Index
A
Abe Shintaro, faction led by, 213
Aberbach, Joel D., 192 -193, 216
Administrative elite: definition of, 2 , 253 ;
power of, 261 ;
salient characteristics of, 252 -258
Administrative guidance, 257
Administrative Management Agency, 63
Administrative officials, 75 , 134 ;
ascendancy of, over technical officials (gikan ), 255 , 264 .
See also Jimukan
Administrative reform, 63
Administrative Research Bureau, 41 , 45
Administrative Service I, 83 , 127 , 220 , 223 , 230 , 231 ;
definition of, 71
Administrative vice-minister (AVM), 7 , 28 , 69 , 130 , 138 , 141 , 143 , 151 , 172 , 197 , 231 , 240 , 244 , 254 , 255 , 260 ;
average age of, 233 ;
conference of, 202
Advisory commission (shingikai ), 204 , 206 , 207
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Ministry of, 106 , 237 ;
deviations from unwritten rule on resignations, 130
Amakudari (descent from heaven), 244 , 258 , 265 ;
consequences of, 245 -246;
definition of, 235 ;
differences between, and running for elective offices, 242 ;
patterns of, 236 -240;
positive aspects of, 264 ;
restrictions on, 236 ;
of technical officials, 238 ;
three modes of, 245 ;
white paper on, 236 , 238
America, 133
American Occupation of Japan, 60 , 205 , 208 , 209 , 224 , 256 ;
form of, 35 ;
perception gap between Japanese and American officials during, 41 , 42 , 66 ;
and policy on educational reform, 152 , 153 ;
purge of higher civil servants, 140 , 256 ;
reorganization of Todai during, 161 -162;
termination of, 58
Annuity, 234 ;
provisions for, in Western democracies, 248 -249
Aoyama Gakuin University, 69 , 113
Armstrong, John A., 152 , 171 ;
on models of recruitment, 149
Asahi shinbun , 69 , 229 ;
on the decline of bureaucratic influence, 208
Asai Kyoshi, 42 , 53
Ascriptive features of Japanese bureaucracy, 253
Ashida Hitoshi, government of, 52 , 53
Assistant division chief (bu jicho ), 140
Assistant section chief (kacho hosa ), 130 , 132 ;
role of, in policy making, 194 ;
tasks of, 133 ;
training of, 180 -181
Ateken , 131
Australia, 183 , 184
Austria, impact of, on Meiji constitution, 14
Autonomy Agency (Jichicho ), 63
B
Baerwald, Hans H., 3 ;
on role of Diet in policy making, 214 ;
on SCAP's purge program, 38 -39
Bank of Japan, 242
Beppyo-gumi (separate-list group), 144 , 254
Brim, Orville, 149
Britain. See Great Britain
Brown University, 184
Bungei shunju , 7
Bureau chief (kyokucho ), 28 , 141 , 197 , 224 , 234 , 238 , 260 ;
average age of, 233
Bureaucracy, power of, 256
Bureaucratization: of politics, 193 , 264 ;
of politicians, 218
Bureaucrats, nexus between, and politicians, 264
Bureau of Personnel, 177
C
Cabinet, 224 , 226 ;
types of meetings (kakugi ), 203
Cabinet legislation bureau (Naikaku Hoseikyoku), 35 , 45 , 54 , 197 -198, 199 , 202 , 203 ;
dispute between, and the Finance Ministry, 40 ;
plan for limited reform of civil service, 39 ;
temporary abolition of, 48
Cabinet personnel agency, proposal for creation of, 34
Cabinet secretariat (Naikaku Kanbo), 202
Cambridge University, 119 ;
as source of British higher civil servants, 20
Campbell, John C., 3 ;
on budget making in Japan, 206
Canada, 183 , 184
Career civil servants, 144 , 194 , 222 , 234 , 253 , 254 ;
prestige of, 252 .
See also Kyaria
China, 8 , 35 ;
imperial, 252 ;
People's Republic of, 216 ;
Tang, 11
Chokan (director-general), 40 , 244
Chokuninkan , 36 , 37 ;
definition of, 16 .
See also Chokunin officials
Chokunin officials, free appointment of, in prewar Japan, 18
Chuo University, 24 ;
graduates of, hired by Finance Ministry, 92 ;
performance of graduates in judicial examination, 98
Civil service appointments, criteria of, 70
Civil-service examinations: in prewar Japan, 30 ;
regular, principal characteristics of, 73 -79;
system of, changes in during post-Occupation period, 60 -61, 74 ;
system of, multiple stages in, 75 -77
Civil-service reform, under American Occupation, 64 -66
City College of New York, 119
Closed multitrack model, 126 , 143 , 144 , 147
Columbia University, 113 -114
Compensation: basic salary (honpo ), 223 ;
comparability between public and private sectors, 247 ;
gender gap in, 100 , 222 -223;
recommendation system on, 224 -227;
salient aspects of, 219 -227;
separation allowance, 234 ;
types of allowance (teate ), 223
Competitive examinations, 72
Conflict of interest, 266
Consensual decision making, 256 , 263 ;
effects of, 264 , 265
Constitution of Japan: guarantee of rights of workers in, 224 ;
provision on civil servants in, 69
Construction, Ministry of, 182 , 255 ;
dual hierarchy in, 134 , 138 -139
Corruption, 227 -229;
structural vs. personal, 229
Counselor (sanjikan ), 106
Culture, effects of, over structure, 266
Cummings, William K., on role of education in socializing Japanese youth, 152 -154
Curtis, Gerald L., on amakudari , 235
D
Daiichi Kangyo Bank, 107
DeAngelis, Manlio F., 41
Decentralized recruitment: of civil servants, 67 , 77 -79, 170 , 187 , 253 , 258 ;
as source of sectionalism in prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 27
Defense Agency, 69
Democratic Socialist party, 242
Democratization, of Japan's higher civil service, 260
Designated Service (shitei shoku ), 220 ,
definition of, 71 -72
Developmental state, 1 , 257 , 262
Diet: as destination of retired bureaucrats, 242 ;
former bureaucrats in, 7 ;
Imperial, role of during Taisho era, 15 ;
LDP members of, 199 ;
members of, 235 ;
National, 46 , 47 , 174 , 194 , 206 , 224 , 257 ;
standing committees, 199 , 212
Diet, House of Councillors, 201 , 213 , 244 ;
adoption of national public-service law by, 50 ;
proportion of former bureaucrats elected to, 242
Diet, House of Representatives, 201 ;
adoption of national public-service law by, 50 ;
proportion of former bureaucrats elected to, 242 ;
role in legislative process, 214
Diplomats, recruitment of, 108 -114
Disciplinary action against civil servants, types of, 227
Dispute behavior, rights of civil servants to engage in, 225
Division chief (bucho ), 140 , 141 , 244
Double election, 6 July 1986, 242
E
Economic Planning Agency, 63 , 106 , 139
Economics as field of specialization in higher civil-service examinations, 96
Edinger, Lewis J., 120
Education, Ministry of, 106 , 153 , 197
Educational requirements, lack of, in civil-service examinations, 73
Educational Service I, 220 ;
definition of, 71
"Elite course" in promotion, 132 -135
Elite track, 126 , 127
Elitism: as common denominator of bureaucracies in industrialized democracies, 262 ;
decline in, 258 , 259 ;
of the prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 19
Emperor: appointment of officials by, in prewar Japan, 16 -17;
attitude of Todai students toward, 169 ;
officials of, in prewar Japan, 69 ;
position of, in SCAP-drafted national public-service law, 45 ;
powers of, in Meiji constitution, 14
Environment Agency, 63 , 139 , 182
Esman, Milton J., 31 ;
on early retirement of prewar civil servants, 29 ;
on legalism in prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 24 -25;
memorandum on need for civil service reform, 37 -38
Ethnocentrism of American Occupation personnel, 66
Europe, Western, 133 , 157 , 159 , 184
Evaluation (senko ), 72 , 82 , 129
External bureau (gaikyoku ), 72 , 106 , 131 , 229
F
Finance, Ministry of, 27 , 59 , 78 , 107 , 161 , 182 , 184 , 185 , 237 , 242 , 244 , 253 , 257 ;
Budget Bureau, 215 ;
decision making in, 198 -199;
decline in influence of, 208 -209;
destinations of high-level retirees from, 239 -240;
deviations from unwritten rule on resignations, 130 ;
patterns of promotion in, 132 -133;
role of, in budget making, 206 ;
socialization patterns in, 173 -176;
university background of new appointees in, 92
Financial clerk (zaimu shoki ), 28
Financial clique, 205 . See also Zaibatsu
First Higher School, 162
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 108 , 134 , 182 ;
deviations from unwritten rule on resignations, 130 -131
France, 8 , 159 , 183 , 184 , 186 , 188 , 218 , 249 , 250 , 260 , 262 , 263 ;
Ecole Nationale d'Administration (ENA) in, 118 , 121 , 146 , 188 , 249 , 262 ;
ENA, curriculum of, 189 -190;
ENA, entrance examinations to, 116 -117;
exemplifies the open multitrack model of promotion, 126 ;
grand corps , 147 , 261 ;
grandes écoles , 119 ;
Instituts d'Etudes Politiques (IEP), 119 ;
pantouflage , 249
Free appointment: of chokunin officials in prewar Japan, 18 ;
system of (jiyu nin'yo seido ), proposal for by Japan Socialist party, 49
Fukuda Takeo, 215
Fukui Haruhiro, 3
Funayama Masakichi, 242
G
Gaikyoku. See External bureau
General affairs section (somuka ), 133
General education (kyoyo ), 106
General service (ippan shoku ): definition and size of, 45 , 70 ;
government survey of employees in, 99 .
See also Regular service
Georgetown University, 121
George Washington University, 119 , 121
Germany: influence of, on Japanese bureaucracy and constitution, 13 , 30 , 120 , 263 ;
influence of, on legalism in prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 24 -25;
under Allied occupation, attempts at civil-service reform in, 65
Germany, West, 8 , 156 , 183 , 186 , 188 , 211 , 218 , 249 , 250 , 261 , 262 , 263 ;
assessor, 117 ;
Bundestag, 213 ;
full-fledged jurist (Volljurist ) in, 177 ;
mobility of higher civil servants in, 147 ;
pension system in, 249 ;
promotion system of, resembles dosed multitrack model, 126 ;
recruitment of higher civil servants in, 117 -118;
reform of civil service by, 65 ;
stratification of civil servants in, 145 -146.
GHQ (General Headquarters). See SCAP
Gijutsukei (technical group), 135
Gikan (technical official or specialist), 25 , 26 , 27 , 36 , 134 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 ;
discrimination against, 265
Gotoda Masaharu, 229
Graduate School of Administrative Sciences, in Speyer, West Germany, 188
Grand secretariat, system of (dai kanbocho sei ), 134
Great Britain, British, 8 , 183 , 186 , 190 , 211 , 218 , 247 , 249 , 261 ;
administrative class (AC), 115 ;
AC, fields of specialization among members of, 121 -122;
administrative trainees (AT), 115 , 122 , 146 -147, 190 -191, 262 ;
attempts at civil service reform in occupied Germany, 65 ;
Civil Service Selec-
Great Britain (continued )
tion Board (Cizbee), 115 -116;
Diplomatic Service, 116 ;
as example of open multitrack model of promotion, 126 ;
Final Selection Board (FSB), 116 ;
Inland Revenue Service, 116 ;
Parliament, 213 ;
recruitment of higher civil servants in, 115 -116;
regulation of reemployment of former government officials in, 250
Gyosei kenshu (administrative training), 178
H
Hanbatsu (domain cliques), 14
Hannin , 18 .
See also Hanninkan
Hanninkan , 30 ;
apprentice (minarai ), 18 ;
definition of, 17 .
See also Officials, hannin ; Officials, ordinary
Harbin University, 112
Hare, Robert S., 41
Harvard University, 113 , 114 , 119 , 121 , 184
Hata Ikuhiko, 5 , 24 , 161
HCSE. See Higher civil-service examination
Health and Welfare, Ministry of, 106
Higher civil-service examination (HCSC), 78 , 83 , 151 , 166 , 170 , 172 , 186 , 252 , 233 , 254 , 259 ;
competition for, in prewar and wartime Japan, 15 ;
explanation of types I, II, and III, 60 -61;
and hiring rates for successful candidates in engineering and natural sciences, 96 ;
performance of women in, 100 -103;
in prewar Japan, 18 , 23 ;
success rates for graduates of different types of universities, 88 -90;
types A and B, 60 , 79 , 81 , 127 , 144
Higher examination (koto shiken ), modified version given in 1946 and 1947, 72 -73
Higher-level (or type-I) foreign-service examination: contents of, 109 -112;
university background of successful candidates in, 112 -113
Hirota Koki, government of, 33
Hitotsubashi University, 92 , 113
Hogakushi (bachelor of law), 97 .
See also Law degree, meaning of, in Japan
Hoka banno (omnipotence of law graduates), 142 , 258 ;
German equivalent of, 121 ;
in postwar period, 94 -99;
proposal to combat, 33 , 34 ;
reasons for emergence of, 23 .
See also Legalism of prewar Japanese bureaucrats
Hokkaido University, 86 , 88
Home Affairs, Ministry of, 27 , 35 , 63 , 69 ;
criteria of recruitment by, 173 ;
opposition to civil service reform by, in wartime Japan, 33 ;
speed of promotion by administrative and technical officials in, 26 ;
surreptitious learning by first-year bureaucrat in, 176 ;
university background of new appointees in, 92
Hongo, 162 , 163 , 166
Honsho (headquarters of the twelve ministries), 106
Hoover, Blaine, 41 , 44 , 47 , 53 ;
perception of, by Japanese officials, 45 ;
reaction of, to the Japanese handling of the draft national public-service law, 50 -51
Hoover mission (United States Personnel Advisory Mission to Japan), 41
I
Imperial University (Teikoku Daigaku), 161
Imperial University privilege: abolition of, 19 ;
and exemption of law graduates from bar examination, 161
Induction of civil servants, 188
Industrial policy, 257
Inoki Masamichi, 20 -22, 24
Inspector (chosakan ), 132 , 174
Interest groups, 204 ;
role of, in policy making, 216
Intermediate civil-service examination, 85 , 127 , 254 , 259
Intermediate track, 126 , 127
International Christian University, 106
Internationalization (kokusaika ), 185
International Labor Organization (ILO), Convention 87 of, 58 , 59
Ippan kyoyo (general education), 109
Ippan shoku. See General service; Regular service
Ishizaka Seiichi, 69
Ito Hirobumi, 12
Ivy League universities, 119
J
Jacob, Herbert, 120
Japan Air Lines, 239
Japanese bureaucracy: dysfunctions of, 265 -266;
unique features of, 263
Japanese civil service: categories of employees in, 70 ;
overview of, 68 -72
Japanese imperial government, 27
Japanese model of government bureaucracy, 263
Japanese Supreme Court, 46 ;
derision of, on recommendation system on compensation, 225
Japan Export-Import Bank, 242
Japan Foundation, 240
Japan Monopoly Corporation, 242
Japan Socialist party, 168 ;
reaction of, to draft of national public-service law, 48 -49
Japan Teachers Union (JTU, or Nikkyoso), 153
Jimukan , 25 , 27 , 36 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 ;
as chiefs of technical units in prewar Japan, 26 ;
in prewar Japan, 17 .
See also Administrative officials
Jimukei (administrative group), 135
Jinbutsu shiken (character test), 77 ;
in high-level foreign-service examination, 111
Jinji-in. See National Personnel Authority
Johnson, Chalmers, 3 , 215 , 256 ;
on concept of developmental state, 1 -2;
on increase in power of politicians, 214 -215;
on rise of bureaucratic power, 205 ;
on structural corruption, 229
Johnson, Nevil, 120
Judge trainee (hanjiho ), 98
Judicial examination, 81 , 160 , 166 , 255 ;
explanation of, 97 -98
Judicial Training Institute (Shiho Kenshujo), 81 , 160 , 240 , 255 ;
role of, 98 ;
year of graduation from, 131
Juku (supplementary school), 154 , 167
Junior colleges, women graduates of, in the civil service, 100
Jurisdictional rivalries, 28 , 255 -256, 262 .
See also Sectionalism
Juristenmonopol (monopoly by lawyers), 121 , 189
Justice, Ministry of, 106 ;
promotion in, 131 ;
study of corruption among civil servants by, 228 -229
K
Kakaricho (chief of a subsection), 175
Kan (official), 36 ;
proposal for the deletion of, 49
Kanbo , 133 .
See also Minister's secretariat
Kanbocho (chief of the minister's secretariat), 133 , 134
Kancho homon (visits to government agencies by job applicants), 77 -78
Kankai (monthly magazine), 7
Kanpo (Official Gazette), 7
Kanryo yuiron (bureaucratic-dominance school), 204 -207
Kansatsukan (inspector), 37
Kanson minpi (officials revered, citizens despised), 16
Kasumigaseki, 172 , 179 , 187 , 188 ;
explanation of, 77
Kata tataki (a tap on the shoulder), 232 , 233
Katayama Tetsu, government of, 47 , 48
Keio University, 90 , 106 , 143 ;
graduates of, hired by the Finance Ministry, 92 ;
performance of graduates in higher-level foreign-service examination, 112 -113;
performance of graduates in judicial examination, 98
Kelsall, R. K., 20
Kishi Nobusuke, 196
Kobayashi Ichizo, 196
Kobayashi Yukio, 197
Kohai (junior), 130 , 131 , 173 , 174
Koho Kenkyukai (Association for the Study of Public Law), 49
Koin : definition of, 17 ;
eligibility of, for hannin positions, 18
Koitabashi Jiro, 6 ,
Kokusaku Kenkyukai (Association for the Study of National Policy), 33 -34
Komaba, 162 , 166 , 168
Komon (adviser), 239
Komuin hakusho (white paper on civil servants), 7
Kone (connections), role of, in the recruitment of civil servants, 78
Kono Yohei, 213
Konoe Fumimaro, Prince, 15 ;
first government of, 33 ;
second government of, 34 -35
Korea, 8
Kotokan , 30 ;
definition of, 17 ;
in pecking order of prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 19 .
See also Officials, higher
Kubota Akira, 2 , 4 ;
on interest groups, 217 ;
on relative influence of politicians and bureaucrats, 211 -212
Kuribayashi Yoshimitsu, 6
Kyaria , 127 ;
different groups of, in Finance Ministry, 81 .
See also Career civil servants
Kyodai, 142 , 143 , 259 ;
graduates of, hired by Finance Ministry, 92 ;
performance of graduates in higher-level foreign-service examination, 112 -113;
performance of graduates in judicial examination, 98 ;
proportion of graduates in higher civil service, 141 ;
success rates of graduates in higher civil-service examination, 90 .
See also Kyoto Imperial University; Kyoto University
Kyodo shonin kenshu (joint training of new appointees), 178
Kyoto Imperial University, successful candidates in prewar higher civil-service examinations from, 19 -20
Kyoto University, 24 , 141 ;
performance of graduates in higher civil-service ex-
Kyoto University (continued )
amination, 86 -88
Kyoyo shiken (general-culture test), 75
Kyushu University, 24 , 142 , 143
L
Labor, Ministry of, 106 , 107
Language barrier during American Occupation, 51 , 66
Lateral entry, 144 , 145 , 147
Law degree, meaning of, in Japan, 97 -99, 254 -255
Law graduates, dominant position of, in bureaucracy, 262
Legalism of prewar Japanese bureaucrats, 23 , 24 , 31 .
See also Hoka banno
Liberal-Democratic party (LDP), 168 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 201 , 202 , 203 , 242 , 244 ;
ascendancy of, over bureaucracy, 205 , 208 , 216 , 257 ;
Diet members, 212 ;
Diet strategy committee, 201 , 202 ;
Executive Council (Somukai), 201 , 202 , 203 ;
factions in, 242 ;
factions in, in selection of PARC divisional chairmen, 213 ;
Policy Affairs Research Council (PARC, or Seimu Chosakai, 197 , 198 , 199 , 200 , 201 , 206 ;
PARC Deliberation Commission (Seimu Chosakai Shingikai), 200 ;
and PARC divisions, 200 , 212 , 213 ;
president (sosai ), 201 ;
role of, in policy making, 3 , 199 -202;
secretary-general (kanjicho ), 201 ;
somu (executor), 201
Lifetime employment, 67 , 257 , 258 , 262 ;
as source of sectionalism in prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 27
Local governments, 160
Local tax office, head of (zeimushocho ), 28 , 132 , 174 , 175 -176
Lower civil-service examination, 85 , 127 , 259
Lower track in Japanese civil service, 126 , 127
M
MacArthur, General Douglas, 52
MacCoy, W. Pierce, 41
MacDonald, Hugh H., 29 , 31
Mainichi shinbun : interview of off-the-job trainees, 179 -180;
on power of politicians, 208 ;
survey of new appointees in higher civil service, 171 -172, 185
Male dominance in Japanese bureaucracy, 99 -108
Management and Coordination Agency (Somucho), 63 , 68 , 178
Marcum, C. P., 47 , 48
Marine Service (kaiji shoku ) II, 220
Matsumoto Yasuko, 107
Maximum-ascriptive model, 149 , 150
Maximum-deferred-achievement model, 149 , 150
Medical Service (iryo shoku ) I and III, 220
Meiji constitution, 14
Meiji era, 161 ;
emergence of modern bureaucracy in, 10 ;
functions of legalism during, 25
Meiji oligarchs, 12 , 30
Meiji Restoration, 8 , 11 , 14
Merit, influence of, on promotion, 145
Merit principle, institutionalization of, in prewar Japan, 30
Meritocratic elite, 253 , 261
Military clique (gunbatsu ), 205
Minarai kikan (training period), 132 , 175
Ministers, 212
Minister's secretariat: core sections of, 133 ;
role of, 134 -135.
See also Kanbo
Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), 69 , 78 , 106 , 107 , 131 , 143 , 196 , 237 , 244 , 253 , 254 ;
arrest of officials on corruption charge, 229 ;
criteria of recruitment by, 172 ;
Medium and Small Enterprises Agency of, 229 ;
surreptitious learning by first-year bureaucrats in, 176 ;
vice-minister for international affairs (tsusho sangyo shingikan ) of, 131
Mitsubishi Shoji, 181 , 239
Mitsubishi Trust Bank, 240
Mitsui Trust Bank, 239
Miyazawa Kiichi, faction led by, 213
Mode of entry into government bureaucracy, 253
Multiple-track system, 67 , 127 -129, 263 ;
dysfunctions of, 265
Muramatsu Michio, 5 , 213 , 214 ;
on dominance of LDP over bureaucracy, 209 -211
N
Nagao Ritsuko, 106
Nakane Chie, 27
Nakasone Yasuhiro, 69 ;
faction led by, 213
National Land Agency, 139
National Personnel Authority (NPA, or Jinji-in), 7 , 46 , 56 , 91 , 106 , 171 , 177 , 183 , 187 , 232 , 236 , 237 , 238 , 247 , 257 , 259 -260;
annual recommendations on civil servants' compensation by, 8 , 226 -227;
commissioners (Jinjikan ) of, 68 ;
compiles rosters of successful candidates in civil-service examinations, 77 ;
powers of, reduced by Ka-
tayama government, 48 ;
privilege of double budget, 54 ;
proposed powers of, in draft national public-service law, 45 ;
president (sosai ) of, 68 ;
role of, in compensation of civil servants, 224 -227;
secretary-general (jimu socho ) of, 68 ,
statistics on frequency of corruption among civil servants, 227 ;
survey of compensation in private sector, 225 -226
National Personnel Commission, 50
National Public Service Law, 68 , 224 ;
adoption of, by Diet, 50 ;
legislative history of, 43 -54, revision of, 52 -54, 58 -63
National Tax Administration Agency (NTAA, or Kokuzeicho), 81 , 175 , 199
National universities, 88 , 151
Nemawashi , 200 , 202 , 256 , 263
Nenji , effects of, in promotion, 135 .
See also Year of entry, of civil servants
New York Times , 250
NHK (Nihon Hoso Kyokai, or Japan Broadcasting Corporation), 69
Nihon Shoko Kaigisho (Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry), 33
Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), 239
Noncareer civil servants, 175 , 176 , 194 , 222 , 231 , 254 , 265 ;
increase in number of, in elite administrative positions, 259 -260;
in Finance Ministry, 174 .
See also Nonkyaria
Nonkyaria , 81 , 127
Nonofficials (hikanri ), 16 , 17 , 18 , 30
Northrop Corporation, 250
O
Ochanomizu University, 106
Officials (kanri ), 16
Off-the-job training, types of, 177 -185
Ojimi Yoshihisa, 196
Okayarea University, 143
Officials, hannin : in pecking order of prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 19 ;
ordinary civil-service examinations for, 13 .
See also Hanninkan
Officials, higher, 36 , 258 ;
status of technical officials among, in prewar Japan, 26 .
See also Kotokan
Officials, ordinary, 36 -37, 258
Okura (Finance Ministry) family, mores of, 132
Omamori yaku (guardian), 175
On-the-job training, 171 -177
Open competitive model, 125 -126, 143 , 147
Open multitrack model, 126 , 147
Opposition parties, 204
Ordinary civil-service examinations, in prewar Japan, 18
Osaka City University, 90
Oxbridge, 119
Oxford University, 114 , 119 ;
as source of British higher civil servants, 20
P
Park, Yung H., 3 , 209 , 213 , 214 ;
on importance of LDP PARC divisions, 199 -200;
on ringisei , 197 ;
on rise in power of politicians, 212
Parliament, role of, in policy making, 211 -212
Parliamentary vice-minister (seimu jikan ), 145 , 199 , 201 , 212
Partisanization of bureaucracy, 212 , 213
Party-dominance school, 214
Patent Agency, 71
Peers, House of, 29
Pempel, T. J., 3 , 4 ;
on efficiency of Japanese government bureaucracy, 264 ;
on patterns of policy making in higher education, 216 ;
on role of bureaucracy in policy making, 206 ;
on SCAP's civil-service reform, 39 , 66
Performance-evaluation system, proposal for, 37
Police Agency, 202
Political: appointees, 145 ;
appointment, 144 ;
party, 209
Politicization: of administration, 213 ;
of budgetary process, 215 ;
of bureaucracy, 193 , 218 , 264
Politics, predominance of (seiji no yuisei ), 208
Position classification: failure to implement, 65 ;
survey by Administrative Research Bureau of, during the Occupation, 42 -43
Posts and Telecommunications, Ministry of, 134 , 237 ;
speed of promotions by administrative and technical officials in, 26
Prime minister's office, 106 , 177 , 182 ;
Bureau of Personnel, 59 , 68
Princeton University, 119
Private universities, 88 , 151 ;
increase in proportion of graduates of, in higher civil service, 259
Probationary appointment, absence of, 67
Professionalization of politicians, 214 .
See also Specialization of politicians
Progressive-equal-attrition model, 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 185
Promotion: effects of, on morale, 124 ;
two models of, 125 -126
Prosecutor's imperialism (kenji teikoku shugi ), in Justice Ministry, 131
Prussia, influence of, on Japanese bureaucracy, 13 , 14 , 23 , 24 -25
Public administration as field of specialization in higher civil-service examination, 96
Public corporations, 160
Public prosecutor's office (Kensatsucho), 46
Public Service Training Institute (Komuin Kenshujo), 178
Public universities (koritsu daigaku ), 88 , 151
Q
Quasi-ascriptive aspects of Japanese bureaucracy, 253 , 258 , 263
Quasi-common denominator among bureaucracies in Japan and Western democracies, 261
Quasi-elite track, 127
R
Raytheon Company, 250
Recruitment: of administrative elite, three models of, 149 -150;
importance of, 67
Reemployment, of retired bureaucrats, 234 , 266
Reform, proposals for, of prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 32 -35
Regular compensation law (kyuyoho ), 70 , 219
Regular service (ippan shoku ), 45 , 63 , 177 .
See also General service
Regulatory state, 262
Reku (lecture), 174
Reorganization of Japanese government, 63 -64
Resignations: overview of, in Japanese civil service, 230 -232;
benefits of, 234 -235
Retirement: patterns of, 257 ;
practices of administrative elite, 263 ;
unwritten rule on, 30 , 130
Retirement, early: costs of, 265 ;
functions of, 264 ;
of prewar civil servants, 29 -30;
reasons for, 231 , 232 -233, 245
Retirement, mandatory, 62 -63, 230 , 232 ;
average age for, in Western democracies, 248
Revolving door, 250
Richardson, Bradley M., 216
Ringi document. See Ringisho
Ringisei , 194 -195, 263 ;
ato ringi system, 196 -197, 197 n.16
Ringisho , 194 , 195 , 196 , 197 , 256
Ringi system. See Ringisei
Rohlen, Thomas P., on role of high schools in socializing Japanese youth, 154 -155
Role perceptions, 148 , 187
Rotation, policy of, 255 , 261 ;
effects of, 264 ;
in Finance Ministry, 132 ;
in Home Ministry, 173 ;
in prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 27
Royama Masamichi, 14
S
Sahashi Shigeru, 254 ;
on dysfunctional consequences of sectionalism, 256
Saionji Kinmochi, Prince, 15
Saitama University, 183
Sakamoto Harumi, 107
Salary schedules (hokyuho ), 219 ;
attributes of, 220 ;
categories of, 70 -72
Sano Hiroyoshi, 69
Sataka Makoto, 6
Sato Ginko, 106
SCAP (Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers), 32 , 35 , 37 , 38 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 208 , 209 ;
Civil Service Division, 55 ;
General Headquarters (GHQ) of, 66 , 208 ;
GHQ Civil Service Division of, 44 ;
GHQ of, translators in, 51 ;
Government Section, 37 , 39 , 40 ;
program of civil-service reform, 256
Science and Technology Agency, 63 , 139
Screening, of technical officials in prewar Japan, 25 .
See also Senko
Second careers (daini no jinsei ), 230 , 257 , 258
Section (ka ), role of, in policy making, 194
Sectionalism, 40 , 134 , 187 , 214 , 256 , 258 , 265 ;
as target of reform in prewar Japan, 33 ;
cost and benefits of, 265 -266;
in prewar Japanese bureaucracy, 27 -28;
proposal for elimination of, 34 .
See also Jurisdictional rivalries
Section chief (kacho ), 141 , 151 , 234 , 244 , 260 ;
as part of administrative elite, 2 ;
tasks of, 133 ;
training of, 181 -182
Security of tenure, of prewar civil servants, 28
Self-selection, 171 , 172
Senior Executive Service, 144
Seniority: importance of, 254 ;
relation-ship between pay and, 222 ;
role of, in promotion, 130
Senko (evaluation): as mode of civil-service recruitment in prewar Japan, 18 ;
nin'yo (appointment based on evaluation), 36 .
See also Screening, of technical officials in prewar Japan
Senmon shiken (specialized test), 75
Senpai (senior), 173 ;
role of, in civil-service recruitment, 78
Senpai-kohai system, in the Finance Ministry, 173 -174, 176
Shibusawa Keizo, 40
Shidehara Kijuro, government of, proposal for civil-service reform by, 36 -37
Shinninkan , definition of, 16
Shin Nippon Steel Company, 181
Shitsu cho (chief of an office), 106
Shokutaku , definition of, 18
Shukan bunshun , 208
Shunin (senior member of a subsection), 175
Side slip (yokosuberi ), 144 ;
definition of, 240 -241.
Smaller Business Finance Corporation, 242
Socialization: definition of, 149 ;
of Japanese youth, 152 -159;
postentry, 152 , 171 ;
preadult, agents of, 185 ;
in Todai's faculty of law, 159 -170
Sogo shiken (comprehensive test), 77 , 111
Sohyo (Nihon Rodo Kumiai Sohyogikai, or General Council of Japan Labor Unions), 59
S-1 examination, 54 -58, 72 ;
definition of, 57
Sonin , 26
Soninkan , 36 , 37 ;
definition of, 16 -17;
trainee (shiho ), 18
Sonin officials, 13 .
See also Soninkan
Spaulding, Robert M., Jr., 2 ;
on adoption of civil-service examinations in Meiji Japan, 13 ;
on performance of Todai men in prewar higher civil-service examinations, 21 ;
on power of bureaucracy in prewar Japan, 15 ;
on reform of higher civil-service examination by second Konoe cabinet, 35
Special compensation law (kyuyo tokureiho ), 70 , 219
Special government service (tokubetsu shoku ), 45 ;
definition of, 70 ;
size of, 70
Specialization: field of, in higher civil-service examinations, 74 -75;
of politicians, 212 .
See also Professionalization, of politicians
Specialized Administrative Service (senmon gyosei shoku ), 71
Special legal entities (tokushu hojin ), 235
Subsection chief (kakaricho ), 132 , 180 , 195
Sumitomo Life Insurance Company, 240
T
Tahara Soichiro, 5 , 7 ;
on erosion of bureaucratic power, 208 -209
Taisei Yokusankai (Imperial Rule Assistance Association), 33
Taisho era, 28 ;
role of Diet during, 15
Taishoku kansho (encouraging retirement), 232
Takahashi Hideki, 28
Takeshita Noboru, 213 ;
proposal for administrative reform by, 63 -64
Tanaka Kakuei, role of, in curbing bureaucratic power, 215
Tashiro Ku, 91 , 138
Tate shakai (vertical society), 27 , 28 , 31
Technical officials. See Gikan
Technical specialists. See Gikan
Temporary National Personnel Commission, 50 , 51 , 53 , 72
Thayer, Nathaniel B., 3 , 216
Todai, 13 , 69 , 86 , 106 , 139 , 143 , 184 , 244 , 253 , 259 ;
abolition of exemption for students and graduates of, 13 -14;
as training school for higher civil servants, 18 ;
dominance of graduates in both examination and hiring stages of higher civil servants, 94 ;
faculty of economics, 107 ;
faculty of engineering, 69 ;
faculty of general education, 106 , 162 ;
faculty of literature, 107 ;
graduates of, hired by the Finance Ministry, 92 ;
hogakubu (see Faculty of law); performance of graduates in higher-level foreign-service examination, 112 -113;
performance of graduates in the judicial examination, 98 ;
proportion of graduates among successful candidates in higher civil-service examination specializing in law, 96 :
proportion of professors among administrative examiners in prewar period, 21 ;
social background of students, 21 , 167 -169;
success rates of graduates in higher civil-service examination, 90 ;
technical officials who were graduates of, in prewar Japan, 27 ;
values of students, 168 -170.
See also Tokyo Imperial University; Tokyo, University of
Todai, faculty of law, 91 , 107 , 152 , 173 , 186 ;
career paths taken by graduates of, 160 ;
comparison of performance in, with performance in higher civil-service examination, 78 ;
history of, 161 -162;
Humanities Group 1 (bunka ichirui ), 162 , 167 ;
occupation of graduates of, 99 ;
Science Group 3 (rika sanrui ), 162 ;
socialization in, 159 -170;
status of, within Todai, 23
Todaibatsu (University of Tokyo clique), 139
Tohoku University, 24 , 86 , 88 , 106 , 143
Toko kantei (ascendancy of party and
Toko kantei (continued )
decline of bureaucracy), 212
Toko seitei (ascendancy of party and decline of politics), 212
Tokubetsu shoku (special government service), 45
Tokugawa period, 11
Tokyo, University of. See Todai
Tokyo Bunri Daigaku, 143
Tokyo College of Commerce, 112 , 113 .
See also Hitotsubashi University
Tokyo College of Industry, 113
Tokyo Higher Court, 225
Tokyo Imperial University, 86 , 258 ;
as training school for government officials, 31 ;
domination of prewar Japanese bureaucracy by graduates of, 19 -21;
exemption of graduates of, from higher civil-service examinations, 13 , 18 ;
performance of graduates of, in prewar higher civil-service examinations, 15 -16.
See also Todai
Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Kogyo Daigaku), 86 , 88 , 92
Tokyo Kaisei School, 161
Tokyo Medical School, 161
Tokyo Metropolitan University, 90
Tokyo Stock Exchange, 240
Tokyo University of Foreign Languages, 13 , 112
Toshiba Electric Company, 181
Toyota Motor Company, 181
Track system in Japan, compared to Great Britain and France, 118
Training abroad: long-term overseas-training program, 183 -184;
role of foreign institutions in, 183 ;
self-arranged, 184 ;
and short-term over-seas-research program, 184
Training programs: effectiveness of, 187 -188;
number and variety of, for civil servants, 62
Transport, Ministry of, 134 , 144 , 223 -224
Triangular pattern of life, 166 , 186
Tsuji Kiyoaki, 4 , 5 , on effectiveness of training programs for civil servants, 187 -188;
on dominant position of bureaucracy, 204 -205;
on ringisei , 195 -196
Tsukuba University, 183
U
United Kingdom. See Great Britain
United States, 8 , 143 , 144 , 156 , 157 , 159 , 169 , 183 , 184 , 186 , 188 , 190 , 218 , 247 , 249 , 261 , 262 ;
approximates open competitive model, 126 ;
Civil Service Commission (USCSC), 37 , 41 ;
Congress, 212 , 213 ;
Department of Defense, 250 ;
Department of State, 41 ;
Foreign Service, university background of members in, 119 ;
mobility in employment in, 250 ;
number of lawyers in, compared with Japan, 98 ;
Office of Personnel Management (OPM), 114 ;
pragmatic approach to administration in, 25
United States, Presidential management-intern program (PMIP), 114 -115, 118 , 120 , 143 , 190 , 261 , 262 ;
fields of specialization among interns in, 121
Utsumi Hitoshi, 69
V
Vertical society. See Tate shakai
Vogel, Ezra F., 4 ;
on ringisei , 196 -197
W
Ward, Robert E., 32 , 66
Warner, Lloyd W., 121
Waseda University, 88 , 90 , 106 , 107 ;
graduates of, hired by the Finance Ministry, 92 ;
performance of graduates of, in higher civil-service examination, 112 -113;
performance of graduates of, in judicial examination, 98
Wataridori (migratory bird), 241 , 242
Weber, Max, 28
Welfare, Ministry of, the number of women in, 99
Western democracies, 217 , 252 , 261 , 263
Whitney, Brigadier General Courtney, 37
Women: appointment of, to higher civil service, 104 ;
compensation of, in civil service, 222 ;
difficulties encountered by, in higher civil service, 107 -108;
in Finance Ministry, 175 ;
increase in number of, in higher civil service, 258 , 260 ;
lifting of restrictions on, in civil service, 62 ;
performance of, in higher-level foreign-service examination, 113 -114;
performance of, in judicial examination, 98 ;
profile of administrative elite, 106 -108;
resignations of, from civil service, 231 ;
underrepresentation of, in higher civil service of Western democracies, 122 , 262
World War II, Japanese defeat in, 9 , 32 , 205
World youth-survey project, 155 -159, 186
Y
Yakuin , 239 , 241 , 242
Yale University, 119
Yamaguchi Jiro, 5 ;
on end of bureaucratic dominance, 215
Year of entry, of civil servants, 130 , 254 .
See also Nenji , effects of on promotion
Yobiko (preparatory school), 154 , 167
Yokosuberi. See Side slip
Yonin , definition of, 17 -18
Yoshida Shigeru, 53
Z
Zaibatsu , 256 .
See also Financial clique
Zen Kanko Rodo Kumiai Kyogikai (Zenkanko, or Coordination Council for Public Service Unions), 49
Zoku (tribe), 212 , 213 ;
giin (tribal Diet members), 7 , 200