that earned a tremendous reputation as it traveled throughout northern India. The eager reception that greeted them is attested in the earliest Sangit attributed to Chiranjilal and Natharam, Chandravali ka jhula (1897):

Announcement

Let it be known to all good men that the entertainment of the troupe from Hathras has been shown in various places in Kanpur, and many gentlemen have gathered for it and all their minds have been pleased. Seeing the desire of these good men, we have published the same entertainment, Chandravali's Swing or The Battle of Alha and Udal , for the amusement of their minds, so that whenever they read it, they will obtain happiness and remember us. Take heed, this opportunity will not come again. Make your purchase quickly, or the chance will slip away and you will be left wringing your hands. All of Indarman's books are available from us.^[17]

This statement suggests that the publication of a Sangit followed its performance in a given locale, in response to popular demand for the text.^[18] Note that by 1897 Indarman's name was famous enough to warrant the claim that "all of Indarman's books are available from us."

This play is another early example of the new typeset format. The cover drawing has disappeared; instead, an image of Ganesh adorns the top of the page. Prominently placed in the middle is a list of all the meters and melodies included in the text. Whereas the older Sangits contained only a few meters, such as doha, chaubola, kara , and ragani , the Hathras poets employed a plethora of verse types, giving greater variety and virtuosity to their singing style.

Subject matter in the period from 1890 to 1910 was also changing. While the old stories still held their own, episodes from the martial epic of Alha and Udal enjoyed particular esteem. By 1902, the Chiranjilal and Natharam team had published ten episodes from the Alha cycle, and the number kept increasing through the next two decades.^[19] The famous Amar simh rathor , another tale of Rajput valor, was first published in 1912. Unlike the earlier saintly legends and make-believe romances, these tales are based on historical events in the not-so-distant past. This celebration of India's warring heroes in folk theatre parallels the resurgence of political activism in the early twentieth century, suggesting that a model of confrontation may have begun to replace the older attitude of religious quietism.

Several turn-of-the-century Sangits yield interesting details about the personnel of the troupe of Chiranjilal and Natharam. The following description closes Udal ka byah (1902):

The Indar akhara in Hathras is like the court of Lord Indra:
The teachers (ustads ) are Ganesh and Chiranji and the
     director (khalifa ) is Gobind.
Jivaram Das and Parshadi are servants of Vishnu's lotus feet,
Madan, Janaki, Hira, and Lachchha are known throughout
     northwestern India.
Natharam the Brahmin seeks the shelter of Bhairav and Kali,
Dulari and Udayraj dance circles around the king.^[20]

The first line compares the entire troupe to the assembly of lord Indra, the glamorous image of the indarsabha frequently invoked in popular culture. The second line refers to Natharam's trio of gurus, Govind, Ganesh, and Chiranjilal. The "servants" may be musicians or other supporting staff (cook, barber, or laborer) but were clearly Vaishnavas, as opposed to Natharam's Shaiva or Shakta proclivities. Madan, Janaki, Hira, and Lachchha appear to be renowned actor-singers; Dulari

and Udayraj specialized in dance. The feminine names "Janaki" and "Dulari" probably indicate female impersonators.

In the standard closural apology the poet alludes to the young Natharam's high caste, physical grace, and poetic talent and begs forgiveness for errors or offense committed.

The Sangit is concluded, the heart pleased and free of sorrow.
The lord's servant, Chiranjilal, lives in the city of Hathras.
Thanks to him, the coquettish Brahmin boy Nathamal lives
     happily,
A jewel of the Gaur lineage, creator of spontaneous poetry.
May all good men read this and deem his effort a success:
Excuse his errors and wrongs, knowing him to be a child.^[21]

Up to 1910 Chiranjilal and Natharam's plays were all published in Kanpur. Perhaps the initial demand for printed Sangits was greater in Kanpur, or possibly Devanagari printing facilities did not reach Hathras, a smaller town, until later. It is conceivable that the akhara's poets only amassed sufficient capital to finance a local press after 1910. Shyam Press of Hathras, which was originally owned and operated by Natharam Sharma Gaur and is now in the hands of his son, Radhavallabh, began its publishing activities about 1925.

The true authorship of the Sangits printed under Natharam's name is difficult to determine. Although approximately fifteen plays list Chiranjilal and Natharam as joint authors, how the poets divided the labor between themselves is unknown. By 1908 either Chiranjilal had died or his influence had diminished, for a verse speaks of him as the ustad in the past tense.^[22] Natharam then began taking sole credit for some of his earlier collaborations with Chiranjilal.^[23] Several plays first published between 1910 and 1920, such as Sangit harishchandra , have clear references to Natharam in their colophons and may be his own compositions. After 1920, most plays published under the Indarman akhara name were credited to Natharam, but probably few were wholly his work. By then the akhara had attracted a number of ghostwriters who were turning out Svangs in Natharam's style on new themes.

During the period from 1920 to the present, Sangits of the Indarman akhara were issued and reissued in very large numbers under the name of Natharam. Many of these were actually written by Ruparam of Salempur, who started employment with Natharam around 1920.^[24] He composed a number of stories that present new types of heroes and heroines, contemporary or recent historical characters who are in pursuit of justice. These may be outlaws in the service of the poor, such as

Fig. 10.
Title page of Sultana daku by Natharam Sharma Gaur (Hath-
ras, 1982). The actual author is Ruparam and the likely date of compo-
sition in the 1920s. The portrait of Natharam and cover details are typi-
cal of this most popular akhara .

Sultana daku (fig. 10), women warriors avenging their husbands in battle like Virangana virmati , or ill-treated daughters and daughters-in-law, Shrimati manjari, Andhi dulhin , and Beqasur beti . Ruparam also prepared texts for such classics as Laila majnun, Hir ranjha, Bhakt puranmal and Rup basant , and he continued writing under Natharam's imprint even after the latter's death in 1943. Rupa's distinctive signature line appears at the end of the plays:

Enough! Rupa's pen stops here. (Virangana virmati , pt. 1)
Natharam says, "Rupa, stop your pen now." (Sultana daku )
Natharam the Brahmin says, "Rupa, stop your pen." (Andhi
     dulhin )^[25]

Using an assortment of clues, I have attempted to assign approximate dates of first publication to many of "Natharam's" Sangits. It appears that a minimum of twenty-six were first published between 1897 and 1920. From 1921 to 1940, new publications totaled fifty, and in the categories after 1940 and undated, thirty-seven appeared.^[26] The Indarman akhara was thus the most successful and long-lived of the Hathras akharas in producing and publishing Sangits. Its texts, considered the authoritative versions of Nautanki in its present stage of revival, are still reprinted and sold.

The poet Govind, one of Natharam's acknowledged teachers, was another major figure in the Indarman troupe between 1900 and 1910. Using the name \ Ram or Govind Chaman, he published a number of plays, some under the Indarman imprint, some in conjunction with or under the tutelage of an ustad named Tota Ram.^[27] These were mostly published by Babu Gokulchand Publishers in Aligarh and Umadatt Vajpeyi of Brahman Press in Kanpur.

Govind's pen name chaman , meaning "garden," appears in an opening doha that occurs in several of his plays, praising the author and his poetic virtuosity.

Govind Ram's plays also include details of the Indarman troupe, the names of its members, and their respective roles and functions.

In the city of Hathras, the Indra akhara wears the crest of victory
     as its mark.
Its poets, Radherai, Baldev, Kalan, and Murshad are full of the best qualities.
Ustad Tota Ram is a mine of wisdom and knowledge.
Ganpati and Miyan Muhammad are not vain of their learning and skill.
The director Govind Ram always narrates the Svang.
Chiranjilal ever performs the latest turns of phrase.
Parshadilal instructs the group so humorously.
Natharam the Brahmin, Madan, Janaki, and Hiralal too are singers,
They uphold their teachers' respect and from this achieve victory.
Ramlal Chaubeji sings the praises of the Lord.^[29]

The continuity in personnel between this and earlier descriptions confirms that Govind was associated with the same akhara as Chiranjilal and Natharam.