Index
A
Abad Santos, Antonio, 197
Abad Santos, Ireneo, 136 , 197
Abad Santos, Jose, 95 , 197
Abad Santos, Pedro, 95 , 96 , 120 , 136 , 196 -200, 219 , 234 , 235 , 246 ;
death of, 238 ;
and Socialist party, 225 , 226 , 227 , 228 -29, 233 , 240
Abad Santos, Quirino, 95 , 197
Abad Santos, Vicente, 95
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), 165 , 166 , 203
Agricultural associations, 113 , 123 , 161
Agricultural Bank, 53 -54, 72 , 98
Agricultural Congress, 169
Agriculture, 33 , 36 , 38 , 41 , 44 , 103 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 ;
expansion of, 60 , 80 , 110 , 111 , 158
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 117 , 118 , 119 , 135 , 138 , 139 , 190 , 191 , 229
Aguman ding Maldang Talapagobra (AMT), 200
Alegre, Juan, 173
Alejandrino, Anselmo, 142
Alejandrino, Casto, 197 -98, 200 , 223 , 227 , 228 , 232 , 240
Alejandrino, Jose, 116 , 120 , 142 , 174 , 229
Alejandrino, Mariano, 116
Alençon, Ferdinand, 106
Alunan, Rafael, 81 , 113 , 156 , 158 , 178 , 192 , 211 , 212 , 217 , 238 ;
as president of PSA, 161 ;
and Manuel Quezon, 165 , 168 , 208 , 232
Alunan family, 170 , 201
Alzina, Francisco, 21 , 36
AMT. See League of Poor Workers
Anak Pawas (Sons of Sweat), 194
Angeles, 11 , 13 , 35 , 85 , 95 , 114 , 125 , 126 , 128 . See also Pampanga
Angeles David, Pablo, 228
Apong Ipe. See Salvador, Felipe
Aquino, Benigno, Jr., 243
Aquino, Benigno, Sr., 165 , 212 , 238
Aquino, Corazon, 170 , 246 , 247
Aquino, Servillano, 120
Aragon, Yldefonso de, 85
Araneta, Jorge, 211
Araneta, Juan, 64 , 66 , 116 , 118 , 119 , 138 , 140
Araneta, Salvador, 167 , 168
Araneta family, 167 , 240
Arayat, Mount, 9 , 82 , 135 , 136 , 141 , 142 , 184 , 187 , 219 , 223 , 226
Arayat Central, 174
Arayat Cooperative Marketing Association, 174 , 234
Archbishop of Manila, 97
Arnedo, Macario, 94 , 122 , 136
Arrastia, Justo, 103
Arrendatarios, 172
Ashton, Frederick, 65
Auerbach, Sol (a.k.a. James Allen), 198 , 199 , 226
Australia, 3 , 48 , 55 , 62 , 76 , 153 , 235
Avanceña, Amando, 161 , 163 , 165 , 166 , 186
Avelino, Jose, 232
B
babaylanes , 136 -40, 141 , 142 , 144 , 189 -90
Babst, Arlene, 8
Bacolod, 40 , 42 , 59 , 62 , 73 , 190 , 205 , 213 , 242 , 244 ;
description of, 14 -15;
growth of, 183 , 212 . See also Negros
Bacolod Central, 157 , 161 , 173 , 175 , 210 , 211
Bacolod-Murcia Planters' Association, 175 , 217
Bacolor, 33 , 82 , 83 , 92 , 94 , 95 , 114 , 116 , 174 , 184
Baluyut, Sotero, 165 , 169 , 195 , 197 , 212 , 223 , 228 , 232 , 238
Barrios (barangays ), 11 -12, 14 , 30 , 62 , 73
Barrios, Cesar, 191
Basco y Vargas, José, 23 , 24 , 31 -33, 91
Bataan, 151
Bataan Death March, 235
Bataan Sugar Company, 210
Battle of Manila Bay, 117 , 118
Beckford, George, 145
Belleza, Nicolas, 40
Belleza, Roman, 234
Bell Trade Act (1946), 239
Benedicto, Roberto, 238 , 243 , 244
Benedicto, Salvador, 238
Benedicto, Teodoro, 65 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 72
BIA. See U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs
Binalbagan Central, 161 , 167 , 186 , 192 , 210 , 212 , 213 , 217 , 231 , 236 ;
and PNB, 157 -58, 175 , 205
Bischoff, Charles, 65
Bischoff, Samuel, 65
Borromeo-Buehler, Soledad, 92
Bowditch, Nathaniel, 25
Brender, Lucio, 189
British East India Company (BEIC), 23
Brussels Convention (1903), 51
Bryan, William Jennings, 139
Buencamino, Felipe, 86
Buencamino, Felipe, Jr., 160 , 165 , 166 , 209
C
Cabos, 77 , 179 , 180
Calamba Sugar Estate, 98 , 159 , 210 , 232
Canda, Rufino, 227
Canlaon, Mount, 14 , 15 , 66
Canlubang Sugar Central, 159
Cánovas, José, 117
Capadocia, Guillermo, 226 , 241
Caribbean, 2 , 3 , 21 , 24 , 48 , 51 , 76 , 81 , 145 , 203
Castle Brothers, Wolf and Company, 158 -59
Catholicism, 38 , 39 , 134 , 140 , 183 , 196 , 242 , 246 ;
conversion to, 4 , 30 . See also Friars, Catholic; Priests
Cawal ning Capayapan. See Knights of Peace
Cebu, 9 , 15 , 35 , 37 , 39 , 53 , 62 , 65 , 159 , 183 ;
centrals on, 150 ;
migrant labor from, 78
Centrals, 54 -60, 73 , 100 , 146 , 147 -200, 201 ;
bank, 155 -58;
financing of, 97 , 98 , 155 -57;
and Japanese occupation, 237 ;
and migrant workers, 90 ;
and Philippine society, 98 , 167 -200;
post-World War II, 240 , 241 ;
productivity of, 151 -55, 207 ;
workers at, 98 -99, 177
Central Santos-Lopez, 210
Chadbourne International Sugar Agreement (1931), 163
Charles, W. B., 175 -76
China, 4 , 25 , 35 , 199 ;
trade with, 2 , 21 , 23 , 26 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 149 . See also Entrepreneurs: Chinese; Merchants: Chinese; Mestizos
Christian Communities, 246
Christianity, 38 -39, 70
Civil War, American, 51 , 62
Clark Air Force Base, 11
Clarke Amendment, 123
Coggins, May, 183
Cojuangco, Jose, 170
Cojuangco family, 240
Colonialism, 1 , 6 , 8 , 30 , 88 , 99 -100, 116
Comintern, 193 , 226 , 229
Commonwealth Act, 231
Communist party of the Philippines (CPP), 200 , 201 , 226 -27, 231
Concepcion, Venancio, 156 , 157
Confederation of Associations and Planters of Sugar Cane, 161 , 217 , 240
Contractors (contratistas, capataz ), 78 , 80
Contracts: milling, 58 , 100 , 170 -71. See also pacto de retrovendendo
Cooper, Alfred D., 159
Corpus, Rafael, 158 , 161
Cortes, Gabino, 135
Coscolluela, Ildefonso, 238 , 240
Creps, Francisco Gutierrez, 24
Crimean War, 51 , 62
Cruz, Hermenegildo, 193
Cuba, 4 , 100 , 161 , 164 , 241 ;
competition with, 53 , 54 , 160 , 203 , 206 ;
output of, 55 , 148 , 153 , 155
Cuenca, Domingo, 64
Cuenca, Fernando, 64
Culture: American, 108 -9, 183 -84;
Spanish Catholic, 183 -84
Cuyugan, Vivencio, 227 , 228
D
Danao Central, 210 , 211 , 216
Datus, 30 , 32 , 33 , 107
Dayrit, Don Florentino, 92
Dayrit, Sister Milagros, 246
de Jesus, Doña Rosalia, 35
de la Calle, Juan Diez, 21
de la Gironiere, Paul, 55
de la Rama, Amparo, 167
de la Rama, Esteban, 59 , 71 , 76 , 92 , 166 , 167 , 168
de la Rama, Isidro, 65 , 70 -71, 72 , 76
de la Rama family, 210 , 212
Delaunay, Adolphe, 55
de Leon, Jose L., 92 , 96 , 98 ., 110 , 113 , 165 , 167 , 168 , 169 , 212 , 217 , 218
de Leon family, 86 , 174
de Loarca, Miguel, 36
del Pan, 80
del Pilar, Marcelo, 116
del Rosario, Agapito, 228 , 234
de Miranda, Don Angel Pantaleon, 35 , 44 , 103
Dewey, Commodore George, 117
DeWitt, Clyde, 169
Dingley Tariff (1897), 51 , 53 , 119 , 121 , 122
Dionisio Papa. See Sigobela, Dionisio
Dizon, Lino, 227
Dumas, John, 158 , 159 , 178 , 212
E
Echaús, Enrique, 157 , 192
Echaúz, Robustiano, 37 -38, 76 -77, 103
Education, 94 , 109 , 114 , 185
Edwards, Clarence, 159
Ehrman, Alfred, 58 , 159 , 210
El Eco de Panay , 70
Elites: and colonial regime, 29 , 30 , 33 , 40 , 41 , 99 , 105 , 112 -13, 115 ;
cooperation with foreign merchants, 2 , 8 , 115 ;
internationalism of, 6 ;
and Philippine Revolution, 116 -21;
and social progress, 8 -9. See also Negros: elite in; Pampanga: elite in
Elizalde, Angel, 167
Elizalde, Joaquin Miguel (Mike), 161 , 209 , 238
Elizalde, Juan, 211
Elizalde, Manuel, 240
Elizalde family, 165 , 167 , 168 , 170 , 176 , 201 , 240
Elizalde-Ynchausti, 59
encargado (overseer), 76 -77, 143 , 179 , 180
encomienda (tax-collecting sinecure), 29
Endicott, William, 159
England: capital from, 71 , 113 ;
trade with, 24 , 44 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 56 , 62
Entrepreneurs, 63 , 70 , 81 , 82 , 91 , 100 , 109 , 211 ;
Chinese, 1 , 43 , 62 , 71 , 96
Escaler, Ernesto, 240
Escaler, Jose, 98 , 113 , 168
Escaler, Manuel, 92
Española, Amador, 180
estancia (agricultural settlement), 40 , 41
Evangelista, Crisanto, 193 , 198 , 226 , 227
Evans, Thomas, 65
Exports, 1 , 23 , 24 , 34 , 47 -57, 62 , 119 , 120 , 149 , 173 ;
increase in, 150 , 167 ;
in Japanese occupation, 237 ;
post-World War II, 239 , 243 , 247 . See also Quotas
F
Fairchild, George, 160 -61, 167 , 207
Fairfield Bill (1924), 162
Fassoth, W. J., 170
Federacion Obrera de Filipinas (FOF), 192 , 223
Federation of Free Farmers, 241
Federation of Planters of Negros Occidental, 186 , 217 , 238
Feleo, Juan, 193 , 194 , 227
Field hands, 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 101 , 192 , 240 , 242 . See also Sugar workers
First Farmers Human Development Foundation, 246
First Philippine Republic, 117 , 118 , 119 , 140
Fleishacker, Herbert, 159
Foreman, John, 1 , 78 , 106
Friars, Catholic, 1 , 21 , 22 , 29 , 30 , 57 -58, 61 , 71 , 211 ;
Recollect Order of, 43 , 60 , 61 -62, 63 , 64 , 79
Frias, D. Jose Domingo, 109 -10
G
Galang, Eliseo, 228
Gamboa, Cesar, 154
Ganzon, Alfredo, 197
Garcia, Manuel (Capitan Tui), 135
Gaston, Emilio, 169
Gaston, Yves Leopold Germain, 41 , 54 , 61 , 66 , 72
Gatuslao, Miguel, 238
Gil, Don Felino, 88
gobernadorcillos , 31 , 35 , 40 , 86 , 94 , 106
Goingco, Juanito, 147
Gomez, Jose, 168
Gonzales, Martin, 97 , 222 , 234
Gonzalez, Augusto, 92 , 98 , 110 , 167 , 169 , 217 , 218
Gonzalez, Benvenido, 212
Gonzalez Sioco, Fausto, 167 , 223 , 229
Gopinath, Aruna, 230 , 233
Goseco, Andres, 234
Great Depression, 147 , 149 , 152
grernios , 33 , 86
Guagua, 33 , 39 , 85 , 86 , 92 , 95 , 116 , 125 , 126 , 130 , 184
Guanco, Esperidion, 81 , 113 , 157 , 190
Guanzon, Mateo, 171
Guanzon, Olimpio, 194 , 196
Guardia Civil, 73 , 125 , 137
Guinto, Leon, 232
Gustilo, Vicente, 238
H
Hacenderos, 103 -46;
compared with centralistas , 169 -70;
fear of revolution, 140 ;
foreign, 170 ;
hospitality of, 107 -9;
under Japanese, 238 ;
life-style of, 176 -77, 242 ;
wealth of, 103 -8. See also Plantations
Hacienda Prado (Lubao), 233 -35, 245
Haciendas. See Plantations
Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (1933), 164 , 199
Harrison, Francis Burton, 159 , 212
Hart, Francis, 159
Havemayer, Horace, 58
Hawaii, 3 , 4 , 54 , 55 , 58 , 76 , 100 , 152 , 155 , 158 , 160 , 178 , 221 ;
competition with, 48 , 53 , 123
Hawaiian-Philippine Company, 152 -53
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 152
Hawes,Harry, 165 , 209 , 239
Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act (1930), 162 , 165
Hayden, Joseph Ralston, 219
Hayden, Stone and Company, 158 , 159
Henson, Jose P., 98
Henson, Mariano, 103 , 198
Heras, Miguel, 92
Hester, E. D., 204
Hilado, Julio, 191
Hilado, Matias, 69 , 113
Hilario, Zoilo, 195
Hind, R. Renton, 159 , 161 , 167
Hizon, Maximino, 120 , 139 , 198
Ho Chi Minh, 199 , 228
Homestead Act of 1902, 68
Hoover, Herbert, 162 , 164
Howard, Charles, 54
Hukbalahap (People's Anti-Japanese Army), 237 , 240 -41, 245
I
Iloilo, 14 , 44 , 65 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 81 , 112 , 118 , 119 , 123 , 182 , 188
Independence movement, 161 -64. See also Nationalism; Quezon, Manuel Luis
India, 2 , 4 , 23 , 207
Industrial Revolution, 20 , 24 , 60
Institute of Pacific Relations, 230
Insular and Malabon Sugar Refineries, 209
Intrencherado, Emperor Florencio, 188 -89
Isabela Central, 157 , 161 , 168 , 175 , 186
J
Jalandoni, Jose Ledesma, 123
Janequette, William (a.k.a. Harrison George), 193
Japan, 200 , 208 ;
invasion of Philippines, 201 , 207 , 224 , 228 , 235 , 237 -40;
trade with, 48 , 51 , 53 , 149 , 205
Java, 4 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 100 , 153 , 155 , 178 , 207 , 209 , 237
Jeanjaquet brothers, 65
Jesena, Arsenio ("The Sacadas of Sugarland"), 242
Jesuits, 22
Joaquin, Nick, 183 , 238
Joint Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs, 206 , 209 , 226
Jones, J. Weldon, 204
Jones-Costigan Act, 165 , 166 , 202 , 203 , 205 , 238
Joven, Ceferino, 86 , 94 , 116 , 120
Joven family, 174
K
Katipunan Mipanampun (KM), 195 -96, 226
Ker, John Stuart, 24
Ker and Company, 48 , 72 , 172
Kerkvliet, Benedict J., 218
Kidder, Peabody and Company, 159
Knights of Peace (Cawal ning Capayapan), 223 , 228 , 235
Koch, Hugo, 65 , 66
Kongreso Proletario de Filipinas, 193
Kusug Sang Imol (KSI), 190 , 191 , 192 , 195 , 225
L
Labor, 2 -3, 4 , 6 , 7 , 44 , 169 ;
migrant (sacadas ), 78 -80, 82 , 90 , 133 , 145 , 179 -80, 221 , 225
Laborers (casamac or aparcero ), 18 , 31 , 32 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 97 , 98 , 101 , 145 , 181 -82, 221 ;
outlook of, 102 , 124 -46, 200 , 224 ;
rice, 194 ;
women, 7 . See also Negros: farmers in; Pampanga: tenant system of; Sugar workers; Wages
Labor laws, 169
La Carlota Central, 154 , 161 , 167 , 177 , 183 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 216 , 246
Lacson, Aniceto, 118 , 119 , 120 , 138 , 140
Lacson, Evangelina-Hilario, 184
Lacson, Isaac, 169 , 179 , 186
Laguda, Salvador, 169
Land: absorption of, 99 ;
as collateral, 72 , 91 , 156 ;
ownership of, 5 , 66 -68, 70 , 91 ;
public (realengas ), 57 , 68 ;
Public Land Act (1902), 57 ;
registration of, 68 , 129 -30;
speculators in, 70 ;
taxes on, 113 , 115 , 122 ;
Torrens titles to, 68 -69, 72 . See also pacto de retrovendendo
Land grabbing (usurpacion ), 69 -70, 82 , 137 , 185 , 221
Landor, Henry Savage, 78
Language: Austronesian, 20 ;
Capampangan, 13 , 28 ;
Cebuano, 15 ;
English, 115 , 184 , 211 ;
Ilocano, 13 ;
Ilongo, 15 , 184 ;
Spanish, 96 , 108 , 184 , 211 ;
Tagalog, 7 , 13 , 66 , 135 , 211 , 226
La Real Compañía de Filipinas, 23 , 24
Larin, Victor, 136
La Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pais de Manila, 24
Laurel, Jose, 231 , 232
Laurel-Langley Act, 241 , 242
Lava, Jose, 227
Lava family, 226
Layug, Benigno, 228
Lazarate, Federico, 191
Lazatin, Tomas, 98
League of Poor Workers (AMT), 200
Ledesma, Cesar, 161 , 167 , 168 , 211
Ledesma, Jose, 168 , 191
Ledesma, Juan, 217
Ledesma, Oscar, 238 , 240
Ledesma, Ricardo, 167
Ledesma family, 210 , 240
Lee, Atherton, 211
Legarda, Benito, 116
Legazpi, Miguel Làpez de, 35
Leyte, 150 , 210
Limahong (Lin Feng), 29
Lim-ongco, Don Vicente, 92
Lim Ponzo and Company, 71
Liongson, Francisco, 98 , 104 , 113 , 116 , 120 , 136 , 139 -40
Liongson family, 86
Liwanag, Silvestre, 227 , 240
Lizares, Antonio, 238
Lizares, Emilio, 214
Lizares, Nicholas, 167 , 168 , 211
Lizares family, 167 , 170 , 210 , 211 , 217
Lizarraga Hermanos, 59
Lobbyists, Washington, 164 -65
Locsin, Aurelio, 238
Locsin, Carlos, 113 , 154 , 167 , 171 , 179 , 211
Lotsin, Eusebio, 64
Lotsin, Jose, 169 , 242
Lotsin, Leandro (governor), 66 , 140
Locsin, Ramon, 64
Locsin, Soledad, 238
Locsin, Vicenta Yanzon, 40
London International Sugar Conference, 206 , 209
Loney, Nicholas, 41 , 54 , 62 , 63 , 65 , 66 , 72 , 79
Loney, Robert, 62 , 65
Loney and Company, 71
Lopez, Basilio, 65
Lopez, Consuelo, 176
Lopez, Eugenio, 65 , 92 , 211
Lopez, Eusebio, 167
Lopez, Fernando, 243
Lopez, Gil, 176
Lopez Central, 169 , 210 , 223
Lopez family, 168 , 210 , 211 , 240
Louisiana, 4 , 51 , 153
Lowenstein, Maurice, 159
Luchinger, Frederick, 65
Lumber industry, 81
Luzon, 9 , 11 , 21 , 25 , 26 , 29 , 33 , 44 , 51 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 90 , 103 , 117 , 119 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 182 , 187 , 193 , 205 , 241 , 245 ;
centrals in, 150 , 155 , 187 , 241 ;
early sugar making in, 21 , 25 , 26 , 33 , 44 , 56 ;
in Philippine Revolution, 51 , 53 , 117 , 119 ;
rice production in, 195 ;
towns of, 11 ;
violence in, 219 , 221 -24. See also Pampanga
Luzuriaga, Eusebio Ruiz de, 41 , 61 , 65 , 81 , 116
M
Ma-ao Central, 154 , 157 , 161 , 168 , 172 , 175 , 186 -87
Macapagal, Diosdado, 184 , 213
Macapagal, Maestre de Campo Don Juan, 29
Macapinlac, Enrique, 120
MacArthur, General Douglas, 212
McCoy, Alfred W., 65 , 69 , 190 , 233
McHale, Thomas, 170
McIntyre, Frank, 159 , 162
McKinley, President William, 120
McKinley Tariff Bill, 51
McNutt, Paul, 239
Magalona, Enrique, 165 , 169 , 191
Magellan, Ferdinand, 21 , 107
Mainawa-on (Merciful), 190 , 191 , 192 , 225
Makabulos, Francisco, 117 , 120
Makinaugalingon (Native ways), 102 , 112 , 171 , 185 , 213
Malacca, Tan, 193 , 198
Mallat, Jean, 38 , 39
Malolos (Bulacan) Constitution, 117
Malvar, Miguel, 138
Manahan, Jacinto, 193 , 194 , 198
Manila, 13 , 20 , 81 , 95 , 113 , 211 , 242 ;
Bilibid Prison in, 136 , 138 ;
British occupation of, 23 ;
as colonial capital, 6 , 7 , 8 , 11 , 21 , 22 , 30 , 35 ;
as commercial center, 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 39 , 83 ;
Letran College in, 95 ;
and Philippine Revolution, 51 ;
and tripartite galleon trade, 2
Manila Railroad, 83 , 85 , 203 , 210
Manila Times , 78 , 159 , 160 , 194
Mao Zedong, 199
Mapa, Placido, 211 , 217
Marche, Alfred, 85
Marcos, Ferdinand, 243 , 246
Martinez Cuesta, Angel, 68
Marxism, 198 , 199 , 227
Mascuñana, Ricardo, 70
Merchants: Chinese, 22 , 131 , 173 ;
foreign, 2 , 22
Merrick, John, 65
Mestizos, 34 , 38 , 64 , 87 , 96 , 105 ;
Chinese, 33 , 35 , 39 , 43 , 62 , 85 -86, 92 , 107 ;
Spanish, 65 , 66 , 85 , 103
Mexico, 21 , 22 , 23
Millenarianism, 141 , 187 -88, 226 . See also Salvador, Felipe; Sigobela, Dionisio
Milling, 2 , 55 , 97 , 99 , 147 , 153 -54, 155 , 156 , 241
Mill owners, 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 210
Mindanao, 9 , 21 , 29 , 178 , 211 , 221 , 241
Montarde, Policarpio, 188 , 189
Montelibano, Alejandro, 68
Montelibano, Alfredo, 217 , 238 , 240
Montilla, Don Augustin, 38 , 40 -41, 44 , 61 , 65 , 66 , 103
Montilla, Emilio, 156 , 168
Montilla, Enrique, 212
Montilla, Gil, 165 , 168 , 190 , 191 , 192 , 208 , 210 , 217
Montilla, Segundo, 170
Montilla family, 167 , 240
Moros, 21 -22, 29 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 40 , 44 , 61 , 66
Morquecho, Manuel Valdivieso, 62 , 63
Moses, Edith, 106 , 108
Mourin, José María, 106 , 107
Mulliken, David, 65
Murphy, Frank, 165 , 166 , 204 , 208 , 221
Mutual-help societies, 190 -92, 195 , 226
Mutual Protection Association. See Katipunan Mipanampun (KM)
N
Napoleonic wars, 24 , 27
National Association of Peasants in the Philippines (KPMP), 194
Nationalism, 2 , 119 , 121 , 193 , 198 , 199 , 239
Nationalista party, 162 , 186
National Sugar Board, 213 , 214 , 215 , 217 , 230
National Sugar Trading Corporation (Nasutra), 243 -44, 246
Nava, Jose, 192 , 222 , 223 , 225 , 241
Navas, Ramon, 108
Negros, 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 14 -19, 35 -43, 45 , 103 , 104 ;
aboriginal groups of, 39 , 69 -70, 79 ;
centrals in, 58 -59;
class differentiation in, 100 -101;
credit in, 173 -74, 175 ;
culture in, 183 -84, 185 ;
education in, 185 ;
elite in, 99 , 105 ;
farmers in, 69 , 71 -72, 111 -12, 132 , 133 , 134 , 143 , 144 -45, 177 -78, 241 , 246 ;
in Japanese occupation, 238 ;
labor vs. management in, 44 ;
Loyal Volunteers of, 117 -18;
Occidental, 60 -82;
in Philippine Revolution, 117 -18, 119 , 121 , 123 ;
planters in, 107 , 246 ;
politics in, 168 ;
population of, 41 -42, 60 , 82 , 182 , 242 , 243 , 245 ;
poverty in, 244 , 246 ;
quality of sugar in, 54 ;
sacadas in, 179 -80, 225 , 241 ;
social unrest in, 148 ;
sugar production in, 41 , 46 , 53 , 90 , 91 , 150 , 155 ;
violence in, 219 , 224 . See also Plantations
Nepomuceno, Don Pio, 86
Nepomuceno, Juan, 170
New Alliance of Sugar Producers, 244
New Deal, 165 , 205
New People's Army (NPA), 18 , 233 , 245 , 246
New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, 204
Nichols, J. Clayton, 65
Nicols, Nicholas Norton, 23
Nolan, Richard, 170
North Negros Sugar Company (Manapla), 154
O
Ocampo, Virgilio, 228
Olivas, Julian, 217 , 223
Ormoc Sugar Company, 210
Orozco, Ramon, 115
Osmeña, Sergio, 162 , 165 , 197 , 199 , 208
Ossorio, Miguel J., 59 , 165 , 167 , 168 , 170
Ossorio family, 240
Oyos, Rufo, 137 , 138 , 139
P
Pacific Commercial Company, (PCC) 58 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 172
Pacific Development Corporation, 159
pacto de retrovendendo , 32 , 33 , 72 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 91 , 92 , 98 , 174
Pamintuan, Doña Antonia, 92
Pamintuan, Florentino, 176
Pamintuan, Mariano, 92 , 98
Pamintuan, Tomasa, 176
Pampanga, 5 -6, 8 , 9 -13, 15 , 22 , 27 -35, 39 , 43 , 82 -101, 136 ;
Chinese community in, 33 , 86 -87;
class differentiation in, 44 , 100 -101;
cooperatives in, 234 , 246 ;
credit in, 173 -74, 175 ;
culture of, 184 -85, 212 ;
education in, 185 ;
elite in, 30 -32, 85 , 87 , 91 , 99 , 110 , 120 -21, 135 ;
faith healers in, 187 ;
farmers in, 53 -54, 103 , 134 , 148 ;
industry in, 33 -34;
landlords of, 85 -99, 110 , 125 , 215 , 237 , 245 ;
migrant workers in, 225 ;
and Philippine Revolution, 117 , 118 , 120 -22, 135 , 141 ;
politics in, 169 ;
population of, 82 -83, 182 , 195 , 242 , 243 , 245 ;
prehispanic settlement in, 27 -28;
prominent Spanish families of, 86 , 98 ;
protest in, 219 , 222 -23, 225 , 233 ;
quality of sugar in, 25 -26, 54 , 56 ;
rice production in, 195 ;
sugar production in, 34 , 46 , 90 -91, 150 , 155 ;
tenant system in, 18 , 100 , 110 , 143 , 145 , 181 -82, 186 , 187 ;
towns of, 39 ;
wealth of planters in, 105 -7. See also Plantations; Tenant-landlord relations
Pampanga Electric Light and Power Company, 92
Pampanga Sugar Development Company, 173
Panama Canal, 59
Panay, 9 , 14 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 62 , 63 , 65 , 105 , 133 , 241 ;
centrals on, 150 ;
mutual-help societies on, 190 ;
in Philippine Revolution, 118
Panlilio, Don Bengang, 127
Panlilio, Don Vicente, 127
Panlilio, Jose Mariano, 92
Panlilio, Pablo, 127
Papa Isio. See Sigobela, Dionisio
Pardo de Tavera, Carmen, 110
Pardo de Tavera, Trinidad H., 86 , 116
Paredes, Quintin, 219
Partido Komunista, 193
Pasudeco, 97 -98, 150 -51, 167 , 169 , 234 , 238 ;
financing of, 156 , 157 , 174 ;
managers of, 161 , 168 , 170 , 211 , 212 ;
strikes at, 224 ;
violence at, 217 -18, 238
Pasumil (Pampanga Sugar Mills, Inc.), 97 , 98 , 150 -51, 154 , 159 , 161 , 172 , 196 , 222 , 234 , 235 , 240 , 244 , 245 ;
financing of, 174 ;
output of, 155 ;
and quotas, 166 ;
strikes at, 223 , 228
Pasumil-Calamba combine, 167 , 169
Payne-Aldrich Act (1909), 54 , 90 , 97 , 109 , 121 , 122 -23, 162
Peele, Hubbell and Company, 48 , 53 , 63 , 71
People's Liberation Army. See Hukbalahap
Philippine Agricultural Review , 155
Philippine-American Chamber of Commerce, 160
Philippine-American War, 96 , 159
Philippine Assembly, 96 , 113 , 197 , 199 , 208 , 217 , 230
Philippine Commission, 54 , 86 , 110 , 114 , 116 , 122
Philippine Commonwealth, 165 , 235
Philippine Constabulary, 79 , 105 , 138 , 142 , 169 , 185 , 193 , 223 , 232 , 236
Philippine Exchange Company (Philex), 243
Philippine Labor Congress (Congreso Obrero de Filipinas), 193
Philippine Labor Union, 223
Philippine National Bank (PNB), 113 , 147 , 168 , 169 , 210 ;
founding of, 54 , 72 ;
loans to centrals, 59 , 97 , 98 , 155 -58, 161 , 172 -75, 186 , 205 , 208 , 209 , 231 , 234 -35, 236 , 244
Philippine Oil Company, 168
Philippine Revolution, 8 , 51 , 56 , 92 , 116 -21, 134 , 135 , 137 , 141
Philippines Free Press , 75 , 104 , 105 , 108 , 111 , 113 , 122 , 147 , 176
Philippine Sugar Administration, 208
Philippine Sugar Association (PSA), 160 -61, 166 , 207 , 211 , 246 ;
and sugar legislation, 162 , 163 , 164 -65, 169 , 209 , 240
Philippine Sugar Centrals Agency, 156 , 210
Pinatubo, Mount, 11
Plantations, 3 , 5 , 15 -18, 21 , 43 , 44 , 46 , 125 , 145 ;
absentee ownership of, 73 -74, 82 ;
acsa (agsador) system of share rentals, 74 -76, 99 , 171 -72, 177 , 179 , 225 ;
conflict on, 217 -36;
leaseholding of, 74 , 88 -89, 171 , 187 ;
in Negros, 60 -82, 106 -7;
owner-management system on, 76 . See also Labor; Sugar workers; Tenant-landlord relations
PNB. See Philippine National Bank
Ponce, Domingo, 225
Pond, Horace, 159 , 160 , 167
Popular Front, 229
Preston, Andrew, 159
Prices: drop in, 97 , 171 , 179 , 196 , 203 , 206 , 207 , 213 , 222 ;
and quotas, 165 , 204 ;
rise in, 123 , 148 , 205 ;
and strikes, 218 , 222 ;
and wages, 99 ;
of world sugar, 51 , 57 , 62 , 149 , 201 , 243 , 244 ;
during World War I, 58 , 59
Priests, 30 , 37 , 81 , 137
principalia , 31 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 39 , 91
Propaganda Movement, 116
PSA. See Philippine Sugar Association
Public Land Act (1902), 57
Public Land Law (1914), 58
Puerto Rico, 53 , 54 , 55 , 123 , 155 , 160
Puig, Jose, 92
Q
Quezon, Aurora, 232
Quezon, Manuel Luis, 69 , 94 , 160 , 164 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 190 , 191 , 195 , 197 , 199 , 200 , 201 ;
death of, 238 ;
flight of, 235 -36;
and Philippine independence, 162 , 164 ;
and Franklin Roosevelt, 206 ;
and
Quezon, Manuel Luis (continued )
sugar industry, 123 , 158 , 165 , 173 , 186 , 201 , 207 -10, 213 , 217 , 223 , 228 , 229 -33, 243
Quotas, 3 , 148 , 165 -67, 174 , 201 -36, 241 , 243 , 244 ;
and sugar society, 210 -18
R
Ramos, Agustin, 114 , 193
Ramos, Ramon, 178 , 179
Recto, Claro M., 212
Refineries (farderias ), 26 , 55
Renacirniento Filipino , 76
repartimiento (system of labor obligation), 31 , 32
Republic Planter's Bank, 244
Rice, 14 , 34 , 36 , 38 , 60 , 66 , 77 , 83 , 169 ;
export of, 33 , 104 ;
imports of, 99 ;
increase in production of, 195 , 211 , 213 , 218 ;
planting of, 79 , 82 , 89 , 137 , 181 ;
vs. sugar, 90 , 96 -97, 98 , 103 -4, 143 , 245
Rizal, Jose, 92 , 116
Rodriguez, Esteban, 35 , 36
Romulo, Carlos P., 239
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 206 , 207
Roosevelt, Theodore, 198
Ross, H. B., 170
Roxas, Domingo, 41
Roxas, Manuel, 190 , 208 , 212
Roxas family, 59 , 240
Rural credit associations, 87
Russell, Sturgis and Company, 48 , 53 , 62 , 71
Russia, trade with, 207
Ruttan, Rosanne, 16
S
Sagay Central, 167
Saleeby, Najeeb, 173
Salvador, Felipe (Apong Ipe), 134 -36, 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 187
sarnacan system, 31 , 33 , 44 , 89 , 96 , 125 , 130 , 131 , 220
Samahan Nayon Dampe (Dampe Cooperative), 245 -46
Sampang, Francisco, 228
San Carlos, 14 , 15 , 68 , 73 , 158 , 183 , 186 , 208
San Carlos Central, 58 , 172 , 205 , 210 , 211 , 217 , 240
San Fernando, 11 , 13 , 35 , 95 , 106 , 114 , 116 , 184 , 197 , 229 ;
centrals in, 59 , 97 ;
Chinese in, 86 ;
as commercial center, 85 ;
tenants of, 125 , 126 -27, 128 , 129 ;
violence in, 217 , 223 . See also Pampanga
Santa Iglesia (Holy Church) group, 134 -36, 141 , 142 , 144 , 187
Santos, Isidoro, 92
Santos, Roman, 223
Saravia, Emilio, 61 , 69
Saulo, Alfredo, 227
Sayre, Francis, 239
Severino, Felix, 190 , 192
Severino, Melecio, 119 , 121 , 123 , 190
Siete Sagrados (The Sacred Seven), 189 -90
Sigobela, Dionisio (Papa Isio; Dionisio Papa), 134 , 137 -38, 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 -45, 146 , 189
Silay, 73 , 152 -54, 155 , 158 , 167 , 183
Silay-Hawaiian Central, 160 , 161 , 172 , 205 , 240
Silay-Saravia Planters' Association, 152 , 154
Silverio, Tito, 113
Sino-Japanese War, 53 , 207
Sison, Jose Ma., 237
Slavery, 2 , 3 , 38 , 51
Smith, Bell and Company, 48 , 53 , 63 , 71
Smith, General James, 137
Socialist party of the Philippines (SPP), 223 , 224 -26, 227 , 228 -34, 235
Spain, 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 21 -27, 48 , 50 , 53 . See also Philippine Revolution
Spaniards, 65 , 66 , 85 , 86 , 92 , 109
Spreckels, Mary Huntington, 167
Spreckels and Company, 58 , 159 , 206 , 210
Stevenot, John, 212
Steward, Julian, 4
Stimson, Henry L., 162
Stone, Galen, 159
Strikes, 169 , 192 , 193 , 219 , 222 -23, 227 , 228 , 229 , 232 -33
Sturtevant, David, 188
Suez Canal, 59
Sugar: beet, 3 , 51 , 55 -57, 78 , 148 ;
demand for, 48 , 50 -51, 63 , 98 , 99 ;
mat, 26 -27, 54 , 56 , 63 ;
muscovado , 22 , 26 , 41 , 51 , 52 , 56 , 57 , 59 , 60 , 75 , 77 , 97 , 98 , 149 , 172 , 173 , 203 , 206 , 208 ;
and Philippine society, 99 -101, 167 -200;
pilon, 22 , 23 , 25 , 26 -27, 43 , 54 , 56 , 90 ;
under quotas, 202 -10;
taxes on, 169 , 205 , 209 ;
turbinado, 206
Sugar Act of 1934, 209
Sugar Act of 1937, 205 -6, 209
Sugar Act of 1952, 241
Sugar cane, 3 , 20 , 57 , 58 , 89 , 100 , 149 , 150 , 155 ;
burning of, 222 , 223 , 234 ;
wine from, 21
Sugar mill (trapiche ), 41
Sugar News , 59 , 163 , 177 , 178 , 181 , 187 , 200
Sugar production: credit and debt in, 110 -12, 172 -73;
division of labor in, 43 , 46 -47;
drop in, 203 ;
and early Philippine society, 43 -45;
global, 148 , 203 , 206 , 207 ;
increase in, 60 , 150 , 202 , 241 ;
large-scale, 5 , 102 ;
and regional concentration, 43
Sugar Tenancy Act, 230
Sugar workers (duma'an ), 15 -16, 18 , 77 -78, 112 , 138 , 172 , 180 ;
Chinese, 80 , 91 ;
Japanese, 80 ;
outlook of, 102 , 124 -46, 177 -79;
pakyaw system for, 178 ;
post-World War II, 240 ;
and unemployment, 221 ;
working conditions of, 79 -80, 101 , 220 -21
sugu system, 89 , 181
Sumulong, Juan, 229
Switzer, John, 158 -60, 162 , 164
Sycip, Alfonso, 212
T
Tabacalera Company, 59 , 167 , 214 , 240
Taft, William H., 54 , 121 , 122
Tagalogs, 85 , 86 , 94 , 117
Taiwan, 237
Talisay Central, 157 , 158 , 161 , 167 , 175 , 186 , 210 , 217 , 244 , 246
Tan, Antonio, 198
Tanong, Mang, 187
Tan-Suia, Lucio Echauz, 65
Tapia, Jose, 211 , 238
Tarlac, 9 , 11 , 13 , 14 , 53 , 83 , 85 , 88 , 136 , 141 , 165 , 170 , 182 , 185 , 221 , 243 ;
centrals in, 150 , 151 , 174 , 215 ;
in Japanese occupation, 235 , 237 ;
population of, 242 , 245 ;
post-World War II, 242 ;
Tarlac (continued )
protest in, 219 . See also Pampanga
Taruc, Luis, 198 , 200 , 219 , 224 , 227 , 228 , 240
Technicians, 59 -60
Technology, 43 , 56 , 99 , 147 , 172 , 217 ;
and environment, 5 ;
and hornos economicos , 54 ;
milling, 1 , 2 -3, 4 , 25 , 26 ;
origins of sugar, 21
Tenant-landlord relations, 124 -46, 194 , 195 , 196 , 219 -25, 226 , 230 , 234
Tenants, 6 , 11 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 44 , 82 , 89 -90, 91 , 96 , 104 , 110 , 112 , 143 , 171 -72, 245 . See also Tenant-landlord relations
Thibault, Lorenzo, 159
Timberlake, Charles, 162
Timbol, Carmelino, 217 -18, 223 , 224
Timbol, Dalmacio, 218 , 223
Timbol, Gregorio, 217 -18, 223
Toledo, Benigno Toda y, 212
Toledo, Roberto, 88 , 92 , 110
Toledo, Roberto, III, 97 , 170 , 197
Toledo family, 222
Torres, Ramon, 219 , 222 , 232
Trade, 1 -2;
expansion of, 46 -60;
galleon, 22 , 23 ;
international, 22 -23, 24 , 43 , 46 , 56 , 63 , 148 , 243 . See also China: trade with
Treaty of Paris, 118 , 119
Trinidad, Wenceslao, 161 , 168 , 169
Tumulty, Joseph, 165
Tydings-Kocialkowski Act (1939), 206
Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), 164 , 203 , 205 , 206 , 207 , 209 , 238
U
Underwood-Simmons Bill (1913), 54 , 97
Union activism, 192 -93, 219
Union de Aparceros de Filipinas, 193
United Fruit Company, 159
United States: advisors from, 59 ;
beet sugar industry in, 51 , 54 , 55 -56, 57 , 160 ;
capital from, 58 , 97 , 158 ;
Communist party of, 226 ;
educational system of, 1 ;
and Japan, 235 , 237 ;
occupation of Philippines, 53 , 115 , 119 -24, 226 ;
and Philippine independence, 159 , 160 , 161 , 206 , 229 ;
and Philippine plantations, 81 ;
and Philippine Revolution, 118 , 137 -38, 140 -41;
and roadbuilding, 73 ;
and sugar workers, 80 ;
trade with, 24 , 44 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 99 -100, 123 , 147 , 148 , 162 -64, 209 , 217 , 226 , 233 , 239 , 242 , 247
University of the Philippines, 212 , 213
Unson, Timoteo, 111 , 170
Urban professionals, 91 , 95 -96
Uriarte, Higinio de, 235
Urquico, Manuel, 92 , 98
U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs (BIA), 159 , 160 , 162
U.S. Sugar Administration, 213
V
Valderrama, Catalino, 63 , 81 , 154
Valderrama, Fortunato, 63 , 81
Valderrama, Tranquilino, 238
Valdes, Emiliano J., 92 , 98 , 174
Valdes, General Basilio, 224
Valdes, Roman, 92
Varona, Francisco, 109
Vasquez, Esteban, 191 , 223 , 225
Ventura, Honorio, 92 , 94 , 98 , 110 , 169 , 199 , 229
Ventura, Honorio (lawyer), 95
Ventura, Jose, 110
Ventura family, 86
Veyra, Jaime de, 112
Victorias Central, 154 , 170 , 188 , 214 , 241
Vidie, M. M., 55
Vietnam, 29
Villa, Pancho, 184
Villaluz, Marcos, 70
Villanueva, Hermenegildo, 168
Villasis, Luis, 40
Visayan Stevedore Transportation Company (Vistranco), 191
Vizmanos, José Saenz y, 40 , 41 , 62
W
Waco, Yap, 65
Wages, 4 , 78 , 99 , 115 , 132 -33, 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 -81, 207 , 215 , 216 , 220 , 222
Wallace, Henry, 205
Wallerstein, Immanuel, 4
Wang Ta-yuan, 20
Warehouses (camarines ), 26 , 105
Warner, Barnes and Company, 48 , 63 , 71 , 97 , 172
Water buffalos (carabaos ), 26 , 39 , 53 , 75 -76, 77 , 89 , 104 , 126 , 177
Weinzheimer, L., 166
Welch, Fairchild and Company, 160
White, John, 46 , 79 , 104 -5, 107 , 138 , 142
Whitiker, Philip, 157 , 158
Wilson, Woodrow, 165
Wood, Leonard, 162 , 189 , 192
Worcester, Dean, 58
Workers' Union of the Philippines, 197
World War I, 51 , 53 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 148 , 193
World War II, 65 , 68 , 124 , 132 , 155 , 158 , 159 , 202 , 207 , 235 , 238 , 242 , 245
Wuthrich, Paul, 65
Y
Yabut, Patricio, 228
Yanson, Vicente Jimenez, 190
Yap, Edgardo, 246
Yee On, 65 , 154
Ynchausti and Company, 72 , 167 , 168
Yu-Bangco, Domingo Lazarte, 65
Yulo, Alfredo, 238 , 240
Yulo, Carmen, 167
Yulo, Emilio, 165
Yulo, Jose, 169 , 208 -9, 210 , 217 , 224 , 230 , 232 , 238 , 240
Yulo, Mariano, 168
Yulo, Teodoro, 65 , 70 , 72 , 92 , 138
Yulo family, 157 , 201
Yuson, Amado, 213
Z
Zafra, Urbano, 163
Zobel, Jacobo, 212
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1. John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565-1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959), pp. vii-viii. On the role of economics see Daniel F. Doeppers, Manila, 1900-1941: Social Change in a Late Colonial Metropolis (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1984), and Norman G. Owen, Prosperity without Progress: Manila Hemp and Material Life in the Colonial Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984).
2. William Lytle Shurz, The Manila Galleon (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1939), pp. 30-56.
3. Reviews of and references to studies on the history of sugar societies have appeared in the World Sugar History Newsletter edited by Bill Albert at the University of East Anglia. See also J. H. Galloway, The Sugar Cane Industry: An Historical Geography from Its Origins to 1914 (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
4. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985), pp. 19-61; Wallace R. Aykroyd, Sweet Malefactor: Sugar, Slavery and Human Society (London: Heinemann, 1967), chaps. 2-6; Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623-1775 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1713 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972); Robert Louis Stein, The French Sugar Business in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988); Jan Breman, Control of Land and Labour in Colonial Java: A Case Study of Agrarian Crisis and Reform in the Region of Cirebon During the First Decades of the 20th
Century , Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, 101 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Foris, 1983).
5. Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-50); Alfred W. McCoy, "Rural Philippines: Technological Change in the Sugar Industry," in The Philippines after Marcos , ed. R. J. May and Francisco Nemenzo (London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985), pp. 182-87; Ruben R. Alcantara, Sakada.' Filipino Adaptation in Hawaii (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1981), pp. 81-82, 129.
6. Ellen Deborah Ellis, An Introduction to the History of Sugar as a Commodity (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1905), chap. 3; John Yudkin, Sweet and Dangerous (New York: Bantam, 1972); Jean Mayer, "The Bitter Truth about Sugar," New York Times Magazine , June 20, 1976, pp. 26-34; Ellen Ruppel Shell, "Sweetness and Health," Atlantic Monthly , August 1985, pp. 14-20; University of California, Berkeley, Wellness Letter , December 1989, pp. 4-5.
7. Sugar '69 (Quezon City: National Federation of Sugarcane Planters, 1969), pp. 49-50; Alcantara, Sakada , pp. 1-96, passim ; Rene Dumont, Is Cuba Socialist ? (New York: Viking, 1974), pp. 68-69, 74, 142-43; Carmelo Mesa-Lago, Cuba in the 1970s: Pragmatism and Institutionalization , rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1978), pp. 49-50; Medea Benjamin, Joseph Collins, and Michael Scott, No Free Lunch: Food and Revolution in Cuba Today (San Francisco: Institute of Food and Development Policy, 1984), pp. 120-31, 142-45. See also R. E. Elson, Javanese Peasants and the Colonial Sugar Industry: Impact and Change in an East Java Residency, 1839-1940 (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1984); Roger Plant, Sugar and Modern Slavery: A Tale of Two Countries (London: Zed Books, 1987); Alec Wilkinson, Big Sugar: Seasons in the Cane Fields of Florida (New York: Knopf, 1989); Bill Albert and Adrian Graves, eds., Crisis and Change in the International Sugar Economy, 1860-1914 (Norwich and Edinburgh, UK: ISC Press, 1984) and idem, The World Sugar Economy in War and Depression, 1914-1940 (London: Routledge, 1988).
8. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Capitalist World-Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), chaps. 1, 6. See also Doeppers, Manila, 1900-1941 , p. 5. On the limitations of such an analysis, see McCoy's introduction in Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus, eds., Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), pp. 11-14.
9. Lucien M. Hanks, Rice and Man: Agricultural Ecology in South-east Asia (Chicago: Aldine, 1972). A lesser example, for want of sufficient data, is Clifford Geertz, Agricultural Involution: The Process of Ecological Change in Indonesia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966).
10. Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 37.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., pp. 40-41.
10. Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 37.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., pp. 40-41.
10. Julian H. Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1955), p. 37.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., pp. 40-41.
13. For a model of comparative agricultural history, see Eric R. Wolf and Sidney W. Mintz, "Haciendas and Plantations in Middle America and the Antilles," Social and Economic Studies 6 (September 1957): 380-412.
14. Renato Constantino, The Philippines: A Past Revisited (Quezon City: Tala Publishing, 1974); Teodoro A. Agoncillo and Milagros C. Guerrero, History of the Filipino People , 5th ed. (Quezon City: R. P. Garcia, 1977).
15. Bulletin Today (Manila), June 13, 1982, p. 6.
16. Philippine Commonwealth, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Soil Survey of Pampanga Province, Philippines , Soil Report 5 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1939); Philippine Republic, Bureau of Soils, Soil Survey of Negros Occidental Province, Philippines , Soil Report 14 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1951); Frederick L. Wernstedt, "Agricultural Regionalism on Negros Island, Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1953); and Domingo C. Salita, "Land Use in the Province of Pampanga" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1958).
17. Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 106.
18. In the mid-1980s the Marcos government separated western Negros into two provinces, Negros del Norte with its capital at Cadiz City and Negros Occidental.
19. Rosanne Ruttan, Women Workers on Hacienda Milagros: Wage Labor and Household Subsistence on a Philippine Sugarcane Plantation , Publikatieserie Zuid- en Zuidoost-Asië, Anthropologisch-Sociologisch Centrum, no. 30 (Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 1982), pp. 17-18. See also Norman W. Schul, "A Philippine Sugar Cane Plantation: Land Tenure and Sugar Cane Production," Economic Geography 43 (April 1967): 157-69.
20. Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, Crisis in Sugarlandia: The Planters' Differential Perceptions and Responses and Their Impact on Sugarcane Workers' Households (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1964).
21. The more even rainfall in northern Negros contributes to its higher yields and a longer milling season; meanwhile San Carlos, which receives somewhat less rain than other districts and has a shorter milling season, is one of the only districts to make significant use of irrigation (Wernstedt, "Agricultural Regionalism," pp. 141, 169-77).
1. Thomas R. McHale, "Early Technological Innovation in Sugar Cane Agriculture and Sugar Making Techniques in the Philippines (Abstract)," Proceedings of the Ninth Pacific Science Congress (Bangkok, 1963), 3:237; Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking, 1985), p. 19; Thomas R. McHale and Mary C. McHale, eds., Early American-Philippine Trade: The Journal of Nathaniel Bowditch in Manila, 1796 , Monograph Series, no. 2 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1962), p. 31n; Cleve W. Hines, Cane Production and Sugar Manufacture in the Philippine Islands , Government of the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin 33 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1919), p. 13; Philippine Commercial Agencies, comp., Economic Resources and Developments of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Philippine Commercial Agencies, 1920), p. 49; SN 6 (1925): 465-68; Carlos Quirino, History of the Philippine Sugar Industry (Manila: Kalayaan, 1974), pp. 1-3. Linguistic evidence, including wide-spread use within the archipelago of the Malayo-Polynesian word tubo , or some variation thereof, for sugar cane supports this interpretation of the beginning and spread of sugar in the islands (SN 7 [1926]: 615-17). Sugar cane figures appear in the origin myths of at least two Philippine ethnic groups: the Bagobos and the Visayans (Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. [London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-1950], 1:13; and Ma. Fe Hernaez Romero, Negros Occidental Between Two Foreign Powers (1888-1909) [Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1974], p. 12).
2. Ch'en Ching-Ho, The Chinese Community in the Sixteenth Century Philippines (Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1968), pp. 7-9; Wu Ching-Hong, A Study of References to the Philippines in Chinese Sources from Earliest Times to the Ming Dynasty (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1959), pp. 108-10; Fay-Cooper Cole, "The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao," Field Museum of Natural History: Publication 170, , Anthropological Series 12 (1913), p. 85; Francisco Ignacio Alzina, S.J., "Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas, parte mayor y mas importante de las Islas Filipina . . . año 1668," trans. Paul S. Lietz (ms. photocopy at the University of Chicago), bk. 1, pp. 391-99; Guido de Lavezaris and others, "Reply to Fray Martin de Rada," Manila, ca. June 1574, B&R, 3:270; letter from Andrés de Mirandaola to Felipe II, June 8, 1574, B&R, 3:56n.
3. Charles E. Nowell, ed., Magellan's Voyage Around the World (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1962), p. 182; Juan Manuel de la Vega, "Expeditions to the Province of Tuy," Passi, July 3, 1609, B&R, 14:290; Guido de Lavezaris and others, "A Letter from the Royal Officials of the Filipinas Accompanied by a Memorandum of Necessary Things to Be Sent to the Colony," Cebu, May 28, 1565, B&R, 2:190; letter
from Guido de Lavezaris to Felipe II, Manila, July 17, 1574, B&R, 3:276; letter from Juan Pacheco Maldonado to Felipe II, Manila, ca. 1575, B&R, 3:299; Domingo de Salazar and others, "Relation of the Philippine Islands," Manila, June 25, 1588, B&R, 7:34; Domingo de Salazar, "The Chinese and the Parián at Manila," Manila, June 24, 1590, B&R, 7:221; Hernando Riquel and others, "News from the Western Islands," Mexico, January 15, 1574, B&R, 3:245; Andrew Van Hook, Sugar: Its Production, Technology, and Uses (New York: Ronald Press, 1949), pp. 126-36; and Ward Barrett, The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970), pp. 3-4.
4. McHale, Early Technological Innovation , pp. 237-38; Alzina, "Historia de las islas," bk. 2, pp. 17-18; Juan de Medina, O.S.A., Historia de la orden de S. Agustín de estas Islas Filipinas , Manila, 1630, B&R, 23:213; Diego de Bobadilla, S.J., "Relation of the Filipinas Islands," Cádiz, 1640, B&R, 29:297; Anon., "Early Franciscan Missions," Manila, 1649, B&R, 35:320; Hernando de los Rios Coronel, "Memorial and Relation for His Majesty," Madrid, 1621, B&R, 19:285; Nicholas P. Cushner, Landed Estates in the Colonial Philippines , Monograph Series, no. 20 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1976), p. 33.
5. PAR 21 (1928): 78-80; Juan Diez de la Calle, Memorial, y noticias sacras, y reales del imperio de las Indias Occidentales, al mvy catolico . . . rey de las Españas . . . d. Felipe IV (Madrid: n.p., 1646), p. 160v; Francisco Combes, S.J., Historia de Mindanao y Joló (Madrid: Imp. de la Viuda de Minuesa de los Ríos, 1897), p. 49; Philippine Commonwealth, Bureau of Plant Industry, The Manufacture of Basi Sugarcane Wine Is One of the Other Products than Sugar Which Can Be Obtained from Sugar Cane (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1935); "Ordinances of Good Government," B&R, 50:220. In northern Luzon, basi made from fermented cane juice is still widely consumed.
6. Cushner, Landed Estates , pp. 43-44, 64; Dennis Morrow Roth, The Friar Estates in the Philippines (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1977), p. 86.
7. Commercial grades of sugar were exported from the Philippines from the late seventeenth century on, and Chinese boatmen regularly traveled to Pampanga at that time, likely picking up sugar for the foreign dealers in Manila (Juan Francisco de San Antonio, O.F.M., Chrónicas de las apostó1ica provincia de S. Gregorio de religiosos de n.s.p. San Francisco en las Islas Philipinas, China, Japón . . ., 3 vols. (Sampaloc: Juan del Sotillo, 1738-44), 1:77; María Lourdes Díaz-Trechuelo Spinola, "The Role of the Chinese in the Philippine Economy," in The Chinese in the Philippines, 1570-1770 , ed. Alfonso Felix, Jr. (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1966), pp. 187-93; Horacio de la Costa, S.J., Asia and the Philippines (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1967), pp. 115-16.
8. Juan Maldonado de Puga, "The Order of St. John of God," Granada, 1762, B&R, 47:167, 167n; Díaz-Trechuelo, "Role of the Chinese," pp. 204-8.
9. William Lytle Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1939); Leslie E. Bauzon, Deficit Government: Mexico and the Philippine Situado, 1606-1804 (Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1981).
10. Serafin D. Quiason, English "Country Trade" with the Philip-pines, 1644-1765 (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1966); idem, "The English Country Trade with Manila Prior to 1708," Philippine Economic Journal 2 (1963): 201; Nicholas Norton Nicols, "Commerce of the Philippinas Islands and Advantages Which They Can Yield to His Majesty Carlos III," B&R, 47:257; Pierre Chaunu, Les Philippines et le Pacifique des Ibériques (XVIe , XVIIe , XVIIIesiècles): Introduction Méthodologique et Indices d'Activité , Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, VIe Section, Centre de Recherches Historique, Ports—Routes—Trafics XI (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1960); Ruurdje Laarhoven Casiño and Elizabeth Pino Wittermans, "From Blockade to Trade: Early Dutch Relations with Manila, 1600-1750," paper presented at the Ninth Conference of the International Association of Historians of Asia, Manila, November 22, 1983, pp. 16-27
11. Benito Legarda, Jr., "Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1955), p. 188.
12. Maríta Lourdes Díaz-Trechuelo Spinola, La Real Compañía de Filipinas (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 1965), p. 269; María Luisa Rodriguez Baena, La Sociedad Economica de Amigos del Pals de Manila in el Siglo XVIII (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1966); Francisco Gutierrez Creps, Memoria sobre el cultivo, beneficio y comercio del azúcar (Manila: Celestino Miralles, 1878).
13. Centenary of Wise and Company in the Philippines, 1826-1926 (n.p.: n.p., n.d.), p. 101; Legarda, "Foreign Trade," p. 229; Nicholas Tarling, "Some Aspects of British Trade in the Philippines in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of History (Manila) 11 (September-December 1963): 306-11; Peter Mathias, The First Industrial Nation An Economic History of Britain, 1700-1914 (London: Methuen, 1959), pp. 377-81; A. H. P. Edwards to Secretary of State John Forsyth, December 31, 1835, U.S. Consular Reports, Manila, U.S. National Archives.
14. McHale and McHale, Early American-Philippine Trade .
15. McHale, "Early Technological Innovation," p. 238; SN 4 (1923): 545, 6 (1925): 469-70; [Henry Piddington], Remarks on the Philippine Islands and their Capital, Manila, 1819 to 1822: By an Englishman (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1828), pp. 57-60; McHale and McHale, Early American-Philippine Trade , pp. 43-45; Legarda, "Foreign Trade,"
pp. 183-84; Tomás de Comyn, Estado de las islas Filipinas en 1810: brevemente descrito (Madrid: Imp. de Repullés, 1820), pp. 10-11; Jean Mallat de Bassilan, Les Philippines: Histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie, 2 vols. (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1846), 1:133; Charles Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition: During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 , 5 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1856), 5:289; Robert MacMicking, Recollections of Manilla and the Philippines, During 1848, 1849, and 1850 (London: Richard Bentley, 1851), pp. 256-58; Centenary of Wise and Company , p. 88; Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memoria sobre el comercio y navegacion de las Islas Filipinas (Cádiz: Imp. de D. Domingo Féros, 1838), pp. 49-50; G. E. Nesom and Herbert S. Walker, Handbook on the Sugar Industry of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912), pt. 1, p. 13.
16. Field notes of Robert Fox on Balukbuk and Gubat sites, Porac, Pampanga, December 1959 to May 1960, Philippine National Museum Excavations; John A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), chaps. 2-3.
17. On Macapagal's career, see Nicholas P. Cushner, Spain in the Philippines (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1970), p. 107.
18. Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memorias históricas y estadísticas de Filipinas y particularmente de la grande isla de Luzon (Manila: Imp. del Diario de Manila, 1850), chap. 5.
19. Juan de Plasencia, O.S.F., "Customs of the Pampangas in Their Lawsuits," B&R, 16:321-29.
20. Norman G. Owen, "The Principalia in Philippine History: Kabikolan, 1790-1878," Philippine Studies 22 (1974): 297-324.
21. José Basco y Vargas, "A Decree by Basco in 1784," B&R, 52: 291-301. On the need to control manpower in early Southeast Asian history see, e.g., Anthony Reid, "The Structure of Cities in Southeast Asia, Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 9 (September 1980): 243-50.
22. Nicholas P. Cushner and John A. Larkin, "Royal Land Grants in the Colonial Philippines (1571-1626): Implications for the Formation of a Social Elite," Philippine Studies 26 (1978): 102-11.
23. Spaniards introduced the idea of private ownership of land into the Philippines; however, it was the native elite who institutionalized the system throughout the archipelago (Cushner, Landed Estates , pp. 1-3).
24. Edgar Wickberg, "The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History," Journal of Southeast Asian History 5 (March 1964): 62-100.
25. Yldefonso de Aragon, Descripción geográfica y typográfica de la ysla de Luzon ó Nuevo Castilla con las particulares de las diez y seis provincias ó partidos que comprehende (Manila: Imp. de D. Manuel
Memije, por D. Anastacio Gonzaga, 1819), pt. 4:3-38; Francisco Villacorta, O.E.S.A., Administracion espiritual de las padres agustinos calzados de la provincia del Dulce Nombre de Jesus de las Islas Filipinas . . . (Valladolid: Imp. de H. Ro1dan, 1833), pp. 72-82; Illustración Filipina , February 1, 1860, pp. 32-34; February 15, 1860, pp. 43-45.
26. Díaz-Trechuelo, La Real Compañía , p. 269; Dí az Arenas, Memoria sobre el comercio , p. 54; James A. LeRoy, The Americans in the Philippines , 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 1:10.
27. Yldefonso de Aragon, Estados de la población de Filipinas correspondiente a el año de 1818 (Manila: Imp. de D. Manuel Memije, por D. Anastacio Gonzaga, 1820), table 2; Mallat, Les Philippines 1:197.
28. Mariano A. Henson, Mariano A. Henson's Pictorial and Historical Album of the City of Angeles, Pampanga (Angeles: By the author, 1964); idem, A Brief History of the Town of Angeles in the Province of Pampanga, Philippines (San Fernando, Pampanga: Ing Katiwala Press, 1948), pp. 1-3; idem, The Descendants of the Founder of Angeles, Pampanga, Don Angel Pantaleon de Miranda and of Don Severino Henson (Angeles: By the author, 1966); idem, The Hensons of Pampanga (Angeles: By the author, 1948).
29. Coleccion de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organízación de las antiguas posesiones españolas de ultramar , vol. 2, De las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: Royal Academy of History, 1886), pp. 410-18.
30. Miguel de Loarca, "Relation of the Filipinas Islands," B&R, 5:47; Alzina, "Historia de las islas," bk. 3, chap. 5; Robustiano Echaúz, Apuntes de la Isla de Negros (Manila:Chofré y Cia, 1894), pp. 7-8, 94-101; Dean C. Worcester, The Philippine Islands and Their People (New York: Macmillan, 1899), pp. 265-69; Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri, A Voyage to the Philippines (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1963; original, 1699-1700), p. 55; HDP, San Carlos, pp. 13, 31; HDP, Hinigaran, p. 68; Mallat, Les Philippines 1:317-18; letter from Luther Parker to the Director of Education, Manila, January 13, 1913, BS, Visayas, 4:3-6; Timoteo S. Oración, "A Preliminary Report on Some Culture Aspects of the Bukidnons of Southeastern Negros Island, Philippines," Unitas 40 (1967): 156-81; idem, "The Magahats of Southern Negros, Philippines: Problems and Prospects," Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 2 (March-June, 1974): 21-29.
31. HDP, Hinigaran, p,. 40.
32. San Antonio, Chrónicas 1:87; Juan de la Concepción, O.R.S.A., Historia general de Philipinas , 14 vols. (Manila and Sampaloc: Agustin de la Rosa y Balagtas and Hermano Balthasar Marino, 1789-92), 10:14-17, 13:149; Angel Martinez Cuesta, O.A.R., Historia de la Isla de Negros, Filipinas , 1565-1898 (Madrid: Raycar, 1976), pp. 117-18, 127-28; Pedro Murillo Velarde, S.J., Geographia historica de las Islas Philipinas, del
Africa, y de sus islas adyacentes (Madrid: Gabriel Ramirez, 1752), p. 66; Manuel Buzeta, O.S.A., and Felipe Bravo, O.S.A., Diccionario geográfico, estadístico, histórico de las Islas Filipinas , 2 vols. (Madrid: José C. de la Peña, 1851), 2:558-59; Joaquin Martinez de Zúñiga, O.S.A., Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas , 2 vols. (Madrid: Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Ríos, 1893), 2:88; Félix Renouard de Sainte Croix, Voyage commercial et politique aux Indes, aux Iles Philippines, à la Chine . . . . (Paris: Archives de Droit Français, 1810), 2:281; Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, O.S.A., An Historical View of the Philippine Islands , trans. John Maver (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1966; original 1803), p. 83; Anon., "Moro Raids Repulsed by Visayans" (pamphlet published in Manila, 1755), B&R, 48: 48-49; Chretien Louis Joseph de Guignes, "Observations on the Philippine Islands and the Isle de France," in A General Collection of Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in All Parts of the World , ed. John Pinkerton, 17 vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1812), 11:74.
33. Felipe Redondo y Sendino, Breve reseña de lo que fue y de es la diócesis de Cebú en las Islas Filipinas (Manila: Colegio de Sto. Tomás, 1886), pp. 139-44; Fernando Fulgosio, Cronica de las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: Rubio, Grilo y Vitturi, 1871), p. 84; Martinez Cuesta, Historia , pp. 12-15, 22-29, 53-64; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 13-14; letter of Governor Luis Villas, Himamailan, Negros, April 20, 1840, Oficios de la Alcaldia mor y Corregimiento de la Isla de Negros a la Superinteda e Intenda de la Hacienda, 1834-1858, Legajos de Varias Provincias, Negros, PNA; Modesto P. Sa-onoy, A Brief History of the Church in Negros Occidental (Bacolod: By the author, 1976), pp. 13-33.
34. RF 1:345-46; Mallat, Les Philippines 1:319-20; letters of Governor Luis Villas, Himamailan, Negros, February 24, 1834, September 20, 1837, Oficios de la Alcaldia mor y Corregimiento de la Isla de Negros a la Superintenda e Intenda de la Hacienda, 1834-1858, PNA; Zúñiga, Estadismo 2:88; Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario 2:357-58.
35. Concepción, Historia 14:326-28; Echaúz, Apuntes , p. 9; Angel Martinez Cuesta, O.A.R., History of Negros , trans. Alfonso Felix, Jr. (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1980), pp. 124-25, 158; Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y de sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), pp. 56-57. Montilla family tradition has it that Agustin was not really captured by Moros, that, indeed, he removed himself for some time because he had another family elsewhere (letter from Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, Grand Rapids, Michigan, January 7, 1987, to the author). Nevertheless, Montilla's absence clearly raised the level of fear among the Christian denizens of Negros.
36. Mallat, Les Philippines 1:317-18; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 58, 110-12; HDP, Bacolod, Barrio Tangub, p. 34; Gemelli Careri, p. 55.
37. Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 12-13.
38. Varona, Negros , pp. 80-81.
39. Letters from Governor Luis Villas, September 20, 1836, and Governor José Saenz y Vizmanos, March 6, 1841, Himamaylan, Negros, Oficios de la Alcaldia mor y Corregimiento de la Isla de Negros a la Superintenda e Intenda de la Hacienda, 1834-1838, PNA; Gobierno Intendencia de Visayas, Expediente de Don Agustín Montilla, Isla de Negros, 1844, Legajos de Varias Provincias, Negros, PNA.
40. Romero, Negros Occidental , p. 22; Gobierno Intendencia de Visayas, Petition of the principales of Pulupandan, Isla de Negros, 1847, Legajos de Varias Provincias, Negros, PNA; Varona, Negros , pp. 49-54.
41. Varona, Negros , pp. 60-64; A Britisher in the Philippines or the Letters of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Library, 1964), pp, 105-8. Montilla's 1844 petition to establish an agricultural settlement at Pulupandan indicated that, at that time, he had no intention of planting sugar.
42. SN 6 (1925):469; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 22-23; Radicaciones de Estranjeros, Frances , 1838-1898, Petition of Yves Germain Gaston for permanent residence in Negros, October 17, 1844, PNA; A Gathering of the Descendants of Yves Leopold Germain Gaston, Hda. Sta. Rosalia, Manapla, Neg. Occ., Philippines (souvenir program; n.p.: n.p., 1981), pp. 9-11; Romero, Negros Occidental , pp. 22, 32, 35; Radicaciones de Es-paroles , Petition of Don Manuel Saavedra on behalf of his brother José Saavedra for permission to live in Negros, July 28, 1849, PNA; Demy P. Sonza, Sugar Is Sweet: The Story of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1977), p. 85n; Varona, Negros , pp. 141-42.
43. Yldefonso de Aragon, Estados , table 11; Guía de forasteros en las Islas Filipinas, para el año 1847 (Manila: Colegio de Santo Tomás, 1847), pp. 338-39.
44. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 162-63.
1. Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-50), 2:532; Sugar.' Facts and Figures . . . 1952 (Washington, D.C.: United States Cuban Sugar Council, 1952), p. 44.
2. Antonio M. Regidor y Jurado and J. Warren Mason, Commercial Progress in the Philippine Islands (London: n.p., 1905), p. 39.
3. Under Four Flags: The Story of Smith, Bell and Company in the Philippines (Great Britain: n.p., n.d.), chaps. 3, 5; SN 9 (1928):649, 1 (1919):42; Benito Legarda, Jr., "Foreign Trade, Economic Change and Entrepreneurship in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1955), pp. 345-46; Edgar Wickberg, The Chi-
nese in Philippine Life, 1850-1898 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 84-88.
4. Wallace R. Aykroyd, Sweet Malefactor: Sugar, Slavery and Human Society (London: Heinemann, 1967), pp. 82-85, 106; Vladimir P. Timoshenko and Boris C. Swerling, The World's Sugar: Progress and Policy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957), p. 17; SN 6 (1925):471; A Britisher in the Philippines or the Letters of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Library, 1964), p. 71; Alfred S. Eichner, The Emergence of Oligopoly: Sugar Refining as a Case Study (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), pp. 38-42, 230-50; W&G, January 9, 1902, p. 8.
5. Bill Albert and Adrian Graves, eds., Crisis and Change in the International Sugar Economy, 1860-1914 (Norwich and Edinburgh, UK: ISC Press, 1984); C. J. Robertson, World Sugar Production and Consumption: An Economic-Geographical Survey (London: John Bale, Sons, and Danielsson, 1934), pp. 2, 63-64; Jack T. Turner, Marketing of Sugar , Indiana University School of Business, Bureau of Business Research Study, no. 38 (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1955), p. 10; Handbook of the Philippine Sugar Industry , 2d ed. (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1929), pp. 39-42.
6. Deerr, History of Sugar 2:490-491, 531; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Customs, Annual Report of the Insular Collector of Customs for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1913 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1913), pp. 15-16. The 1887 consolidation of American eastern refineries into the Sugar Refineries Company allowed tycoon Henry O. Havemeyer to control raw sugar prices (Luzviminda Bartolome Francisco and Jonathan Shepard Fast, Conspiracy for Empire; Big Business, Corruption and the Politics of Imperialism in America, 1876-1907 [Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985], p. 30).
7. John Foreman, The Philippine Islands , 3d ed. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906), pp. 640-41; MT , October 1, 1900, p. 8; April 3, 1901, p. 4; W&G, February 9, 1905, p. 7; PAR 8 (1915): 152; John A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), chap. 5; Alfred McCoy, "Ylo-ilo: Factional Conflict in a Colonial Economy, Iloilo Province, Philippines, 1937-1955" (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1977), pp. 92-102.
8. PAR 15 (1922): 205-8; Prospectus of the San Carlos Milling Company, Limited (Honolulu: n.p., 1912), p. 4; letter from J. D. Fauntleroy, Supervisor of Negros Occidental, to the President of the Provincial Board, Bacolod, August 25, 1903, BMR; Census: 1903 4:226-28. Rinderpest led to increased cattle rustling in Negros (Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report of the Director of Constabulary for the Fiscal Year 1909 [Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1909], p. 8).
9. Memo from Jose R. Luzuriaga to William H. Taft, Philippine Commission, Manila; February 1904, BIA, File 4122, incl. 7; John A. R. Newlands and Benjamin E. R. Newlands, Sugar: A Handbook for Planters and Refiners (London and New York: Spon, 1909), chap. 25.
10. Report of Jose R. Luzuriaga to the Philippine Commission (ca. 1904), BIA, File 4122, incl. 10; W&G, March 29, 1906, p. 6; April 19, 1906, p. 6; Under Four Flags , chap. 7; Charles Burke Elliott, The Philippines to the End of the Commission Government: A Study in Tropical Democracy (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1917), pp. 370-72; PFP , January 25, 1913, p. 6; MT , May 27, 1914, p, 1.
11. U.S. Congress, Senate, Loss of Spanish Markets for Philippine Sugar and Tobacco by Reason of American Occupation , S. Doc. 484, 60th Cong., 1st. sess., 1908, pp, 1-10; Bonifacio S. Salamanca, The Filipino Reaction to American Rule, 1901-1913 (Hamden, Conn.: Shoe String Press, 1968), pp. 121-39; SN 9 (1928): 651. Congress gave the Philippines tariff concessions only after the U.S. treaty with Spain expired, for it allowed the latter free entry into the American market via the Philippines.
12. Cleve W. Hines, Cane Production and Sugar Manufacture in the Philippine Islands , Government of the Philippine Islands, Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin 33 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1919), pp. 105-202; Deerr, History of Sugar 2:559-77; Eichner, Oligopoly , pp. 31-36; G. H. Jenkins, Introduction to Cane Sugar Technology (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1966), pp. 5-6, 283, 286-87, 325; V. E. Baikow, Manufacture and Refining of Raw Cane Sugar (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967), pp. 4-6. The cost, for example, of the machinery and railway for the first central constructed at San Carlos, Negros Occidental, in 1910 came to $700,000 (Prospectus of the San Carlos Milling Company , p. 2).
13. Francisco Gutierrez Creps, Memoria sobre el cultivo, beneficio y comercio del azúcar (Manila: Celestino Miralies, 1878), pp. 60-74; Paul de la Gironière, Aventures d'un gentilhomme breton aux Iles Philippines (Paris: Firmin Didot Frères, Fils et Cie, 1857), pp. 432-33; Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memoria sobre el comercio y navegacion de las Islas Filipinas (Cádiz: Imp. de D. Domingo Féros, 1838), pp. 49-50; Jean Mallat de Bassilan, Les Philippines: Histoire, géographie, moeurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie , 2 vols. (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1846), 1:132-33; A Gathering of the Descendants of Yves Leopold Germain Gaston, Hda. Sta. Rosalia, Manapla, Neg. Occ., Philippines (souvenir program; n.p.: n.p., 1981), pp. 9-11; Henry T. Ellis, Hong Kong to Manilla and the Lakes of Luzon, in the Philippine Isles, in the Year 1856 (London: Smith, Elder, 1859), p. 96; G. E. Nesom and Herbert S. Walker, Handbook on the Sugar Industry of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912), pt. 1, p. 14; letter of the Luzon Sugar Refining Co. [Smith, Bell and Company, Agents] to the Philippine Commission, Manila, May 27, 1907, BIA, File C-1275, incl. 4.
14. Chamber of Commerce of the Philippine Islands, Yearbook of the Philippine Islands (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1920), p. 156; Philippine Commercial Agencies, comp., Economic Resources and Development in the Philippine Islands (Manila: Philippine Commercial Agencies, 1920), pp. 52-53; PAR 3 (1910): 731, 6 (1913): 76; SN 1 (1919): 13. Carlos Ledesma confirmed the lack of planter interest in farming (interview, Makati, Metro Manila, March 12, 1986).
15. M. J. Lannoy, Iles Philippines (Brussels: Delevingne et Callewaert, 1849), p. 127; Ramon González Fernández and Federico Moreno y Jeréz, Anuario filipino para 1877 (Manila: Est. tip. de Plana, 1877), p. 46; Roy A. Ballinger, A History of Sugar Marketing , Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report, no. 197 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1971), pp. 9-15; Deerr, History of Sugar 2:441-43.
16. RF 2 (May 1877), 225, 230-32; Alexander R. Webb, "The Sugar Industry of the Philippines," U.S. Consular Reports 31 (1889): 375-76; idem, "Sugar and Rice Culture in the Philippine Islands," U.S. Consular Reports 27 (1888): 242. On the classification of Philippine sugar see SN 1 (1919): 18; 1 (1920): 13-15. Manila shipped 19,104 metric tons of pilon sugar to Asian ports in 1906; 19,458 in 1907; 37,734 in 1908; and 20,861 in 1909 (W&G, December 13, 1906, p. 6; February 13, 1908, p. 59; March 4, 1909, p. 86; March 3, 1910, p. 87).
17. SN 4 (1923): 7-15; Philippine Commercial Agencies, Economic Resources , p. 54; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Science, Press Bulletin No. 73 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1917), p. 3; Carlos Quirino, History of the Philippine Sugar Industry (Manila: Kalayaan, 1974), pp. 61-62. The local Pampangan cottage industry of making clay pilones died out at this time as well (HDP, San Fernando). See also SN 7 (1926): 286; PAR 10 (1917): 97; Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 20; MT , November 6, 1919, p. 8; March 13, 1920, p. 8; March 24, 1920, p. 6; PFP , September 27, 1919, p. 9. The shortage of wartime shipping curtailed the ability of exporters to reach markets other than those in Asia (letter from Alfred D. Cooper, Agent for San Carlos Milling Company, to Governor-general Francis Burton Harrison, Manila, July 2, 1918, QP; MDB , March 1, 1918, pp. 1, 4; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Commerce and Industry, Statistical Bulletin No. 3, of the Philippine Islands, 1920 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1921), p. 218; letter from George Fairchild, Manila, to George M. Rolph, Sugar Equalization Board, Washington, D.C., ca. September 1918, BIA, File 4122, incl. 165).
18. John R. Hanson, III, Trade in Transition: Exports from the Third World, 1840-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1980), pp. 119, 124-25; Creps, Memoria , p. 78. After more than three decades of relative stability, from 1870 to 1902 the peso fell in relation to the dollar from 1.0435 to .4152 (Census: 1903 4:563n).
19. Each large Philippine central during the 1923-24 milling season required, on average, more than 5,000 hectares of cane to meet its production needs (SN 6 [1925]: 529). Richard John Gilbert, "The Introduction of American Capital into the Sugar Industry of the Philippines and Its Impact on the Pre-Existing Patterns of Land" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1967), pp. 30-31, 43, 47-49; Mark Aaron Glago, "American Private Capital in the Philippines, 1898-1941" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1966), pp. 16-18; W. Cameron Forbes, The Philippine Islands , 2 vols. (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1928), 2:58-60; Elliott, Tropical Democracy , p. 358; Dean C. Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present , ed. Ralston Hayden (New York: Macmillan, 1930), pp. 590-96.
20. Prospectus of the San Carlos Milling Company , p. 1.
21. Letter from George Fairchild, Manila, to Manuel Luis Quezon, Washington, D.C., May 23, 1917; letter from Charles Willis, New York, to Manuel Luis Quezon, New York, June 15, 1917; letter from George Ross, Pacific Commercial Company, New York, to Manuel Luis Quezon, Manila, March 17, 1918, QP.
22. Glago, "American Private Capital," pp. 18, 25-26, 30-31; Quirino, Philippine Sugar Industry , pp. 49-66; Yoshiko Nagano-kano, The Structure of the Philippine Sugar Industry at the End of the American Colonial Period and After 1974 , Third World Studies Center, Commodity Series, no. 3 (Quezon City: Third World Studies Center, University of the Philippines, 1981), pp. 9-10.
23. Nagano, Structure , pp. 7-11; letter from George Fairchild to Governor-general Francis Burton Harrison, Manila, October 9, 1919; letter from General Venancio Concepcion, President of PNB, to the Board of Directors of PNB, June 21, 1920, QP; PFP , March 22, 1913, p. 8; April 26, 1913, p. 8; M , September 15, 1917, p. 4.
24. MT , February 11, 1919, p. 1; May 25, 1919, p. 2; September 9, 1919, p. 3; August 20, 1968, p. 13; letter from Ernest J. Westerhouse, General Manager of the Manila Railroad Company, to Speaker of the House Sergio Osmeña, Manila, August 2, 1918, QP; First Report of the Hawaiian-Philippine Co., Philippine Islands, Fiscal Years Ended September 30, 1921 and September 30, 1922 (Honolulu: Hawaiian-Philippine Co.), p. 16; PFP , March 8, 1919, p. 19; April 19, 1919, p. 27; MDB , August 25, 1921, p. 19; Compilation of Committee Reports for the Fourth Annual Convention of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, P.I., September Sixth to Tenth, 1926 (Manila: Philippine Sugar Association, 1926), p. 2.
25. On the worldwide frontier phenomenon see William H. McNeill, The Great Frontier: Freedom and Hierarchy in Modern Times (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); and Walter Prescott Webb, The Great Frontier (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1951), chaps. 1-6. See also
John A. Larkin, "Philippine History Reconsidered: A Socioeconomic Perspective," American Historical Review 87 (June 1982): 612-24.
26. HDP, Hinigaran, pp. 2, 87, 117; HDP, San Carlos, pp. 17-18; HDP, Pontevedra, pp. 1-2, 4; HDP, Saravia, pp. 2, 26, 37-38; McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," p. 81; RF 2 (1875): 146; letter from Acting Consul Nicholas Loney, Manila, to Foreign Secretary Lord Edward Stanley, London, January 31, 1867, PRO, F.O. 72/1155; A Britisher , p. 109; letter from A. A. Forshee, Bacolod, to T. S. Barbour, Boston, February 9, 1909, BMR.
27. Robustiano Echaúz, Apuntes de la Isla de Negros (Manila: Chofré y Cia, 1894), pp. 15-17; Angel Martinez Cuesta, O.A.R., History of Negros , trans. Alfonso Felix, Jr. (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1980), p. 222; Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), p. 27; Loney to Farren, July 10, 1861, p. 25; Marcelino Simonena, O.A.R., Father Fernando Cuenca of St. Joseph, Augustinian Recollect , trans. Ma. Soledad L. Locsin (Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1974), pp. 14-16, 21-28; Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memorias históricas y estadísticas de Filipinas y particularmente de la grande isla de Luzon (Manila: Imp. del Diario de Manila, 1850), cuaderno 17, no. 6.
28. Alfred W. McCoy, "A Queen Dies Slowly: The Rise and Decline of Iloilo City," in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations , ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), pp. 303-7; Wickberg, The Chinese, p. 77; John T. Omohundro, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo: Commerce and Kin in a Central Philippine City (Quezon City and Athens, Ohio: Ateneo de Manila University Press and Ohio University Press, 1981), p. 16; Varona, Negros , pp. 27-31; Proclamation and Inauguration of the City of Cadiz (Cadiz, Negros Occidental: n.p., 1966), p. 34; Saravia Centennial Anniversary and Inauguration of the New Town Hall (Saravia, Negros Occidental: n.p., 1959), p. 1.
29. McCoy, "Queen," pp. 308-9; Demy P. Sonza, Sugar Is Sweet: The Story of Nicholas Loney (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1977), pp. viii, 138; A Britisher , pp. 66-67. Annual sugar exports from Iloilo rose from 759 metric tons in 1855 to 141,614 in 1920 (McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," p. 26).
30. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 231-32; HDP, San Carlos, pp. 31, 41, 53-54, 57; W&G, December 23, 1908, p. 448; M , May 15, 1918, p. 3; July 31, 1918, p. 3. In 1918, 6.5 percent of land in Negros Occidental devoted to agriculture was still classified as public lands, meaning, presumably, land recently homesteaded (Census: 1918 3:218-19).
31. Information on property ownership comes in large part from notarial registers in the Philippine National Archives, Manila. Until 1902, they were called protocolos , thereafter notarios . They contain lists and descriptions of notarized documents including a wide variety of contracts relating to real estate and agricultural matters. The books I consulted do
not constitute even a third of those available for the period, but they do appear to be representative of the whole. The numbers of the books used, which do not refer to dates, are Protocolos , 1723-49, 1806-10, 1815-19; Norarios , 7545, 7548, 7550, 7551, 7552, 7555, 7562, 7564, 7585, 7586, 8170-72, 8179, 8195, 8855, 8857, 10320, 15580, 15631.
Of those names on the list of gobernadorcillos of Hinigaran in the period 1806 to 1844, only two, Mongcal and Grijaldo, appear on the 1896 list of Negros sugarland owners or in the protocolos ; see HDP, Hinigaran, p. 3; Estadisticas , Negros Occidental, 1896, PNA; Protocolo , 1874, Negros Occidental, PNA. On Valderrama and Juan Araneta, see Modesto P. Sa-onoy, Valderrarna (Bacolod: Negros Historical Commission, 1979), chaps. 1, 2; SN 13 (1932): 698-99; "Negros News" by W. O. Valentine, ca. 1923, W. O. Valentine file, BMR; Varona, Negros , p. 75; Protocolos , 1808, 1818, Negros Occidental, PNA.
32. Estadisticas , Negros Occidental, 1896, PNA; Census: 1918 2:380; Census: 1939 , 1, pt. 3, pp. 7-8; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 255, 376; Simonena, Father Fernando , p. 7; M , July 31, 1915, p. 3; "History of Silay" (Silay: n.p., ca. 1959), p. 1. (mimeo); Protocolos , 1738, 1739, 1746, Negros Occidental, PNA.
The Clavaria Law of 1849 stipulated that all native Filipinos had to have last names, and for those who did not, mostly the poor, a list of names was supplied from an alphabetical roster of some sixty thousand Spanish names. Towns were supplied sections of the list, and people in a given locality tended to be assigned surnames beginning with the same letter. In numerous barrios in Negros, this phenomenon of a common first letter occurs, heuristic evidence of a common place of origin on a neighboring island. See, for example, HDP, Pontevedra, p. 9. See also McCoy, "Queen," pp. 317-22; McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," p. 72; Loney to Farren, July 10, 1861, p. 10; John R. White, Bullets and Bolos (New York: Century, 1928), pp. 55-56.
33. Protocolos, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA; White, Bullets , pp. 40-41, 44; Webb, "Sugar industry," p. 375; SN 12 (1931): 283-84; 14 (1933): 92-93, 622-24; HDP, San Carlos, p. 23; Simonena, Father Fernando , p. 23; Rámon Martínez Vigil, O.P., Elementos de geografía descriptiva particularmente de las Islas Filipinas (Manila: El Colegio de Sto. Tomás, 1895), p. 89; Radicaciones de Estranjeros, Aleman , January 29, 1857, PNA; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 255; Manuel Azcarraga y Palermo, La Libertad de cornercio en las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: José Noguera, 1871), pp. 168-69; Sonza, Sugar Is Sweet , chap. 18; letter from Nicholas Loney, Madrid, to James Murray, Foreign Office, London, December 31, 1862, p. 3, PRO, F.O. 72/1042; SN 12 (1931): 283-84; 14 (1933): 92-93; PFP , September 18, 1909, p. 6; July 25, 1914, p. 5.
34. Oscar Lopez, ed., The Lopez Family: Its Origins and Genealogy , 4 vols. (Manila: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1982), provides information on 2,676 heirs of Basilio and Maria Sabina Jaranilla Jalandoni through seven generations. See also McCoy, "Ylo-ilo," pp. 65-72.
35. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, sec. vii; HDP, Hinigaran, p. 83; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 261-62; White, Bullets , p. 180.
36. The usual equivalents were as follows: One ganta of rice or corn seedlings plants 20 ares of land. Five gantas of rice or corn seedlings plant 1 hectare of land. One cavan of rice or corn seedlings plants 5 hectares of land. One lacsa equals 10,000 cane points, and 2 lacsas and a fraction plant 1 hectare, the exact amount dependent on the quality of the land; the better the land, the more points could be planted. As late as 1886, farmers in Negros were complaining about the lack of a land registration system (Miguel Pérez et al., "Crónica semihistoria de Filipinas yen especial de las Islas Visayas desde 1877 a 1887" [ms., Newberry Library], p. 3).
37. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , pp. 378-87; Notarios , 7562, 7564, Negros Occidental, PNA; M , December 15, 1917, p. 3; letter from G. Seaver, Field Investigator, Manila, to Archibald Harrison, Secretary of the PNB, August 15, 1918, QP. On colonial land laws see Vicente J. Francisco, The Cadastral Act, Public Land Act, and Laws on Mortgages (Manila: East Publishing, 1938).
38. Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 387; Karl J. Pelzer, Pioneer Settlement in the Asiatic Tropics (New York: American Geographical Society, 1948), pp. 108-10; "The Torrens Title System of Registration in the Philippines," June 25, 1915, BIA, File 1762, incl. 47-a; Vicente Mills, Planned Surveys , Philippine Commonwealth, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Technical Bulletin, no. 8 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1937), pp. 138-41; MT , March 28, 1920, p. 13; M , May 6, 1915, p. 2; May 20, 1915, p. 3; Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA.
39. McCoy, "Queen," pp. 320-22; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 297; White, Bullets , pp. 156-57; HDP, Victorias, p. 51; M , July 10, 1920, p. 1; July 21, 1920, p. 4. In Negros in 1970, the biggest scandal was the use of bulldozers by the mayor of Cadiz to drive swidden farmers off upland portions of that municipality so he could plant sugar.
40. Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 94-101; PFP , August 14, 1920, p. 38; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report . . . 1913 , p. 4; letter concerning the Dacongcogon Settlement Farm School, from Secundino M. Amantoy, Kabankalan, September 18, 1982, to the author; Niall O'Brien, Seeds of Injustice: Reflections on the Murder Frame-up of the Negros Nine in the Philippines (Dublin: O'Brien Press, 1985).
41. RF 2 (1875): 146; Estadisticas , Negros Occidental, 1896, PNA;
Protocolos , Negros Occidental, PNA; Varona, Negros , p. 155. Newspapers listing haciendas for sale included El Eco de Panay (Iloilo), March 8, 1887, p. 4; LI , April 6, 1907, p. 2; M , June 19, 1920, p. 2. The twelve families with the largest land holdings in 1896 were Yulo, 3,453 hectares; Lacson, 1,883 hectares; de la Rama, 1,663 hectares; Lopez, 1,440 hectares; Locsin, 1,258 hectares; Benedicto, 1,139 hectares; Montilla, 1,116 hectares; de Luzuriaga, 1,113 hectares; Ledesma, 1,067 hectares; Ardosa, 1,028 hectares; Gonzaga, 939 hectares; and de Canete, 900 hectares.
42. Varona, Negros , pp. 69-72, 110-13, 125-26, 134-35; Felix B. Regalado and Quintin B. Franco, History of Panay (Jaro, Iloilo City: Central Philippine University, 1973), pp. 474-76.
43. Loney to Farren, April 12, 1857, pp. 64-65; Varona, Negros , pp. 84, 147-49; Nesom and Walker, Handbook , pt. 1, p. 14; McCoy, "Queen," p. 310; Legarda, "Foreign Trade," pp. 466-74; Pérez et al., "Crónica," p. 3; A Gathering , pp. 13-14, 34; M , June 5, 1913, p. 2; December 27, 1913, p. 4; May 11, 1915, p. 3; May 8, 1918, p. 3; LI , June 11, 1906, p. 1; Protocolos, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA. Even the PNB, on occasion, gave anticipatory crop loans to bad risks. On the wide range of creditors of Russell, Sturgis, see E. H. Green vs. Estate of Jonathan Russell, ms. 1247, Baker Library, Harvard University.
44. M , August 12, 1915, p. 2.
45. Jaime Escobar y Lozano, El indicador del viajero en las Islas Filipinas (Manila: Chofré, 1885), p. 137; John Foreman, The Philippine Islands (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1892), pp. 474-75; Henry Savage Landor, The Gems of the East , 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1904), 2:272; William Thomas Townsend, Personal Diary, December 13, 1903-May 2, 1907, Houghton Library, Harvard University; LL , October 3, 1899, p. 3; April 7, 1900, p. 3; LI , May 1906-April 1907; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Education, Local Geographical and Historical Notes: Province of Occidental Negros (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1915), pp. 3-4; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1916, BIA, pp. 7, 11; M , October 1917-October 1920; Varona, Negros , pp. 76-77; White, Bullets , p. 118; Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, Trip to Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, p. 38; SN 1 (1919): frontispiece; Felicidad A. Jugo, "Classes of Society in Occidental Negros," BS, p. 1; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 30-31.
46. A Gathering , pp. 15-16; Varona, Negros , pp. 149-50, 156-58; Francisco Sádaba del Carmen, O.R.S.A., Catálogo de Los religiosos agustinos recoletos de la Provincia de San Nicolás de Tolentino de Filipinas . . . (Madrid: Imp. del Asilo de Huérfanos del Sagrada Corazún de Jesús, 1906), pp. 862-63, 865; Cavada, Historia 2:327; Melecio B. Lamayo, "Social and Economic Condition of My' Town," BS, pp. 1-4; Doreen Fernandez, The Iloilo Zarzuela: 1903-1930 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1978), p. xii; El Eco de Panay , March 8, 1887, p. 3; MT , September
11, 1901, pp. 2-3, 6; M , 1913-1920; White, Bullets , p. 27; HDP, Bacolod, p. 10; PFP , July 18, 1914, p. 5; June 12,1920, p. 36; John Arnold, ed., The Philippines: The Land of Palm and Pine (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1912), p. 143.
47. "Relacion de las Haciendas en la jurisdiccion de este pueblo [Eustaquio Lopez] con Los nombres de Los propietarios y de Los encargados y numero de jornaleros que trabajan en cada una de ellos," Record Group 395, 2620 Division of Visayas, U.S. National Archives. See also Edith Steinmetz, Report, Bacolod, 1907, BMR; Echaúz, Apuntes , p. 43; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 442; Pérez et al., "Crónica," p. 1. The Annual Report of the Governor, Negros Occidental, 1908, BIA, p. 7, notes a drop in the number of sugar plantations, from 678 in 1905 to 326 in the current year, a result of harsh economic conditions.
48. PFP , February 3, 1912, p. 30. In 1903, of 2,013 farms 10 hectares or larger (not specifying crop, but probably including the bulk of the sugar farms), 160 were operated by cash tenants and 241 by share tenants. In 1918, the figures were 3,322 farms, 275 cash tenants and 430 share tenants. In both years almost all the other farms were owner operated or managed by salaried workers (Census: 1903 4:273; Census: 1918 3:107). See also M , October 18, 1917, p. 1; January 12, 1918, p. 2; Loney to Farren, July 10, 1861, pp. 9, 14-15; Memoria, Negros Occidental, 1890, PNA, pp. 18-19; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 43-45; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 315; Protocolo , 1817, Notarios , 7550-52, 7555, 7564, 7585-86, 8171-72, 8195, 10320, 10362, Negros Occidental, PNA.
49. Renacimiento Filipino , September 14, 1911, pp. 328-30; Echaúz, Apuntes , chap. 9; Webb, "Sugar Industry," pp. 375-76.
50. Tomas Concepcion, "Native Marriage Customs in Occidental Negros [ca. 1918]," BS, p. 7; M , November 4, 1916, p. 3; Romualdo M. Araneta, "Social Classes and Beliefs of the People in Bago, Occ. Negros," BS, pp. 1-4; mission letter of Archibald A. Forshee, Bacolod, March 11, 1903, BMR.
51. Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 160-63.
52. Renacimiento Filipino , November 7, 1911, pp. 580-81; Echaúz, Apuntes , pp. 61-63, 160-63; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 317; M , October 3, 1920, p. 3; the tax list shows 805 Chinese in Negros in 1894, about 90 percent of whom worked as "jornaleros," perhaps in sugar mills (Gobierno Politico Militar de la Provincia de Negros Occidental, "Empadronamiento general de Los Chinos de esta provincia . . . fecha 16 de Marzo ultimo," PNA).
53. "Relacion de las haciendas enclavadas en la jurisdiccion de este pueblo . . . [Silay]," December 12, 1900; "Relacion de Los Hacenderos dentro de la jurisdiccion de este pueblo [Guimbalaon] y el numero total de sus operarios," January 17, 1901, Record Group 395, 2620 Division of the Visayas, U.S. National Archives; Edith Steinmetz, "A Short Trip in the
Philippines," Bacolod, 1908, BMR; Renacimiento Filipino , September 14, 1911, p. 329; November 7, 1911, p. 580; Yves Henry, Technical and Financial Conditions of the Production of Sugar in the Philippines , trans. Irwin McNiece (Manila: Philippine Sugar Association, 1929), pp. 53-54; Landor, Gems 2:274; MT , December 12, 1919, p. 2; letter from Stephen Hise, Bacolod, to F. P. Haggard, Boston, April 21, 1902, BMR; Protocolos , 1817, 1818, Negros Occidental, PNA.
54. Notario , 7564, Negros Occidental, PNA; José Felipe del Pan, Las Islas Filipinas, progresos en 70 años (Manila: Imp. de la Oceania Española, 1878), p. 379; M , December 27, 1913, p. 1; November 13, 1920, pp. 1-2; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1892), p. 449; SN 1 (1920): 3-4; PFP , February 6, 1915, p. 7; Gobierno P.M. del Distrito de Isla de Negros, "Novedades, Varias Provincias," April 30, 1875 [Bacolod], Legajos de Negros, PNA.
55. White, Bullets , pp. 160-61; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1903 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), pt. 3, p. 122; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 200; Philippine Islands, Constabulary, Annual Report . . . 1911 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1911), p. 6.
56. Protocolos , 1807, 1817, 1818, Negros Occidental, PNA; Martinez Cuesta, History of Negros , p. 232; M , 1913-20, passim; White, Bullets , pp. 52-53, 110-14, 117-18; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report . . . 1905 , pt. 3, p. 88; Emilio Tarrosa, "The Life of the People of Negros Occidental in the Last Half of the Nineteenth Century as Told by the Traditions," BS, pp. 10-11; Memoria 1890, Negros Occidental, PNA; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1906, BIA, p. 6; Díaz Arenas, Memorias , "Suplemento y Adiciones", BIA, File 1184, incls. 14, 28. Information on appointed and elected officials in Negros can be found in Elecciones , Negros, PNA, various guias , and most twentieth-century Philippine newspapers.
57. Ignacio Villamor, Criminality in the Philippine Islands, 1903-1908 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1909), p. 75.
58. Memoria 1890, Negros Occidental, PNA; Pérez et al., "Crónica," pp. 3-4; PFP , October 3, 1908, p. 3; June 18, 1910, p. 12; March 30, 1918, pp. 18, 20-21; SN 1 (1919): 26-27; 1 (1920): 3-4; 2 (1921): 486-87. Gilbert ("American Capital," p. 16) asserts that competition from a rising number of hemp and coconut plantations caused a shortage of migrant labor in Negros in the 1890s.
59. Letterbook, 1900, Record Group 395, 4340 Manapla Detachment, U.S. National Archives; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1903, BIA, p. 13; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1910, BIA, p. 4.
60. MT , August 28, 1919, p. 5; Circular 21, Philippine Constabulary, BIA, File 1184, incl. 132; the Insular Lumber Company, BIA File 11457;
Negros-Philippine Lumber Company, BIA, File 27419. Extensive information exists on public and private education on Negros; see, for example: Evergisto Bazaco, O.P., History of Education in the Philippines , 2d ed. (Manila: University of Santo Tomas Press, 1953), pp. 305-11; Guía oficial de Filipinas, 1889 , 2 vols. (Manila: M. Pérez, 1888), 2:274; LI , May 9, 1906-July 26, 1906; M , April 24, 1918, p. 4; June 2, 1918, p. 4.
61. Tarrosa, "The Life," p. 10.
62. Capagmasusian Qñg Aldo Pañgasilang Ning Magalang [The Souvenir Program on the Founding Day of Magalang, December 13, 1863-December 13, 1954] (Magalang, Pampanga: n.p., 1954), pp. 19-33. See also Larkin, Pampangans , chaps. 4-8.
63. "Datos historicos de este municipio de Mexico, provincia de la Pampanga, Islas Filipinas," LPC, pp. 3-4; Macario G. Naval, "Pottery and Pilon-Making in Santo Tomas, Pampanga," BS; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Education, Local Geographical and Historical Notes: Province of Pampanga (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1915), pp. 4-6.
64. Tarlac Province: 100th Year Anniversary, December 25-30, 1974, souvenir program (n.p.: n.p., 1974); Census: 1903 2:203-4; Census: 1918 2:249-251; Protocolos, Notarios , Pampanga, PNA. Nineteenth-century Capampangan pioneers into southern Tarlac included Braulio Aquino and Pablo Quiambao, great-grandfathers of Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr. (Nick Joaquin, The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations [Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Cacho Hermanos, 1983], pp. 26-30).
65. Yldefonso de Aragon, Descripción geográfica y topográfica de la ysla de Luzon ó Nueva Castilla con las particulates de las diez y seis provincias ó partidos que comprehende (Manila: Imp. de D. Manuel Memije, por D. Anastacio Gonzaga, 1819), pt. 4, pp. 2-17; Alfred Marche, Luçon et Palaouan: Six Années de Voyages aux Philippines (Paris: Librairie Hachette et Cie, 1887), pp. 180-81; "Gobierno Municipal de Floridabianca, Provincia de la Pampanga, I.F.," LPC, p. 2; Cavada, Historia , 1:162; Census: 1903 4:235.
66. Gonzá1ez Fernández and Moreno, Anuario . . . 1877, advertisement section, Almacen Santo Cristo, n.p.; Notario 10818, entry for January 15, 1915, Pampanga, PNA; interviews with three former workers at Joven's factory, Bacolor, August 11, 1964.
67. Provincia de la Pampanga, Padron, 1887-88, Serie la, Españoles, PNA; Terrenos de la Pampanga, Expedientes Nos. 31, 39, 40, 42, PNA; Mariano A. Henson, A Brief History of the Town of Angeles in the Province of Pampanga, Philippines (San Fernando, Pampanga: Ing Kati-wala Press, 1948), p. 10n; Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's Wife (New York: D. Appleton, 1908), p. 62. Pardo de Tavara owned the farm in Floridablanca from 1901 until 1908 and also held a big agricultural property in Tarlac, Tarlac, until July 1920 (Larkin, Pampangans , p. 191n; Notario 21068, entry of July 16, 1920, Pampanga, PNA). His active in-
volvement in extending spurs of the Manila-Dagupan Railroad toward both Floridablanca and Magalang hints that he may have profited handsomely from his ownership of these properties of more than 100 hectares each.
68. Information on the commercial agricultural activities in Pampanga comes from the notarial registers in the Philippine National Archives. See Larkin, Parnpangans , pp. 72-73n, 211n, 279n; John A. Larkin, "The Causes of an Involuted Society: A Theoretical Approach to Rural Southeast Asian History," Journal of Asian Studies 30 (1971): 793.
69. Rural Credit Associations, BIA, File 26692, incls. 26-a, 47; LI , May 25, 1906-October 26, 1906; PFP , March 20, 1909, p. 12; February 13, 1915, p. 1; November 21, 1914, p. 30; M , May 4, 1918, p. 2.
70. Marshall S. McLennan, The Central Luzon Plain: Land and Society on the Inland Frontier (Quezon City: Alemar-Phoenix, 1980), pp. 94-95; letter concerning the application of Don Roberto Toledo y Gil to reside in Pampanga, October 16, 1854, Radicaciones de Españoles , PNA; "Gobierno Municipal de Floridablanca . . . ," pp. 1-4; SN 1 (1920), frontispiece to no. 15; PFP , October 24, 1908, p. 4; Nesom and Walker, Handbook , pt. 1, p. 19.
71. Manuel Buzeta, O.S.A., and Felipe Bravo, O.S.A., Diccionario geográfico, estadístico, histórico de las lslas Filipinas , 2 vols. (Madrid: José C. de la Peña, 1851), 1:190; Frederic H. Sawyer, The Inhabitants of the Philippines (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1900), pp. 239-40; Foreman, Philippine Islands (1906), pp. 273-74; "A Report on Economic Conditions, Pampanga Province, San Fernando, Mexico, Minalin, Guagua, Lubao and Arayat. Prepared by the Class in Economics and Mrs. Lois Stewart Osborn, [of Pampanga High School]," San Fernando, ca. 1915. (typewritten), BIA, File 363, incl. 296, Exhibit L.
72. Letter from Agricultural Supervisor N. P. Creager, Bacolor, to Chief of the Bureau of Agriculture F. Lamson, Manila, August 14, 1903, BIA, File 2403, incl. 27; PFP , July 1, 1911, pp. 18, 20, 29; MT October 12, 1919, p. 4; letter from Director of the Bureau of Labor Faustino Aguilar, Manila, to Senate President Manuel Quezon, August 2, 1918, QP; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, Labor: Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1920), 2, no. 5, p. 10; no. 6, p. 28.
73. Will of Jose Mariano Panlilio executed in 1852; will of Vicente Lim-Ongco executed in 1854; Protocolo , 1847, Pampanga, PNA. On the business dealings of Jose Puig, see Protocolos , 1920, 1921, 1923, 1929, 1931, 1932, 1933 for the years 1890-94, Pampanga, PNA. Though a Spaniard, Puig remained a farmer in Pampanga after the coming of the American regime; see U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report . . . 1907 , Appendix, 810. On Pamintuan see Notario 21090, entry of November 19, 1918, Pampanga, PNA. On the other magnates see Larkin, Parnpangans , p. 212n; Notario 12225, entry of July 29, 1919, Pampanga, PNA.
74. Jose Rizal, The Lost Eden (Noli me Tangere ), trans. Leon Ma. Guerrero (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961), p. 28; Soledad Borromeo-Buehler, "The Inquilinos of Cavite: A Social Class in Nine-teenth-Century Philippines," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 16 (March 1985): 80-81; will of Don Florentino Dayrit executed September 2, 1897, Protocolo 1944, Pampanga, PNA.
75. U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report . . . 1907 , Appendix, 800, 810-12; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1901. Report of the Philippine Commission (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901), pt. 2, p. 16; Forbes, Philippine Islands , 1:300.
76. "A Report on Economic Conditions."
77. Larkin, Pampangans , pp. 97,118n, 185-200, 263-69; MT , July 27, 1964, p. 19.
78. Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario ; Bazaco, Education , pp. 230, 305-10; Mills, Planned Surveys , pp. 148-51, 272-73.
79. José Fernández Giner, Filipinas: Notas de viaje y de estancia (Madrid: Administración, 1889), pp. 76-88; PFP , July 11, 1914, p. 26. The practice of using intermarriage, even first cousin marriage, to ensure continued family ownership of property is widely employed in the Philippines among both Christians and Muslims; see, for example, Thomas M. Kiefer, The Tausug: Violence and Law in a Philippine Moslem Society (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972), p. 40.
80. John A. Larkin, "The Capampangan Zarzuela: Theater for a Provincial Elite," in Southeast Asia Transitions: Approaches through Social History , ed. Ruth T. McVey (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 158-90; Ramon C. Aquino, A Chance to Die: A Biography of Jose Abad Santos, Late Chief Justice of the Philippines (Quezon City: Alemar-Phoenix, 1967), pp. 8-10; Guía de forasteros en Filipinas, para el año de 1865 (Manila: Los Amigos del Pals, 1865), p. 88.
81. Memoria de Pampanga, 1890, PNA; PAR 15 (Summer 1927): 93-94; MDB , April 21, 1920, p. 6; MT , April 25, 1920, p. 6.
82. In addition to signing contracts with Toledo and Gonzalez (2,500 hectares), Pasumil also acquired contractual rights to the cane of the Dinalupihan estate of neighboring Bataan Province, and these three holdings provided a strong base of lands upon which the Canlubang interests could construct their central; see MDB , December 1, 1919, p. 5; November 12, 1920, p. 4; June 13, 1921, p. 2; SN 1 (1920), frontispiece to no. 16.
83. SN 32 (1956): 1-3; Notarios 12229, 21069, 21209, 23602, Pampanga, PNA.
84. Notarios , Pampanga, PNA.
85. Some farmers in Magalang tried to convert their tenants into wage laborers at this time (interview with planter Alfredo Ganzon, Angeles,
June 21, 1964). The notion of using tenants in depressed periods was confirmed in the March 12, 1986, interview with Mr. Carlos Ledesma.
86. The imbalance in favor of sugar reached a crisis between 1918 and 1920, when natural calamities and the World War I-induced shortage of ship bottoms led to a scarcity of imported grain that caused extensive starvation and rioting in sugar-prosperous Negros and Pampanga (M, March 6, 1918-January 14,, 1920; MT , January 2, 1919-May 18, 1920; "Synopsis of Constabulary' Reports of Food Shortage and Help Afforded by Constabulary," Memorandum to the Chief of Constabulary, Manila, September 20, 1919, QP).
87. Willem Wolters, "A Comparison Between the Taxation Systems in the Philippines Under Spanish Rule and Indonesia Under Dutch Rule During the 19th Century," Asian Studies 21 (April, August, December 1983): 79-106; Frank H. Golay, "The Search for Revenues," in Reappraising an Empire: New Perspectives on Philippine-American History , ed. Peter W. Stanley (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 231-60; PAR 1 (1908): 432-37.
88. The following quotation reveals in a noneconomic context the difficulty Negrense planters had in organizing:
Nearly every haciendero (in Negros) is possessed of rifles and shot-guns, ranging in number from one to ten or a dozen. They are not to be relied upon as an adjunct to the constabulary or municipal police, for each haciendero looks out for his own first and the public welfare afterwards. There is no such thing, as we have in the States, of the people of a locality arming themselves to resist the raids of outlaws or to form a posse to go to the assistance of their neighbors or to aid municipal police or the constabulary.
(U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Sixth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1906 [Washington: Government Printing Office, 1906], pt. 3, p. 88)
1. Dennis Morrow Roth, "Philippine Forests and Forestry, 1565-1920," in Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth-Century World Economy , ed. Richard Tucker and J. F. Richards (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1983), p. 33.
2. SN 14 (1933): 341-43.
3. M , September 11, 1920, p. 1.
4. Memorandum from Secretary of Agriculture, Island of Negros, Juan Araneta, Ma-ao, to The Military Governor of Negros, November 30, 1900, U.S. War Department, Record Group 395, Department of Visayas, 3rd District, 2620, U.S. National Archives; John R. White, Bullets and Bolos (New York: Century, 1928), pp. 44-46.
5. PFP , May 20, 1911, p. 5. Liongson's attitude toward his agricultural enterprise contrasts sharply with that of eighteenth-century Virginia's tobacco planters, who took enormous pride in the quality of their own crops and measured each other's social status by that quality. This difference in attitude may in part reflect the difference in the stringent requirements for growing tobacco, as opposed to the more lax techniques possible for raising sugar; see T. H. Breen, Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), chap. 2.
6. White, Bullets , pp. 49-50.
7. PFP , February 26, 1910, p. 1.
8. José Maria Mourin, "Recuerdos de una expedicion á la Pampanga en Diciembre de 1876" (ms., Newberry Library), pp. 19-20, 50-52. See also Ferdinand Alençon, Luçon et Mindanao (Paris: Michel Lévy Frères, 1870), pp. 58-79.
9. John Foreman, The Philippine Islands (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1892), pp. 447-48.
10. Gilda Cordero-Fernando, ed., The Culinary Culture of the Philippines (Manila: Bancom, 1976), pp. 14-15.
11. White, Bullets , p. 30.
12. Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's Wife (New York: D. Appleton, 1908), pp. 65-66. White (Bullets , p. 118) observed this same change over generations, although he attributes it—wrongly, I think—to reversion to traditional ways in old age.
13. PFP , June 26, 1915, p. 10. See also LI , June 11, 1906-December 20, 1906.
14. Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y de sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), pp. 138-39.
15. PFP , June 24, 1916, p. 8; May 12, 1917, p. 21.
16. Miguel Pérez et al., "Crónica semihistoria de Filipinas yen especial de las Islas Visayas desde 1877 a 1887" (ms., Newberry Library), pp. 1-2.
17. PFP , July 12, 1913, p. 20. See also Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1906, BIA, pp. 1-2; Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1909, BIA, pp. 1-4; letter from Charles Cox, Coast and Geodetic Survey, near Iloilo, April 21, 1907, to his father, Pittsfield, Ill. (sent to the BIA by the latter), File C1242, incl. 55; W&G, December 23, 1908, p. 447.
18. M , February 26, 1916, p. 2.
19. Ibid., June 16, 1920, p. 3.
18. M , February 26, 1916, p. 2.
19. Ibid., June 16, 1920, p. 3.
20. Letter from La Camara de Comercio Filipino, Manila, April 22, 1912, to Resident Commissioners Benito Legarda and Manuel Luis Quezon, Washington, D.C., QP; MDB , November 23, 1914; August 1, 1921, p. 4; PFP , June 7, 1913, p. 20; June 21, 1913, p. 23; August 3, 1918, p. 27; M , May 30, 1913, p. 2; PAR 2 (1909): 662.
21. PFP , December 4, 1915, p. 13. See also MT , April 23, 1919, p. 7; PFP , January 13, 1917, p. 1; May 9, 1925, p. 42.
22. Daniel F. Doeppers,. Manila, 1900-1941: Social Change in a Late Colonial Metropolis (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1984), pp. 56-58.
23. MT , February 24, 1920, p. 9.
24. M , May 11, 1918, p. 2.
25. PFP , October 10, 1908, p. 15.
26. LI , July 26, 1906, p. 2.
27. U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1900-1901 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1901), pt. 2, p. 80.
28. Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, Trip to Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, p. 39.
29. Ibid., p. 38; MT , May 22, 1900, p. 1; Manuel Gatbonton, Ing Candawe (n.p.: n.p., 1933), p. 52; brief sketch of Aniceto Lacson in Philippine who's who, ca. 1905, in author's possession.
28. Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, Trip to Negros Occidental, 1901, BIA, p. 39.
29. Ibid., p. 38; MT , May 22, 1900, p. 1; Manuel Gatbonton, Ing Candawe (n.p.: n.p., 1933), p. 52; brief sketch of Aniceto Lacson in Philippine who's who, ca. 1905, in author's possession.
30. Alfred W. McCoy, "'Muy Noble y Muy Leal': Revolution and Counterrevolution in the Western Visayas, Philippines, 1896-1907" (unpublished paper); Ma. Fe Hernaez Romero, Negros Occidental Between Two Foreign Powers (1888-1909) (Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1974); Milagros C. Guerrero, "Luzon at War: Contradictions in Philippine Society, 1898-1902" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1977); John A. Larkin, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), chap. 5.
31. "Expediente sobre propuesta para. que se conceda el dictado de 'Muy Leal' a la provincia de la Pampanga, 15 Octobre 1897," Legajo de Pampanga, PNA.
32. C. R. Fuentes, Apuntes documentados de la revolución en toda la Isla de Negros (Iloilo: El Centinela, 1919), p. 128. See also letter from General E. S. Otis, Military Governor, Manila, to Adjutant General, U.S. Army, July 23, 1899, BIA, File 979, incl. 13; instructions from Apolinario Mabini, Malolos, to Commissioner to Negros Zoilo Mauricio, March 23, 1899, in The Philippine Insurrection Against the United States , ed. John R. M. Taylor (Pasay City, Philippines: Eugenio Lopez Foundation, 1971), 5:624.
33. Letter from Aniceto Lacson, Bacolod, May 27, 1899, to President William McKinley, BIA, File 979, incl. 5, p. 2.
34. Richard John Gilbert, "The Introduction of American Capital into the Sugar Industry of the Philippines and Its Impact on the Pre-Existing Patterns of Land" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1967), pp. 52-53.
35. Petition to Civil Governor Taft from sugar planters in Panay and Negros, Iloilo, September 11, 1901, BIA, File C1242; MT , September 24, 1901, p. 8; December 29, 1901, p. 1; Mrs. Campbell Dauncey, An Englishwoman in the Philippines (London: John Murray, 1906), p. 330; LI , September 11, 1906, pp. 1-2; October 4, 1906, p. 3; October 26, 1906, p. 3; PFP , October 24, 1908, p. 3.
36. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1906, BIA, n.p.
37. Petition of the "Comite de Intereses Filipinos," Pampanga Province, to President Taft, August 12, 1905; letter from Captain H. A. Hutchings, Senior Inspector of Constabulary, Pampanga, to Adjutant, First Constabulary District, Manila, August 19, 1905, BIA, File 13206, incl. 1.
38. PFP , April 3, 1909, p. 12; April 10, 1909, p. 12; April 17, 1909, p. 12.
39. Annual Report of the Governor of Pampanga, 1909, BIA, p. 4.
40. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1909, BIA, pp. 11-12.
41. Petition from the Agricultural Association of Pampanga, Bacolor, October 13,1915, to the Philippine Resident Commissioners, Washington, D.C., QP.
42. PFP , April 8, 1916, p. 5.
43. A classic example of misunderstanding the life of the poor was Jose Rizal's 1890 essay "On the Indolence of Filipinos" (reprinted in La Solidaridad , trans. Guadalupe Fores-Ganzon [Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1973], 2:465-607). Instead of denying as untrue the notion that the Filipino farmer was indolent, he attributed such indolence to the debilitating effects of weather and colonialism.
In the context of Pampanga, a gross misstatement of the peasant outlook appears in perhaps the most famous Capampangan zarzuela Alang Dios! (There Is No God !) by Juan Crisostomo Soto. At the beginning of Act II, after a few lines about workers' idleness and the good pay they receive, a chorus of laborers sings:
We of the masses
Through sweat, tears, and sacrifices
Allow the rich the chance
To live in abundant peace.
Happy are those
Whom wealth has favored.
Happier still the poor
Whom wealth has yet to spoil.
(Juan S. Aguas, Juan Crisostomo Soto and
Pampangan Drama [Quezon City:
University of the Philippines
Press, 1963], pp. 97-98)
44. Because of the political tensions still rampant in Pampanga at this time, I chose not to record the names of the interviewees and not to ask questions that might have exposed them to risk. The interview data will ultimately be deposited in the archives of the University of the Philippines at Diliman.
45. Interview of landowner, age 71, in Angeles, July 18, 1964.
46. Interview of landowner, age 81, in Guagua, July 16, 1964.
47. Interview of landowner, age 69, in San Fernando, June 28, 1964.
48. Interview of tenant, age 84, in Porac, July 20, 1964.
49. Interview of tenant, age 89, in Guagua, July 22, 1964.
50. Interview of tenant, age 75, in Angeles, July 15, 1964.
51. Interview of tenant, age 73, in San Fernando, July 8, 1964.
52. Interview of tenant, age 78, in Mexico, August 6, 1964.
53. Interview of tenant, age 78, in Mexico, August 11, 1964. On a case of abuse involving the death of a tenant, see MT , March 15, 1902, p. 1.
54. Interview of tenant, age 76, in San Fernando, June 23, 1964.
55. Interview of tenant, age 100, in Angeles, July 13, 1964.
56. Interview of landowner, age 78, in Guagua, July 22, 1964.
57. Interview of landowner, age 72, in Angeles, July 17, 1964.
58. Interview of landowner, age 76, in Guagua, July 21, 1964.
59. Interview of tenant, age 95, in San Fernando, June 26, 1964.
60. Interview of tenant, age 74, in Magalang, July 27, 1964.
61. Interview of tenant, age 85, in San Fernando, July 2, 1964.
62. Interview of tenant, age 75, in Guagua, July 22, 1964.
63. Interview of landowner, age 82, in Angeles, July 17, 1964.
64. Interview of landowner, age 81, in Guagua, July 16, 1964.
65. Interview of landowner, age 74, in San Fernando, July 1, 1964.
66. Interview of tenant, age 74, in San Fernando, June 26, 1964.
67. Interview of tenant, age 70, in Porac, July 21, 1964.
68. At that time I also collected data from casamac in Pampanga; however, for this chapter, use of the 1964 interviews appeared preferable.
69. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Murcia, July 4, 1970.
70. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Hinigaran, June 11, 1970.
71. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Isabela, June 25, 1970.
72. Interview of duma'an, age 80, in Himamaylan, June 12, 1970.
73. Interview of duma'an, age 115 (?), in Binalbagan, June 10, 1970.
74. Interview of duma'an, age 70, in Pulupandan, June 15, 1970.
75. Interview of duma'an, age 90, in Pulupandan, June 15, 1970.
76. Interview of duma'an, age 70, in La Carlota, June 8, 1970.
77. Interview of duma'an, age 70, in La Carlota, June 4, 1970.
78. Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1979), chap. 6; David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,
1976), pp. 134-37; Ignacio Villamor, Criminality in the Philippine Islands, 1903-1908 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1909), pp. 51-53; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Reports of the Director of Constabulary, 1905-1910 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906-11); "Historia del pueblo de San Luis, de la provincia de la Pampanga, Islas Filipinas," LPC, p. 20; PFP , April 23, 1910, p. 21; July 30, 1910, pp. 4, 10, 23.
79. Letters from Governor Francisco Liongson, San Fernando, to the Executive Secretary, Manila, October 21, 22, 24, 1913; letter from Liongson to House Speaker Sergio Osmeña, Manila, October 25, 1913, QP; interview with Victor Larin, age 101, in Barrio Barit, Candaba, August 8, 1970; interview with Isidoro Bondoc, age 83, Barrio San Isidro, San Luis, August 8, 1970; interview with Zacarias Carlos, age 88, Barrio Barit, Candaba, August 8, 1970. Over the years a schism had developed in Santa Iglesia, the faction of Larin believing that Apong Ipe still spoke to the faithful, that of Bondoc asserting that he did not.
80. John Bancroft Devins, An Observer in the Philippines, or Life in Our New Possessions (Boston: American Tract Society, 1905), p. 83; U.S. War Department, U.S. Philippine Commission, Fifth Annual Report of the Philippine Commission, 1904 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 1:578; Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution , p. 307; Guerrero, "Luzon at War," pp. 179-80, 183-84; Jose P. Santos, Ang Tatlong Napabantog na "Tulisan" sa Pilipinas [Three Famous "Bandits" in the Phil-ippines] (Gerona, Tarlac: n.p., 1936), p. 18.
81. Alfred W. McCoy, "Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology," in Moral Order and the Question of Change: Essays on Southeast Asian Thought , ed. David K. Wyatt and Alexander Wood-side, Monograph Series, no. 24 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1982), pp. 342-80; Evelyn Tan Cullamar, Babaylanism in Negros: 1896-1907 (Quezon City: New Day, 1986), chaps. 3-6; Romero, Negros Occidental , pp. 168-87. Various sources give as Isio's name, Dionisio Magbuela, Dionisio Papa y Barlueia, and Dionisio Siguela. He signed his documents simply Dionisio Papa.
82. General James Smith, Report, July 31, 1899, in U.S. War Department, Annual Reports of the War Department for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1899 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1899), p. 345.
83. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection 5:625.
84. On Isio's later activities in Negros, see LL , August 8, 1899-August 5, 1900; MT , April 22, 1899-November 2, 1902; LI , February 14, 1907-April 20, 1907; PFP , February 10, 1907-September 28, 1907; Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, p. 39; Annual Reports of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1902-8, BIA; White, Bullets , pp. 41-109; Cullamar, Babaylanism , pp. 59-66.
85. Taylor, Philippine Insurrection 2:415; Cullamar, Babaylanism , Appendix H.
86. Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, 1902, BIA, sec. 9.
87. LL , January 4, 1900, p. 3. On other planter efforts to suppress the social revolution, see MT , July 25, 1899, p. 2; May 10, 1900, p. 1; LL , January 16, 1900, p. 3; February 1, 1900., p. 3.
88. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report of the Director of Constabulary, 1905-1906 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906), pp. 4-5.
89. Ibid., 1909-1910 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1910), pp. 5-6. See also Sturtevant, Uprisings , p. 137.
88. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Constabulary, Annual Report of the Director of Constabulary, 1905-1906 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1906), pp. 4-5.
89. Ibid., 1909-1910 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1910), pp. 5-6. See also Sturtevant, Uprisings , p. 137.
90. Santos, "Tulisan, " pp. 17-18; Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution , p. 301.
91. McCoy, "'Muy Noble'," p. 25.
92. White, Bullets , pp. 64-66. Articles in La Libertad during 1900 indicate that haciendas remained the main targets of the babaylanes. See also Manuscript Report of the Taft Commission, p. 39.
93. Interview of carter, age 69, in Angeles, July 14, 1964.
94. Interview of farmer overseer (katiwala), age 69, in Porac, July 17, 1964.
95. Ileto, Pasyon and Revolution , p. 295. In their interviews both Victor Latin and Isidoro Bondoc spoke about the market at San Luis.
96. On everyday forms of resistance by the poor see Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, Everyday Politics in the Philippines: Class and Status Relations in a Central Luzon Village (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), chap. 5; James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985).
97. George Beckford, Persistent Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation Economies of the Third World , rev. ed. (London: Zed Books, 1983), p. 206.
1. Noel Deerr, The History of Sugar , 2 vols. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1949-50), 1:131, 490-91; SN 4 (1923): 157-58, 413; 7 (1926): 286; PFP , December 26, 1925, p. 25.
2. MT , March 9, 1919-June 21, 1920; MDB , March 4, 1920, p. 5; PFP , July 12, 1919, p. 16; June 11, 1921, pp. 8, 11; July 9, 1921, p. 9; SN · 1 (September 1919): 10-11, 17-23; 7 (1926): 205-6, 244-49, 409-10; 9 (1928): 72; PAR 18 (1925): 191; 19 (1926): 89.
3. Norman G. Owen, "Philippine Economic Development and American Policy: A Reappraisal," in Cornpadre Colonialism: Studies on the
Philippines under American Rule , ed. Norman G. Owen, Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 3 (Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 1971), p. 110; MDB , January 1920; U.S. Congress, House, Annual Report of the Governor General, Philippine Islands, 1923, H. Doc. 485, 68th Cong., 2d sess., 1924, p. 149; SN 10 (1929): 159; 13 (1932): 81.
4. BIA 2403-71A; Philippine Islands, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Philippine Statistical Review 2 (1935): 71.
5. Letter from George H. Fairchild, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, May 2, 1929, QP; SN 11 (1930): 305; PFP , March 30, 1912, pp. 2-3.
6. Information on Silay-Hawaiian comes from that company's annual reports for 1922 to 1934 located in the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Library in Honolulu.
7. Guilford L. Spencer and George P. Meade, Cane Sugar Handbook: A Manual for Cane Sugar Manufacturers and Their Chemists , 8th ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1945), pp. 48-49.
8. Cesar Gamboa, "Hacienda Administration and Methods of Cultivation on Occidental Negros," in Cane (Provincial Carnival Association publication for the provincial carnival held in Bacolod, April 7 to 17, 1928); SN 5 (1924): 463-65; PFP , October 20, 1923, p. 8; SN 13 (1927): 490; 14 (1933): 96-97.
9. Yves Henry, Technical and Financial Conditions of the Production of Sugar in the Philippines , trans. Irwin McNiece (Manila: Philippine Sugar Association, 1929), p. 73; SN 4 (1923): 437-38; 6 (1925): 349, 361; PFP , January 31, 1920, p. 9; November 25, 1922, p. 9; PAR 14 (1921): 418-20; 16 (1923): 22-29; 18 (1925): 107-123; Philippine Islands, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Philippine Journal of Agriculture 2 (1931): 163-177; letter from Jose Camus, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Manila, to General Secretary, Institut International D'Agriculture, Rome, July 8, 1930, BIA, File 3287, incl. 12; A Handbook of the Sugar and Other Industries in the Philippines, 1953 (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1953), p. 16.
10. "Five crop data, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1924—Central del Carmen," Pampanga Sugar Mills, Del Carmen, n.d. (ca. 1925) (ms., Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Library), tables 8, 9; Henry, Technical and Financial Conditions , p. 46; Alden Cutshall, "Trends of Philippine Sugar Production," Economic Geography 14 (April 1938): 155; SN 4 (1923): 663-72; 6 (1925): 69-70, 387-89; United States Tariff Commission, Sugar: Report to the President of the United States , Report, no. 73, 2d series (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1934), pp. 194-95.
11. Cutshall, "Trends," p. 156; SN 7 (1926): 7; Rafael Mateo Piguing, "The Philippine Sugar Industry" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State Col-
lege of Agriculture, 1935), 118; PFP , June 3, 1922, p. 9; September 17, 1927, 2-3, 8; M , July 6, 1926, p. 4.
12. Peter W. Stanley, A Nation in the Making: The Philippines and the United States, 1899-1921 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 35-48; Supervising Contract between Isabela Central and PNB, August 20, 1921, QP; MT , September 22, 1919, p. 1; PFP , April 23, 1921, p. 13; March 27, 1926, p. 26; MDB , August 25, 1921, p. 20; M , June 29, 1921, p. 1; letters from Venancio Concepcion, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, August 15, 1929, and November 16, 1931; letter from Venancio Concepcion, Manila, to Wenceslao, Trinidad, San Fernando, Pampanga, January 31, 1929; reply from Trinidad to Concepcion, February 2, 1929, QP. Concepcion spent two and a half years in jail and after several attempts to return to the sugar business failed, spent his last years dependent on the generosity of his friends in politics and in the sugar industry.
13. Annual Report on the Operations and Conditions of the Philippine National Bank for the Year 1925, pp. 3-6; Report from the Administrator General, PNB, to Governor-general Leonard Wood, July 10, 1922, pp. 2-4; letter from Governor-general Leonard Wood, Manila, to the President of the PNB, April 19, 1923; report from Emilio Montilla, President, Isabela Sugar Co., Isabela, N.O., to Governor-general Leonard Wood, February 13, 1923; letter from H. I. Shoemaker, General Manager, Isabela Sugar Co., to PNB President Wenceslao Trinidad, March 26, 1923; letter from E. W. Kopeke, Bacolod-Murcia Sugar Central, to D. M. Semple, Manager, Philippine Sugar Centrals Agency, Manila, July 12, 1923; report of Arthur Fischer and Wences1ao Trinidad to the Board of Directors, PNB, April 24, 1923, QP.
15. Echaús still owed PNB P2,500,000 in 1930. The saga of Binalbagan Central is told in a wide variety of sources including M , June 24, 1915-March 7, 1930; MDB , January 3, 1920, p. 1; March 11, 1920, p. 5; PFP , June 25, 1921-August 14, 1926; SN 1-15 (1920-1934); and Isideria J. Ignacio, "A Study of the Cultural Contributions of the Three Sugar Centrals (Bacolod-Murcia Milling Company, Binalbagan-Isabela Sugar Company, and Victorias Milling Company) in Negros Occidental with the View to Propose Plans for Their Improvement" (M.A. thesis, Silliman University, 1954), pp. 21-22. In addition, Manuel Quezon, as president of the Philippine Senate and member of the PNB Board of Control, had a continuing interest in Binalbagan, and his papers contain many reports and
letters concerning the case. See, for example, Report of Gil Montilla, Governor of Negros Occidental, regarding the troubles at Binalbagan Central, February 1, 1924: "Resolution of the Board of Directors, Binalbagan Estate, Inc.," April 7, 1924; letter from Rafael Alunan, President and Manager of Bacolod-Murcia Milling Co., Bacolod, to Francisco Enage, President Pro-tem Philippine Senate, Manila, July 24, 1924; letter from Enrique Echaús, President, The Visayan General Supply Co., Manila, to the Members of the Board of Control, February 9, 1925; letter from Ben F. Wright, Insular Auditor, Manila, to Rafael Corpus, President PNB, Manila, October 27, 1925, QP.
16. SN 11 (1930): 409-10; TT , June 22, 1930, p. 7; M , November 19, 1926, p. 1.
17. Boston Transcript , December 13, 1920; PFP , March 17, 1923, p. 33; April 28, 1923, p. 9; SN 4 (1923): 85; "Extract from the Report of the Philippine National Bank," October 20, 1922; letter from Paredes and Buencamino, Attorneys, Manila, to the Board of Directors, PNB, May 10, 1923; letters from J. B. Hardon, Hayden, Stone and Company, Manila, to Governor-general Leonard Wood, Manila, December 15, 1925, and January 12, 1926, QP; M , July 31, 1925-September 16, 1927.
18. PFP , September 23, 1928, pp. 6, 8.
19. BIA, File 16979, File 27078, File 27685, incls. 1-12; File 21387, subject card, p. 27, incl. 14; File 24689, incls. 8, 11, 48, 78; File 23908, incl. 1; MT , June 1, 1901-July 11, 1920; PFP , January 6, 1912-July 5, 1924; SN 1 (1919): 13; 9 (1928): 206-7; MDB , June 23, 1921, p. 4; January 7, 1922, pp. 1, 3; TT , February 14, 1932, p. 7; letters between John Switzer and Manuel Quezon, Manila, New York, and San Mateo (California), January 7, 1918; July 23, 1931; September 2, 1931; January 1, 1934, QP.
20. Lewis E. Gleeck, The Manila Americans (1901-1964) (Manila: Carmelo and Bauermann, 1977), pp. 187-88; BIA, File 24689, incls. 8, 13, 55; File 16979, incl. 15; File 3037, incl. 38; File 25996; File 10523, incl. 29; MT , July 24, 1919, p. 1; July 27, 1919, p. 7; August 9, 1920, p. 4; letter from George Fairchild, Manila, to Governor-general Francis Burton Harrison, New York, April 16, 1919, QP.
21. Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 8; BIA, File 28206; SN 10 (1929): 170; 13 (1932): 764-66; 14 (1933): 101-2; PFP , October 6, 1923, p. 9; September 21, 1929, p. 30; TT , May 17, 1930, p. 1; October 29, 1932, p. 1.
22. Ignacio, "Cultural Contributions," p. 18; MT , July 13, 1920, p. 8; August 6, 1920, p. 6; PFP , January 12, 1924, p. 30; M , December 14, 1920, p. 3; Handbook of the Philippine Sugar Industry , 2d ed. (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1929), pp. 236-41; letter from Chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs F. L. Parker, Washington, to Philippine Trade Commissioner Frank McIntyre, Washington, January 20, 1931, BIA, File 28206, incl. 8A; SN 9 (1928): 8-15; 11 (1930): 360-62; TT , July 13, 1930, p. 19; pamphlet on
behalf of the Confederacion de Asociaciones y Plantadores de Carla Dulce, Inc., Manapla, N.O., to the visiting Members of the Congressional Mission, December 20, 1934, QP.
23. Roy A. Ballinger, A History of Sugar Marketing , Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report, no. 197 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1971), p. 32; Luis E. Aguilar, Cuba 1933: Prologue to Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1972), pp. 41-42; Robert F. Smith, The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960 (New Haven: College and University Press, 1960), pp. 29-30; Theodore Friend, "The Philippine Sugar Industry and the Politics of Independence, 1929-1935," Journal of Asian Studies 22 (February 1963); idem, Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929-1946 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 82-83; Garel A. Grunder and William E. Livezey, The Philippines and the United States (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951), pp. 216-17; SN 3-15 (1922-34); PFP , January 12, 1923, pp. 26-27; February 6, 1927, pp. 34, 39; letter from John Switzer, New York, to Manuel Quezon, Washington, July 24, 1931, QP.
24. Michael Onorato, A Brief Review of American Interest in Philippine Development and Other Essays (Berkeley: McCutchan, 1968), pp. 113-22; Bernadita Reyes Churchill, The Philippine Independence Missions to the United States, 1919-1934 (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1983), pp. 87-116; John Switzer, A Square Deal for the Philippine Islands: A Series of Articles by John Switzer, Based Upon His Testimony Before the House Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representatives, February 25th, 1929 (New York: Philippine-American Chamber of Commerce, 1929).
25. SN 13 (1932): 269; 14 (1933): 202. See also cablegram from Jose Yulo, Manila, to Rafael Alunan, Washington, January 3, 1933, QP; TT , August 23, 1931, p. 5.
26. Statement of Amando Avanceña, The Mixed Mission, April 23, 1933, QP. See also PFP , January 25, 1930, p. 60; TT , March 8, 1932, pp. 1, 3.
27. Letter from Manuel Quezon, on shipboard to Hong Kong, to John Switzer, New York, October 18, 1931, QP. See also letter from Manuel Quezon, San Mateo, California, to Camilo Osias, Resident Commissioner, Washington, September 10, 1931; cablegram from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas, Washington, January 2, 1933, QP.
28. Ernesto D. Bohol, ed., Full Text of Hawes-Cutting-Hare Bill, Commented by Prominent Filipino Leaders and Foreigners (Manila: Loyal Press, 1934).
29. PFP , March 16, 1929, p. 28; TT , April 19, 1933, p. 1; October 13, 1933, p. 1; April 26, 1934, p. 3; Minutes of the Executive Committee of
the Philippine Sugar Association, February 12, 1934, QP; Harry B. Hawes, Philippine Uncertainty: An American Problem (New York: Century, 1932).
30. SN 13 (1932): 650-54; 14 (1933): 78, 195, 370-72; Friend, Between Two Empires , pp. 117-18. Benigno Aquino, Sr., is usually just associated with Central Tarlac; however, his first wife, Maria, was the sister of his friend Manuel Urquico, prominent Central Luzon businessman and a founder of, major investor in, and member of the board of Pasudeco (Nick Joaquin, The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations [Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Cacho Hermanos, 1983], pp. 101-3).
31. Jack T. Turner, Marketing of Sugar , Indiana University School of Business, Bureau of Business Research Study, no. 38 (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1955), pp. 73-75; radiograms from Frank Parker, BIA, Washington, to Governor-general Frank Murphy, Manila, June 21, 22, 23, 1933, BIA, File 5483, incl. 27; TT , April 5, 1933, p. 3; SN 15 (1934): 205-8, 302, 355; radiogram from Creed Cox, BIA, Washington, to Governor-general Frank Murphy, Manila, September 26, 1933; Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Trustees of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, September 29, 1933; Transcript of Testimony of Hon. Harry B. Hawes Representing the Philippine Sugar Association in the Hearings on the Proposed Marketing Agreement Under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, August 10 and 11, 1933; Report of Hon. Rafael Alunan to the Board of Trustees of the Philippine Sugar Association, July 22, 1933, QP; American-Philippine Trade Relations: A Memorandum for Hon. Thomas Walker Page, Chairman for Reciprocity Information, In Connection with Proposed Trade Agreement with Cuba. Submitted by Harry B. Hawes, U.S. Representative, Philippine Sugar Association (Washington: n.p., 1934). The bill was named after its main sponsors, Congressman Marvin Jones of Texas and Senator Edward Costigan of Colorado.
32. SN 15 (1934): 274-75, 350-51, 354-55; TT , May 26, 1934, pp. 1-2; June 23, 1934, p. 1; June 24, 1934, p. 1; Memorandum to the Trustees of the Philippine Sugar Association, April 3, 1934; Memorandum on the Allocation of the Sugar Quota from Amando Avanceña to Manuel Quezon, June 2, 1934; Memorandum from Manuel Quezon to Governor-general Frank Murphy, June 16, 1934; Memorandum on Crop Loans from PNB President Rafael Corpus, 1934, QP; M , June 19, 1934, p. 4.
33. Joshua Bernhardt, The Sugar Industry and the Federal Government: A Thirty Year Record (1917-47) (Washington, D.C.: Sugar Statistics Service, 1948), pp. 172-73, 187-88; TT , May 20, 1934-December 22, 1934; Minutes of the Executive Committee of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, June 4, 1934, QP; SN 15 (1934): 375-76.
34. SN 9 (1928): 4; 11 (1930): 668; 13 (1932): 392, 469-70; M , November 16, 1926, p. 1; April 22, 1932, p. 3; PFP , November 11, 1922, pp. 20-21; October 18, 1924, p. 2; TT , October 31, 1936, p. 3.
35. PFP , March 31, 1923, p. 6; SN 10 (1928): 429, 508-9; TT , May 10, 1931, p. 13; Ignacio, "Cultural Contributions," pp. 25-26; telegram from Jorge Vargas, Manila, to Rafael Alunan, Washington, May 29, 1929; letter from Wenceslao Trinidad, President PSA, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, March 2, 1932; letter from Earl B. Schwulst, Vice-president, PNB, Baguio, to Governor-general Dwight Davis, Baguio, April 20, 1931, QP.
36. TT , August 22, 1930, p. 1; April 10, 1931, p. 1; February 3, 1933, pp. 11-16; September 2, 1934, p. 1; M , February 12, 1926-February 17, 1933; SN 1-15 (1920-34); PFP , February 2, 1924, pp. 12-13; October 1, 1927, p. 28.
37. Quezon's correspondence, as well as local newspapers and yearbooks, carried constant information about political figures. See, for example, letter from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Macario Arnedo, Apalit, Pampanga, May 29, 1934, QP; Cornejo's Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines , 2 vols. (Manila: Cornejo, 1939), 2:1592-93; Saravia Centennial Anniversary and Inauguration of the New Town Hall (souvenir program) (Saravia, Negros Occidental: n.p., 1959), pp. 1-2; Faustino P. Gutierrez, Ninu't Ninu qñg Capampañgan [Who's Who in Pampanga] (Manila: Catimawan, 1934), p. 4; TT , September 23, 1931, pp. 9-11. Magalona chaired the crucial assembly labor and immigration committee (SN 14 [1933]: 470).
38. SN 5-15 (1924-34); TT , May 27, 1930, p. 1; PFP , January 12, 1924, p. 9; Minutes of the Executive Committee, PSA, February 10, 1934, p. 2; May 7, 1934, p. 2; Circular no. 170, February 27, 1934; Circular no. 185, April 27, 1934, for the. Trustees of PSA; letter from Pedro Vazquez, Acting President of Binalbagan Estate, Binalbagan, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, January 20, 1923, QP; "Estimated Amount of Taxes which the Philippine Sugar Industry Directly and Indirectly Pays Annually," in Documents and Papers on the Philippine Sugar Industry (1933), in the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association Library, Honolulu; Baldomero T. Olivera, lose Yulo: The Selfless Statesman (Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: U.P.-Jorge B. Vargas Filipiniana Research Center, 1981), chaps. 4-9; M , May 24, 1931, p. 1.
Born in Bago, Negros Occidental, Yulo, a brother-in-law of Juan Araneta, worked in Manila and held sugar lands in Floridablanca. Ventura's government career ended when he clashed with Quezon over support for the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill, a bitter dispute that divided Pampanga's politicians and sealed the alliance between Quezon and Sotero Baluyut (press statement maligning Ventura by Manuel Quezon, QP; TT , May 12-November 21, 1933, passim).
39. PFP , January 25, 1913, p. 6; July 23, 1932, p. 57; SN 7 (1926): 82. One of the big misusers of PNB loans was Ricardo Nolan, an attorney from Bacolod (see Appendix D), who also happened to be a very vocal supporter of the initial idea of the government supplying loans to farmers.
40. Isobelo T. Crisostomo, Cory: Profile of a President (Quezon City: J. Kriz, 1986), pp. 6-8; list of (Pampangan) sugar-cane planters, 1920-35 owning from 500 to more than 1,000 hectares of land and milling upwards of 1 million to 6 million pounds of sugar, given to the author by Mariano A. Henson; PFP , November 3, 1928, p. 30; March 23, 1929, p. 19; SN 11 (1930): 753; 13 (1932): 443-44; 14 (1933): 33; Court of First Instance, Province of Pampanga, Registration of Title on Behalf of Manuel Quezon, June 23, 1927, QP; Benedict J. Tria Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), p. 55.
41. Thomas R. McHale, "The Sugar Industry of the Philippines in the 1970s," paper presented at the PDCP-UPIEDR Lecture Series, Manila, January 20, 1970, pp. 65-66.
42. Negrenses faced the anomalous situation in 1931 of having local muscovado sugar selling at a higher price than centrifugal (M , December 8, 1931, p. 4). Information on leaseholding comes from ninety-four contracts contained in the notarial registers for Negros used in this chapter. PNA Notarios consulted had the following numbers: 39424, 39426, 39428, 39441, 39477, 39535, 39543, 39563, 39569, 39581, 39589, 39782, 39785, 39835, 39836, 39863, 39928, 39929, 39930, 39931, 39932, 40123, 41024. Registers for Pampanga used elsewhere were numbered 12230, 21099, 21100, 21105, 21106, 21107, 21108, 21140, 21220, 21221, 21222, 21223, 23463, 23590, 35135, 35144, 35146, 35148, 35150, 35184, 35186, 35188, 35192, 35226, 35236, 35262, 35590.
43. M , August 6, 1930, p. 2. Among those in Negros who answered an information questionnaire, 220 had been either straight duma'an (160) or a combination of duma'an and rice acsas (60); in contrast, only 22 sugar acsas and 15 who had been both duma'an and sugar acsas appeared in the survey. Furthermore, references to sugar acsas in the literature showed up only occasionally.
44. Richard John Gilbert, "The Introduction of American Capital into the Sugar Industry of the Philippines and Its Impact on the Pre-Existing Patterns of Land" (M.A. thesis, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1967), p. 82; PFP , September 11, 1926, p. 36; SN 2 (1920): 486; 6 (1925): 641; 7 (1926): 38; M , April 6, 1926, p. 3; BIA, File 26782, incl. 5-B.
45. John T. Omohundro, Chinese Merchant Families in Iloilo: Commerce and Kin in a Central Philippine City (Quezon City and Athens, Ohio: Ateneo de Manila University Press and Ohio University Press, 1981), pp. 18-19; SN 7 (1926): 747-48; 15 (1934): 103; M , May 21, 1926, p. 4; PFP , September 9, 1922, p. 9; August 28, 1926, p. 28; July 29, 1932, p. 29; Annual Report of Stockholders by the Board of Directors of the Philippine National Bank, for the year ending 1925, QP; Notarios , Negros Occidental, Pampanga, PNA. Three smaller banks giving agricultural credit
were Bank of the Philippine Islands, Luzon Surety Company, and People's Bank and Trust Company.
46. Letter from PNB President Rafael Corpus, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, March 30, 1926, QP.
47. PFP , September 17, 1927, p. 61.
48. Notarios , Pampanga, PNA; SN 14 (1933): 94; 15 (1934): 740-41; TT , September 17, 1930, p. 12; MDB , May 19, 1922, p. 1; interview with Mariano A. Henson, Angeles, June 5, 1964.
The cooperative system at Arayat contrasts with the one in operation at Binalbagan at about the same time. There the hacenderos simply authorized the Binalbagan, Isabela Planters Association to sell stocks of sugar for them at the best price possible with no provisions for any financing (individual contracts registered as Document 39785, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA).
49. PFP , June 12, 1926,. p. 28; September 18, 1926, pp. 2, 26; January 1, 1927, pp. 54-55; TT , August 27, 1930, p. 1; letter from Paleriano Cuenco, Talisay, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, February 4, 1925; letter from Jose Ramos, President of the Bacolod-Murcia Planters Association, Manila, to the Board of Directors, PNB, Manila, August 2, 1929, QP; M , July 8, 1932, p. 1; SN 14 (1933): 155; 15 (1934): 610.
50. Letter from W. B. Charles, Bacolod, to James H. Franklin, A.B.F.M.S., New York, January 3, 1922, BMR. Census: 1939 , 1, pt. 3, Negros Occidental, pp. 33-38.
51. PFP , January 24, 1925, p. 2.
52. SN 15 (1934): 177; PFP , April 7, 1928, p. 32. Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA, detailed ,the loans of planters, including car loans and second mortgages. Even the truly wealthy could end up in overwhelming debt. At the time of his death, Mariano Lacson Ledesma owed about P800,000 to PNB and Bachrach Motor Company, a debt his family found virtually impossible to pay (Memorandum to PNB from Rafael Lacson, March 5, 1930, QP). As a comparison, Negros Occidental, with an expanse of 3,125 square miles, possessed 242.1 miles of first-class roads for its 1,195 autos in 1930; meanwhile, Pampanga, with an area of only 823 square miles, had 126.4 miles of first-class roads for its 729 automobiles (BIA, File 2146, incl. 99).
53. The Pampanga Carnival Supplement published as part of the April 22, 1933, issue of the Tribune illustrates many points about culture in Pampanga. See also PFP, June 26, 1920, p. 22; October 3, 1925, p. 10; January 9, 1926, pp. 12-'13; TT , August 23, 1933, p. 8; SN 6 (1925), no. 6, frontispiece; Nineteen Thirty-five Directory and Souvenir: Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Professional Guidebook for the Provinces of Pampanga and Tarlac and the Cities of Manila and Baguio (Manila: Mariano E. Samia, 1935-36), 1:16-36.
54. SN 10 (1929): 128-29.
55. Interview with Ramon Ramos, Bacolod, May 27, 1970.
56. Aside from the agricultural debt, no other sugar subject attracted more attention in local periodicals than labor shortages. See, for example, SN 1 (1920): 9; 11 (1930): 231; PFP, May 5, 1923, p. 11; September 21, 1929, p. 41; M , April 15, 1932, p. 2; TT , February 5, 1933, p. 12; October 20, 1933, p. 11.
57. The description of sacada life derives from in-depth interviews I conducted in Bugasong, Tibiao, and Culasi, Antique; during late June 1970 with a group of migrant workers over sixty who traveled to Negros during the central era. See also Compilation of Committee Reports for the Fifth Annual Convention of the Philippine Sugar Association, Manila, P.I., September Twelfth to Seventeenth, 1927 , pp. 150-51; TT , October 4, 1931, p. 13; December 17, 1932, pp. 46-47; BIA, File 2121, incl. 15; Rafael Alunan, Plaintiff, vs Baltazar Necesito, Pio V. Autojay, and Federico Javier [contratistas], Defendants, Court of First Instance, Philippines, 22d Judicial District, Bacolod, QP; SN 7 (1926): 136-43, 747; 8 (1927): 981.
A duma'an from Saravia, sixty-two-year-old Leopoldo Gumayao, in-dicated that in the early 1920s, although he owned rice land in Capiz, Panay, he earned more going to labor for wages on Negros; however, several sacadas noted that work in Negros was much harder than in Antique. It appears that wages for sacadas went down from P0.90 to P0.60 per day after 1930, but the evidence is by no means solid, given the way contratistas kept the books for sacadas. In general, those sacadas who eventually went on their own to Negros fared much better than those who worked for a contratista (M , August 22, 1924, p. 4; March 11, 1932, p. 2; July 1, 1932, p. 4).
58. SN 10 (1929): 127-29. In general, Sugar News extolled the workers' benefits, while Makinaugalingon pointed out the numerous serious industrial accidents.
59. SN 5 (1924): 697. Information on sugar tenant farming in Pampanga comes mainly from an information questionnaire given to 195 casamac in 1970 in Pampanga and from Higinio D. Mendoza, "The Small Sugar Planters in Pampanga" (1928), BS; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, The Activities of the Bureau of Labor (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1930), pp. 119-20. See also PAR 18 (1925): 318; SN 6 (1925): 20-25; 8 (1927): 830.
60. Census: 1939 , 1, pt. 3, Negros Occidental, pp. 4-5; pt. 4, Pampanga, p. 5, Tarlac, pp. 3-4. Total Philippine population grew from 10,314,310 in 1918 to 16,000,303 in 1939.
61. Alfred W. McCoy, "A Queen Dies Slowly: The Rise and Decline of Iloilo City," in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations , ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1982), pp. 326-46; PFP , March 31, 1923, pp. 4-6; May 3, 1924, pp. 4-5; August 14, 1926, p. 50; M , February
2, 1923-July 10, 1934; SN 15 (1934): 103; TT , May 21, 1933, p. 4; letter from W. B. Charles, Cadiz, to J. H. Franklin, A.B.F.M.S., New York, May 7, 1926; open letter from Harry W. Munger, Iloilo City, to Friends in the United States, January 10, 1934, BMR.
62. TT , May 24, 1930, p. 1; July 25, 1931, p. 3; M , December 29, 1921-January 30, 1934; PFP , June 23, 1923, p. 48; November 28, 1925, p. 57; December 3, 1927, p. 7; letters from May Coggins, Bacolod, to Miss McVeigh, A.B.F.M.S., New York, January 11, 1925, and February 12, 1925; letter from W. B. Chlarles to his home congregation, July 31, 1923, BMR; Doreen G. Fernandez, The Iloilo Zarzuela; 1903-1930 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1978), pp. 141-63.
63. Evangelina Hilario-Lacson, Kapampangan Writing: A Selected Compendium and Critique (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1984), p. 55. See also Sol H. Gwekoh, Diosdado Macapagal: Triumph over Poverty (Manila: G and G Enterprises, 1962), pp. 20-21; PFP , March 25, 1922, p. 9; December 29, 1928, p. 17; TT , August 27, 1930-January 22, 1933; BIA, File 11764, incl. 4; Nineteen Thirty-five Directory , pp. 16-26.
64. M , August 17, 1921-June 19, 1934; PFP , November 17, 1923, p. 9; TT, May 24, 1931, p. 2; August 7, 1932, p. 12; August 26, 1932, p. 11.
65. M , 1920-1934; PFP , September 17, 1921, p. 11; December 17, 1932, 56-57; MDB , September 8, 1922, p. 2; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Commerce and Industry, Commercial Handbook of the Philippine Islands, 1924 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1924), p. 168.
66. The participation dispute was reported in the pages of the Tribune (April 19, 1930-February 28, 1934), Makinaugalingon (February 9, 1931-April 26, 1932), Sugar News (vols. 11,14, 15), and the Quezon papers. See, in particular, letter from Governor Agustin Ramos, Bacolod, to the Chief of the Executive Bureau, Manila, April 5, 1929; letter from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Governor-general Dwight Davis, Manila, July 10, 1930; letter from Placido Mapa, Talisay-Silay Milling Co., Talisay, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 28, 1932; letter from Jose Escaler, President of the Agricultural Association of Pampanga, San Fernando, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 26, 1921, QP; TT , February 25, 1934, p. 8; interview with Pasudeco employee Leoncio Nucum, San Fernando, Pampanga, July 19, 1970; SN 11 (1930): 419-20; 14 (1933): 628-32.
67. PFP , March 1, 1924, pp. 2, 7; April 5, 1924, pp. 2, 7, 15; August 6, 1927, p. 28; TT , August 14, 1931, p. 2; Manuel Gatbonton, Ing Candawe (n.p.: n.p., 1933), p. 72.
68. Philippine newspapers covered Intrencherado in many articles from November 1925 to as late as the mid-1930s. Particularly useful sources included comments by former adherents Valentin Cemira, Geronimo Ragasa, Feliciano Tabligan, and Cornelio Mendoza. See also David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976), chap. 8; M , June 21, 1927, p. 2; July 5, 1927, p. 4; PFP , May 21, 1927, pp. 2, 25, 27, 36-37, 40.
69. The Brender story appeared in issues of Makinaugalingon from July 24 to October 19, 1928. See also Alfred W. McCoy, "Baylan : Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology," in Moral Order and the Question of Change: Essays on Southeast Asian Thought , ed. David K. Wyatt and Alexander Woodside, Monograph Series, no. 24 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1982); PFP , July 7, 1928, p. 28; August 18, 1928, p. 28; July 27, 1929, p. 28; M , April 3, 1925.
70. McCoy, "Queen," pp. 338-39; Serafin E. Macaraig, Social Problems (Manila: Educational Supply Company, 1929), pp. 407-8; M , August 4, 1922-January 8, 1926; PFP , October 14, 1922-May 19, 1933. Because Quezon became involved, numerous letters in his files refer to the two as well; see, in particular, letter from Angel Marin, Delegate General, KSI, Bacolod, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, October 21, 1923; letter from Rafael Alunan, Bacolod, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 13, 1924; letter from Representative Hermenegildo Villanueva, Bacolod, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, January 18, 1925, QP. Further information came from interview questionnaires for twenty-eight members of KSI, ten members of Mainawa-on, and three members of a smaller mutual aid society, Magbinuligay (Togetherness). Marin eventually pleaded guilty to libeling Judge Eduardo Gutierrez-David. Mainawa-on listed among its sponsors Representative Manuel Roxas, later Speaker of the House of Representatives.
71. During the era, Makinaugalingon and Sugar News , in various issues, noted at least six other mutual aid groups operating in Negros. In 1982, while visiting Kabankalan, I became acquainted with the Half Century Club, Inc., an organization that supplied P1,000 to the relatives of deceased members.
72. On the current state of private armies on Negros, see Newsweek , August 10, 1987, p. 44.
73. M , January 6, 1931-May 6, 1931; TT, January 9, 1931-February 28, 1931; SN 12 (1931): 75, 139-40. On other labor actions see McCoy, "Queen," pp. 333-44; TT, January 20, 1932, p. 1; M , November 16, 1923, p. 1; March 10, 1930, p. 1; February 23, 1931, p. 1; PFP , June 4, 1927, p. 28. One of the few positive results of the strike from labor's point of view was the replacement in the next governor's election of the hostile Ramos by the more neutral, rather ineffective Isaac Lacson.
74. William H. Mayfield, "The Development of Organized Labor in the Philippines" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1956), pp. 8-10, 20-21; "The Peasant War in the Philippines," Philippine Social Sciences and Humanities Review 23 (June-December 1958): 379; Dante C. Simbulan, "The Socialist Movement in the Philippines" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1961), pp. 22-28; Kenneth K. Kurihara,
Labor in the Philippines (Palo Alto, Calif.: American Council, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1945), pp. 60-63; cable from Manuel Quezon and Sergio Osmeña, Manila, to Secretary of War Henry Stimson, Washington, July 20, 1930, QP. On Tan Malacca's sojourn to the Philippines see PFP , August 20, 1927-September 24, 1927.
75. Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , pp. 35-51; Conrado S. Sabelino, "A Study of the Legal (or Parliamentary) Struggle of the Communist Movement in the Philippines" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1958), pp. 18-19; Serafin E. Macaraig, An Introduction to Sociology , ed. Marcelo Tangco (Manila: University of the Philippines, 1948), pp. 253-55; Harlan R. Crippen, "Philippine Agrarian Unrest: Historical Backgrounds," Science and Society 10 (Fall 1946): 345; interview with Judge Wenceslao Ortega, Baliwag, Bulacan, June 21, 1970; interview with Ramon Permato, Baliwag, Bulacan, June 21, 1970; interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, May 11, 1970; Gatbonton, Ing Candawe , p. 29; Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, Quarterly Labor Bulletin 4 (1922), nos. 15-16, 18-19; Katherine Mayo, The Isles of Fear: The Truth about the Philippines (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1924), pp. 42-46; PFP , September 8, 1923, p. 9; March 15, 1924, p. 6; TT , June 19, 1931, pp. 1, 14; August 10, 1933, p. 14; June 10, 1934, p. 11; Philippines Herald , June 8, 1932.
76. MT , April 23, 1923, p. 4. See also TT , November 8, 1932, p. 2; interview with Peregrino Taruc, Camp Crame, Quezon City, June 19, 1970; interview with Ernesto V. Santos, Philippine Sugar Institute, Quezon City, June 8, 1970; SN 6 (1925): 182.
77. In comparison, Negros Occidental's density rose from 127 per square mile to 264, some 120 percent; however, agricultural hectarage also went up, from 110,256 to 219,436, or about 100 percent, at the same time (Census: 1918 1:219, 233.; 3:336; Census: 1939, Real Property , pp. 398, 446).
78. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Labor, Labor: Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor 8 (March 1927): 83; Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , pp. 40-41; tenant interviews, 1964, 1970.
79. PFP , December 23, 1922, pp. 46, 54, 56; November 3, 1923, p. 40; November 8, 1924, pp. 44-45; interview with Pedro Rueda, Del Carmen, San Fernando, Pampanga, July 31, 1970; interview with Pedro Pelayo, Angeles, June 14, 1964; interview with Sotero Garcia, Angeles, June 21, 1964; TT , January 6, 1933, p. 9; August 29, 1933, pp. 1, 11; Gatbonton, Ing Candawe , pp. 67-68; cable from Serviliano Ibanez, Secretary General of KM, San Fernando, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, December 23, 1923, QP. Two other small antitenant associations were Sapni ning Lahi (Companions of the Race) in Magalang and Batung Maputi (White Stone) (Fausto F. Gonzalez Sioco, "The Cause of Communism in the Philippines," Living
Age 360 [1941]: 548-49; interview with Gregorio Briones, Angeles, November 3, 1970; interview with Gonzalo Pangilinan, Arayat, July 11, 1970).
80. Mayo, p. 43; HDP, Barrio Baliti, San Fernando, pp. 30-31.
81. TT , January 17, 1933-June 23, 1934; interview with Jose Santos Cuyugan, San Fernando, Pampanga, July 17, 1970.
82. PFP , November 5, 1927, p. 28; December 17, 1927, pp. 10-13, 60-61; October 27, 1928, p. 28; SN 8 (1927): 938-40; TT , April 24, 1930, p. 1; Macaraig, Social Problems , pp. 252-53.
83. TT , February 12, 1933, p. 13; June 2, 1933, p. 8; interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, May 18, 1970.
84. Interview with Quirino Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, August 2, 1970; Ramon C. Aquino, A Chance to Die: A Biography of Jose Abad Santos, Late Chief Justice of the Philippines (Quezon City: Alemar-Phoenix, 1967), pp. 3-13, 33; Gutierrez, Ninu't Ninu , p. 36; interview with Roberto Toledo, III, Floridablanca, August 15, 1970; interview with Alfredo Ganzon, Angeles, June 5, 1964; Florence Horn, Orphans of the Pacific, the Philippines (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1941), pp. 112-13; PFP , June 19, 1909, p. 12; MT , April 8, 1919, p. 2; June 7, 1919, p. 7; TT , August 5, 1932, p. 13; August 19, 1932, p. 8; Simbulan, "Socialist Movement," pp. 138-39; Directory of the Philippine Columbian Association, Pasay City, 1920; letters between Pedro Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, and Doctor Eliseo Santos, Manila, October 26, 1923; November 1, 1923, QP; Protocolos 1930, 1938, Notarios 4911, 5924, 6142, 7094, 10818, 10838, 23596, 23598, 23601, Pampanga, PNA.
85. Minutes of the Extraordinary Session of the Municipal Council of San Fernando, Pampanga, January 24, 1918, Municipal President Antonio Abad Santos presiding; miscellaneous correspondence concerning Quirino Abad Santos, August 20, 1922-December 10, 1932, QP; interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, April 12, 1970; interview with Luis Taruc, Ateneo de Manila, Quezon City, June 16, 1970; interview with former representative Emilio Cortes, Manila, August 3, 1970; Antonio S. Tan, The Ideology of Pedro Abad Santos' Socialist Party (Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 1984), p. 3; Mariano A. Henson, Pampanga and Its Towns (A.D. 1300-1965) , 4th ed. (Angeles: By the Author, 1965), p. 77. I borrow the term "conventional politician," with its meaning of nonradical representative of entrenched interests, from Renato Constantino: see his The Making of a Filipino: A Story of Philippine Colonial Politics (Quezon City: Malaya Books, 1969), pt. 1.
86. BIA, File 7252, incls. 1-26; PFP , January 18, 1919, p. 9; MT , December 28, 1919, p. 1; Churchill, Independence Missions , p. 429; List of Members of the Independence Commission, August 26, 1919; letter from Pedro Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, July 22, 1933, QP; Ing Catala [The Press] (San Fernando, Pam-
panga), July 5, 1930; TT , July 25, 1933, pp. 1, 8; September 26, 1933, p. 11.
86. BIA, File 7252, incls. 1-26; PFP , January 18, 1919, p. 9; MT , December 28, 1919, p. 1; Churchill, Independence Missions , p. 429; List of Members of the Independence Commission, August 26, 1919; letter from Pedro Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, July 22, 1933, QP; Ing Catala [The Press] (San Fernando, Pam-
87. James S. Allen, The Radical Left on the Eve of War: A Political Memoir (Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985), p. 74.
88. Ibid., p. 81.
86. BIA, File 7252, incls. 1-26; PFP , January 18, 1919, p. 9; MT , December 28, 1919, p. 1; Churchill, Independence Missions , p. 429; List of Members of the Independence Commission, August 26, 1919; letter from Pedro Abad Santos, San Fernando, Pampanga, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, July 22, 1933, QP; Ing Catala [The Press] (San Fernando, Pam-
87. James S. Allen, The Radical Left on the Eve of War: A Political Memoir (Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985), p. 74.
88. Ibid., p. 81.
89. Simbulan, "Socialist Movement," pp. 28-35, 142-43; "The Huks in Retrospect: A Failed Bid for Power," Solidarity 102 (1985): 64-74; SN 8 (1927): 500; 10 (1929): 365; Uldarico S. Baclagon, Lessons from the Huk Campaigns in the Philippines (Manila: M. Colcol, 1956), pp. 255-60, 262-64.
90. SN 11-15 (1930-34); PFP , September 21, 1930, p. 43; M , April 13; 1934, p. 2; TT , August 25, 1931-July 1, 1934; Annual Reports of the Philippine Sugar Association (Manila: n.p., 1932), p. 15.
1. TT , May 4, 1934-May 28, 1935; SN 15 15 (1934): 527; 16 (1935): 480; 18 (1937): 116-17; M , July 27, 1934, p. 1; August 14, 1934, p. 1.
2. TT , January 6, 1935-March 12, 1937; SN 15 (1934): 459-63; 16 (1935): 383-84, 413, 551-52; 17 (1936): 143-44, 421-23.
3. Interview with E. D. Hester, Army and Navy Club, Manila, August 3, 1982; TT , December 8, 1934-March 29, 1935; SN 16 (1935): 63-65; 17 (1936): 325-29, 381-84; 19 (1938): 155-57; Philippine Islands, Office of the Governor-General, Executive Orders Relative to Sugar Allocation: Issued by the Governor-General During the Year 1935 , 4 vols. (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1936).
4. SN 16 (1935): 52; TT , May 10, 1934-January 30, 1938; John E. Dalton, Sugar: A Case Study of Government Control (New York: Macmillan, 1937), pp. 233-36; cable from Jorge Vargas, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Washington, 1935; letter from Captain Bonner Fellers, Office of the President of the Philippines, Shoreham Hotel, Washington, to Creed Cox, Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, April 21, 1937, QP.
5. TT , March 6, 1935-August 8, 1937; SN 18 (1937): 96; 19 (1938): 56; Report of the National Sugar Board to His Excellency the President of the Philippines , August: 2, 1939, pp. 19-21, RP; Marcial P. Lichauco, Roxas (Manila: Kiko, 1952), p. 114; Garel A. Grunder and William E. Livezey, The Philippines and the United States (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1951), pp. 230-32.
6. SN 16-20 (1935-39); TT , April 19, 1936-August 13, 1940; A Handbook of the Sugar and Other Industries in the Philippines, 1961 (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1961), p. 162; Jack T. Turner, Marketing of Sugar , Indiana University School of Business, Bureau of Business Research Study, no. 38 (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin), pp. 83-88.
7. Telegram from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Felipe Buencamino, London, April 4, 1937; telegram from Vice-president Sergio Osmeña, Washington, to President Manuel Quezon, Manila, May 26, 1939, QP; TT , March 5, 1939, p. 2; June 3, 1939, p. 3; Joseph Ralston Hayden, The Philippines: A Study in National Development (New York: Macmillan, 1942), pp. 791-96; letter from High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, Manila, to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Washington, June 30, 1938; letter from President Roosevelt, Washington, to High Commissioner McNutt, Manila, September 29, 1938; letter from Francis B. Sayre, Chairman, Interdepartmental Committee on Philippine Affairs, Department of State, Washington, to President Roosevelt, October 28, 1938, Box 1938, McNutt Mss., Lilly Library, Bloomington, Ind.; International Agreement Regarding the Regulation of Production and Marketing of Sugar, London, May 6, 1937 (London: His Majesty's Stationary Office, 1937).
8. TT , December 29, 1938, p. 3; April 10, 1941, pp. 1, 4; November 28, 1941, p. 1; SN 14 (1933): 398; 15 (1934): 104; 18 (1937): 32; telegram from Joaquin M. Elizalde, Washington, to President Manuel Quezon, Manila, September 15, 1941; communication to U.S. High Commissioner Francis B. Sayre, Manila, from President Manuel Quezon, Manila, November 28, 1941, QP.
9. TT, September 2, 1939-December 6, 1941; SN 19 (1938): 327; 22 (1941): 62, 83, 313; Philippine Commonwealth, Bureau of Census and Statistics, Journal of Philippine Statistics 1 (1941): 59, 70. George Fairchild had extensive correspondence in 1941 with Quezon on shipping for Philippine sugar.
10. SN 19 (1938): 90-93, 127-29, 324-27; 20 (1939): 275-76; 21 (1940): 352; TT , June 11, 1937-October 2,1940; Thomas R. McHale, "The Sugar Industry of the Philippines in the 1970s," paper presented at the PDCP-UPIEDR Lecture Series, Manila, January 20, 1970, p. 75.
11. "The actual nature of the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. An attempt to answer the question, is there a dictatorship in the Philippines?" Memorandum from Justice George A. Malcolm, Manila, to High Commissioner Paul McNutt, Manila, July 6, 1937, Box 1937, McNutt Mss., Lilly Library; Aruna Gopinath, Manuel L. Quezon: The Tutelary Democrat (Quezon City: New Day, 1987), chap. 2; Alfred W. McCoy, "Quezon's Commonwealth: The Emergence of Philippine Authoritarianism," in Philippine Colonial Democracy , ed. Ruby R. Paredes, Monograph Series, no. 32 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1988). On Quezon's role in the sugar industry see letter from Governor Pablo Angeles David, San Fernando, Pampanga, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, May 27, 1937; letter from Manuel H. Javelona, Justice of the Peace, Bago, N.O., to Manuel Quezon, Manila, August 9, 1935; letter from Santiago H. Granada, Isabela, N.O. to PSA President Rafael Alunan, Manila, July 16, 1935, QP.
12. Handbook 1961 , p. 16; TT September 17, 1937-October 28, 1939; SN 19 (1938): 520; 20 (1939): 184-85; Gopinath, Quezon , p. 86; letter from Jose Yulo, President of the National Assembly, Manila, to Resident Commissioner Joaquin Elizalde, Washington, January 10, 1939; cable from Manuel Quezon, Manila, to Sergio Osmeña, Washington, January 18, 1939, QP.
13. Baldomero T. Olivera, Jose Yulo: The Selfless Statesman (Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: U.P.-Jorge B. Vargas Filipiniana Research Center, 1981), p. 34; TT , August 25, 1934-October 8, 1940; SN 21 (1940): 413; 22 (1941): 117.
14. Harry B. Hawes, "In the Matter of the Classification of Philippine Sugar as a 'Non-Essential' Commodity," testimony before the United States Maritime Commission, July 29, 1941 (Washington, D.C.: n.p., 1941).
15. TT , April 15, 1936-July 25, 1940; M , May 20, 1936, p. 3; November 22, 1939, p. 1; SN 21 (1940): 321; letters from Attorney Jose Ma. Lacson, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Malacañan Palace, September 21, 1938, and April 17, 1939; letter from Presidential Secretary Jorge Vargas, Manila, to Enrique Montilla, Manager of Isabela Sugar Co., Manila, October 14, 1941, QP.
16. The seven largest milling interests were Ehrman-Spreckels (10.62 percent of the total U.S. quota), Ossorio (10.03 percent), Elizalde (9.94 percent), Lizares (9.88 percent), Tabacalera (9.76 percent), Montilla (8.58 percent), and Pasudeco (6.78 percent) (Yoshiko Nagano, "The Oligopolistic Structure of the Philippine Sugar Industry during the Great Depression," in The World Sugar Economy in War and Depression, 1914-1940 , ed. Bill Albert and Adrian Graves [London: Routledge, 1988], pp. 174-75). See also TT , January 8, 1935-January 5, 1941; SN 17 (1936): 32, 124; letter from M. Cuaderno, PNB, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, July 29, 1936, QP. Financier Vicente Madrigal acquired Canlubang just before the outbreak of war.
17. "Memorandum for His Excellency the President on: The Philippine Sugar Problem," RP; Francisco Varona, Negros: historia anecdótica de su riqueza y de sus hombres (Manila: General Printing Press, 1938), pp. 370-80; SN 17 (1936): 452; 18 (1937); 2,327-28; 19 (1938): 416-17; TT , March 31, 1934-November 20, 1938; Florence Horn, Orphans of the Pacific, the Philippines (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1941), pp. 137, 214, 247.
18. TT , February 16, 1936, p. 11.
19. Stephen A. Resnick, "A Socio-Economic Interpretation of the Decline of Rural Industry Under Export Expansion: A Comparison Among Burma, Philippines and Thailand, 1870-1938," Center Discussion Paper, no. 74, presented at the Economic Growth Center, Yale University, September 17, 1969, pp. 60-61; SN 16-22 (1935-41); TT , August 6, 1935-
October 30, 1941; M , April 28, 1937, p. 1; July 15, 1939, p. 1; February 10, 1940, p. 1; Modesto P. Sa-onoy, Valderrama (Bacolod: Negros Occidental Historical Commission, 1979), pp. 30-41; Karl J. Pelzer, Pioneer Settlement in the Asiatic Tropics (New York: American Geographical Society, 1948), pp. 135-41. Notarial registers for Negros Occidental had the following numbers: 39471, 39479, 39590, 39606, 39660, 39763, 39782, 39785, 39929, 40028, 40030, 40031, 40033, 40034, 40035. Notarial registers in Pampanga were mostly identified by notary but also included numbered registers 35188, 35190, 35192, 35262.
20. TT , May 12, 1935-December 31, 1940; Horn, Orphans , pp. 242-43; M , June 13, 1936-September 7, 1940; HDP, Bacolod, pp. 2, 13, 21; SN 17 (1936): 32, 489; letter from H. W. Munger, Fabrica, Negros Occidental, to Randolph Howard, New York, April 26, 1935; letter from H. W. Munger, Fabrica, Negros Occidental, to J. W. Decker, New York, August 16, 1941, BMR.
21. TT , February 27, 1934-June 9, 1941; Sol H. Gwekoh, Diosdado Macapagal.' Triumph over Poverty (Manila: G and G Enterprises, 1962), chap. 2.
22. Philippine Islands, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Philippine Statistical Review 2 (1935): 40-41, 69; Philippine Commonwealth, Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Bulletin of Philippine Statistics 6 (1940): 281-82; Journal of Philippine Statistics 1 (1941): 7-8, 59, 70; TT , July 8, 1939, p. 3; SN 21 (1940): 315; M , October 5, 1940, p. 2; October 24, 1940, p. 1.
23. SN 16 (1935): 621; 17 (1936): 339,510; 18 (1937): 152; 22 (1941): 238; Report of the National Sugar Board , p. 22; Document 39590, Notarios , Negros Occidental, PNA; TT , May 18, 1937, p. 16; Horn, Orphans , p. 243; M , July 18, 1936, p. 1; April 20, 1940, p. 4.
24. TT , May 7, 1935, p. 1.
25. Philippine Commonwealth, Department of Labor, "Fact-finding Survey Report, 1936," typewritten (Manila: Division of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, 1936), p. 202.
26. Kenneth K. Kurihara, Labor in the Philippines (Palo Alto, Calif.: American Council, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1945), p. 39; information from thirty-three 1970 questionnaire interviews with Negrense rice agsadors, most of whom had converted from sugar to rice farming in the late 1930s.
27. SN 18 (1937): 191-93; 19 (1938): 387; 20 (1939): 445; TT , October 18, 1939, pp. 1, 13; January 12, 1940, pp. 1, 13.
28. Cable from Amando Avanceña, President of the Confederation of Sugar Planters' Associations, Bacolod, to Secretary of War George Dern, Washington, September 23, 1935, QP; SN 16 (1935): 407-8; 18 (1937): 295; 19 (1938): 515-16; TT , January 22, 1935-July 14, 1940; Honolulu Advertiser , January 28, 1939.
29. Letter from Enrique C. Locsin, Bacolod, to Hon. Manuel Roxas, Manila, February 10, 1939, RP; letter from Manuel Quezon to Jose Yulo, Manila, February 24, 1941, QP; TT , January 13, 1937-September 2, 1941; M , May 22, 1940, p. 1; June 1, 1940, p. 1.
30. Notarios , Pampanga, PNA; TT , July 8, 1939-March 18, 1941; M , May 4, 1940, p. 1; interview with Luis Taruc, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, June 17, 1970.
31. Information concerning events in the section on confrontation comes chiefly from the pages. of the Tribune issues January 1935-December' 1941.
32. Interviews with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, April 5 and 12, 1970; Luis Taruc, Born of the People (New York: International, 1953), pp. 40-45, 84; TT , June 22, 1935-March 29, 1938.
33. SN 16 (1935): 296; M , August 22, 1936, p. 1; July 27, 1940, p. 3; interview with Luis Taruc, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, June 16, 1970; HDP, Barrio Baliti, San Fernando, p. 31; "Fact-finding Survey," p. 246.
34. I. T. Runes, General Standards of Living and Wages of Workers in the Philippine Sugar Industry (Manila: Philippine Council, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1939), pp. 29-30.
35. TT , October 4, 1934, p. 3; "Fact-finding Survey," p. 239; M , June 7, 1939, p. 3; "Annual Report of the Governor of Negros Occidental, August 28, 1939," p. 12, QP; interview with Antonio Angeles, Bacolor, July 28, 1970; interview with Eugenio Tabong, Lubao, August 13, 1970.
36. "Fact-finding Survey," p. 26; Pelzer, Pioneer Settlement , pp. 110-14; Varona, Negros , pp. 391-94; Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion.' A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 35-36; Frederick L. Wernstedt, "Agricultural Regionalism on Negros Island, Philippines" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1953), p. 212; M , December 23, 1939, p. 1; Notarios , 39660, 39763, 40028, 40030, Negros Occidental, PNA; letter from Santiago Diego, Isabela, Negros Occidental, to Secretary of Finance Manuel Roxas, Manila, June 18, 1940, RP.
37. Letter from Governor Pablo Angeles David, San Fernando, Pampanga, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, October 11, 1935, QP, p. 239; Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , p. 37; "Fact-finding Survey," pp. 13-14.
38. SN 7 (1926): 284-85.
39. M , December 2, 1936, p. 3; March 13, 1937, p. 1; April 10, 1937, p. 5; May 6, 1939, p. 2; SN 19 (1938): 516; "Fact-finding Survey," p. 198.
40. SN 20 (1939): 109, 254; interview with Eugenio Pangilinan, Angeles, July 24, 1970; interview with Juan Dalusung, Angeles, July 21, 1970; Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , p,. 43. Both Judge Hermogenes Reyes and Judge Jose M. Paredes actually passed favorably on tenant cases (TT , March 18, 1938, p. 16; February 6, 1941, p. 1; Gerardo Castro vs. Fausto de Los Reyes,
Civil Case no. 6887, Court of First Instance, Third Judicial District, January 24, 1941, QP).
41. Interview with Casto Alejandrino, Camp Crame, Quezon City, May 11, 1970; Philippine Commonwealth, President, 1935-1944 (Quezon), Speech of His Excellency, Manuel L. Quezon, President of the Philippines on New Deal for the Laboring Classes in the Philippines (Delivered before a mass gathering of farm laborers and tenants at San Fernando, Pampanga, February 14, 1939) .
42. Interview with Luis Taruc, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, June 17, 1970; SN 22 (1941): 231; Harlan R. Crippen, "Philippine Agrarian Unrest: Historical Backgrounds," Science and Society 10 (Fall 1946): 352-53.
43. M , January 3, 1940-March 16, 1940; SN 21 (1940): 107, 368, 551-52.
44. Interviews with four former sacadas and one cabo, Bugasong and Culasi, Antique, June 26-29, 1970.
45. Interviews with five former rice agsadors, Binalbagan and Isabela, June 10-25, 1970.
46. Alfred W. McCoy, "A Queen Dies Slowly: The Rise and Decline of Iloilo," in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations , ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus (Sidney: Allen and Unwin, 1982), pp. 338-44.
47. "Fact-finding Survey," pp. 84-97.
48. U.S. Department of State, Joint Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs: Report of May 20, 1938 , Publication 1216, Conference Series 36, 3 vols. in 4 wraps (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1938), 3:888.
49. Alfredo B. Saulo, Communism in the Philippines: An Introduction (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University, 1969), p. 34.
50. James S. Allen, The Radical Left on the Eve of War: A Political Memoir (Quezon City: Foundation for Nationalist Studies, 1985), pp. 47-49; "The Huks in Retrospect: A Failed Bid for Power," Solidarity 102 (1985): 99-103; interview with Luis Taruc, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, June 16, 1970; Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , pp. 51-53.
51. Taruc, Born of the People , pp. 33-46; PN , April 8-14, 1978, p. 2; Uldarico S. Baclagon, Lessons from the Huk Campaign in the Philippines (Manila: M. Colcol, 1960), pp. 270-71.
52. Letter from Mayor Agapito del Rosario, Angeles, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, July 30, 1941, QP; interview with Tiago Santiago, Florida-bianca, August 14, 1970.
53. Antonio S. Tan, The Ideology of Pedro Abad Santos' Socialist Party (Quezon City: Asian Center, University of the Philippines, 1984); David R. Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines, 1840-1940 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976), pp. 249-51; M , July 19,
1939, p. 1; Horn, Orphans , pp. 112-113; William J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1981), pp. 26-28.
54. Catherine Porter, Crisis in the Philippines (New York: Knopf, 1942), pp. 50-53; Dapen Liang, Philippine Parties and Politics: A Historical Study of National Experience in Democracy (San Francisco: Gladstone, 1970), pp. 227-34; Dante C. Simbulan, "The Socialist Movement in the Philippines" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1961), pp. 35-37.
55. Allen, Radical Left , pp. 76-80; Tan, Ideology , pp. 26-28; Horn, Orphans , p. 87; Philippine Statistical Review 2 (1935): 220.
56. "Fact-finding Survey," p. 54.
57. Gopinath, Quezon , p. 93.
58. SN 18 (1937): 135; 19 (1938): 390; 20 (1939): 251-52, 259, 425-29; M , July 12, 1939, p. 2; July 15, 1939, p. 2.
59. Veto Message of Manuel Quezon to the Members of the National Assembly, June 21, 1941, QP.
60. Letter from Jose A. de Jesus, Private Secretary to President Quezon, Manila, to Governor Sotero Baluyut, San Fernando, March 25, 1940; letter from Jose A. de Jesus, Private Secretary to President Quezon, Manila, to District Engineer Arturo Nitorreda, San Fernando, January 27, 1941; letter from Angel Morales, Municipal President, Lubao, to Mrs. Aurora Quezon, Manila, March 19, 1937; letter from Division Superintendent of Schools Venancio Trinidad, San Fernando, to Mrs. Aurora Quezon, Manila, October 24, 1939; Memorandum from Antonio K. Abad, Manila, to Mrs. Aurora Quezon, Manila, February 20, 1941; Extract of the Minutes of the Ordinary Session Celebrated by the Municipal Council of Arayat, Pampanga, April 15, 1939, QP; Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , pp. 55-58; Michael P. Onorato, "Some Views on the Quezon Manuscript Collection in Manila," Philippine Studies Newsletter 16 (March 1988): 13.
61. Confidential Memorandum from Justice Jose P. Laurel, Baguio, to Manuel Quezon, Baguio, May 31, 1941; Memorandum from Secretary of Labor Leon Guinto, Manila, to Manuel Quezon, Manila, May 23, 1941; cablegram from Governor Sotero Baluyut, San Fernando, to Manuel Quezon, January 1, 1938, QP; TT , February 21, 1939, p. 2; April 9, 1939, p. 32; June 19,1941, p. 16; M , October 24, 1940, p. 1; Sturtevant, Uprisings , pp. 249-51.
62. Conference between His Excellency, the President, and Mr. Wilkins of the Bulletin , February 9, 1939, QP; SN 18 (1937): 345-48; 21 (1940): 44-45.
63. McCoy, "Quezon's Commonwealth," p. 123; Gopinath, Quezon , chap. 2.
64. TT , February 6, 1938, magazine section, p. 42.
65. SN 18 (1937): 336,400; 20 (1939): 536-37; TT , January 14, 1941, p. 12; February 7, 1941, p. 9; February 12, 1941, p. 8; interview with Pablo Gonzales, Prado, Lubao, August 18, 1970; interview with Mateo Vitug, San Isidro, Lubao, August 13, 1970.
66. TT , February 18, 1941, p. 2; interview with Federico Villaforte, Pulupandan, June 15, 1970; Uldarico S. Baclagon, They Chose to Fight: The Story of the Resistance Movement on Negros and Siquijor Islands (Quezon City: Capitol, 1962), pp. 2-3; Higinio de Uriarte, A Basque among the Guerrillas of Negros (Bacolod City: Civismo Weekly, 1962), pp. 18-22; PN , April 7-13, 1979, p. 4.
67. Correspondence of Manuel Quezon, Bais, Negros Oriental, February 26, 1942 to March 13, 1942, QP; Manuel Luis Quezon, The Good Fight (New York: Appleton-Century, 1946), p. 288.
1. Thomas R. McHale, "The Sugar Industry of the Philippines in the 1970s," paper presented at the PDCP-UPIEDR Lecture Series, Manila, January 20, 1970, pp. 80-86; Teodoro A. Agoncillo, The Fateful Years: Japan's Adventure in the Philippines, 1941-1945 , 2 vols. (Quezon City: R. P. Garcia, 1965), 2: 524-31; Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), chap. 3; Higinio de Uriarte, A Basque among the Guerrillas of Negros (Bacolod: Civismo Weekly, 1962), chap. 2.
2. Minutes of the Meeting of Sugar Planters Held at the Cosmos Building, Bacolod City, on May 24, 1943, at 10 A.M., QP; Uldarico S. Baclagon, They Chose to Fight: The Story of the Resistance Movement in Negros and Siquijor Islands (Quezon City: Capitol, 1962), chaps. 9-10; Uriarte, Basque , chaps. 16-20; Donn V. Hart, "Guerrilla Warfare and the Filipino Resistance on Negros Island in the Bisayas, 1942-1945," Journal of Southeast Asian History 5 (March 1964); Hawaiian Philippine Company, Map of Portions of the Silay-Saravia Cadastre, Negros Occidental, Philippines, Showing the Status of Property within the Company's District—Revised February 4, 1949 (Honolulu).
3. Alfred W. McCoy," 'Politics by Other Means': World War II in the Western Visayas, Philippines," in Southeast Asia Under Japanese Occupation , ed. Alfred W. McCoy, Monograph Series, no. 22 (New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1980), pp. 191-206; Philippine Republic (Japanese Occupation), Department of Interior, Speech Delivered by the Commissioner of the Interior, Honorable Benigno S. Aquino, Before the Officers of the USAFFE in Camp Stotsenburg, Pampanga on July 31, 1942 ; Baldomero T. Olivera, Jose Yulo.' The Selfless Statesman (Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: U.P.-Jorge B. Vargas Filipini-
ana Research Center, 1981), chaps. 19-25; Nick Joaquin, The Aquinos of Tarlac: An Essay on History as Three Generations (Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Cacho Hermanos, 1983), chap. 6; Luis Taruc, Born of the People (New York: International, 1953), p. 58; PN , January 16-22, 1975, p. 11; William Alexander Sutherland, Not by Might: The Epic of the Philippines (Las Cruces, N.M.; Southwest, 1953), p. 94.
4. Erich H. Jacoby, Agrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia , 2nd ed. (London: Asia Publishing House, 1961), pp. 227-32; Shirley Jenkins, American Economic Policy Toward the Philippines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1954), chaps. 4-7.
5. McHale, "Sugar Industry," pp. 87-95; Carlos Quirino, History of the Philippine Sugar Industry (Manila: Kalayaan, 1974), pp. 58-69, 135-36; Yoshiko Nagano, "Philippine Sugar Industry in the Export-Oriented Economy—A Thorny Road to Modernization," paper submitted to the Third World Studies Program, University of the Philippines, August 10, 1978, pp. 13-17; Olivera, Jose Yulo , pp. 166-68.
6. Quirino, History , pp. 137-45; Olivera, Jose Yulo , chap. 31.
7. Kerkvliet, Huk Rebellion , chaps. 5-7; Taruc, Born of the People , pp. 212-77; Alfred W. McCoy, "A Queen Dies Slowly: The Rise and Decline of Iloilo," in Philippine Social History: Global Trade and Local Transformations , ed. Alfred W. McCoy and Ed. C. de Jesus (Sidney: Allen and Unwin, 1982), p. 345; PN , November 13-19, 1976, p. 13.
8. Antonio Ledesma, Gerry Bulatao, Nini Abarquez, Felix Pasquin, and Rufino Suplido, eds., Liberation in Sugarland: Readings on Social Problems in the Sugar Industry (Manila: KIBAPIL, 1971), pp. 55-65.
9. Nagano, "Thorny Road," p. 10; Gary Hawes, The Philippine State and the Marcos Regime: The Politics of Export (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987), p. 91.
10. Rosalinda Pineda-Ofreneo, "The Philippine Sugar Crisis in an International Setting," Journal of Contemporary Asia 15 (1985): 465; Hawes, Marcos Regime , p. 176; interview with Hacendero Allan Gamboa, Bacolod, August 11, 1973; Norman W. Schul, "Changing Land Use in a Western Negros Sugar Cane District," paper given at the First Annual Conference of the Philippine Studies Association, Western Michigan University, May 25-June 1, 1980, pp. 12-13.
11. Nagano, "Thorny Road," pp. 17-18.
12. Howard M. Leichter, Political Regime and Public Policy in the Philippines: A Comparison of Bacolod and Iloilo Cities , Special Report, no. 11 (DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1975), pp. 45-49; interview with Father Henares and Brother Armand, La Salle High School, Bacolod, July 28, 1973; interview with Brother Daniel Ortiz, La Salle College, Bacolod, August 11, 1973; Far Eastern Economic Review , June 24, 1974, p. 70; PN , December 13-19, 1973-September 10-16, 1977; Maria Vida P. Ventura-Dacumos, "Study
of Elites in a Modernizing Community: Three Approaches in the Study of Community Power Structure" (M.A. thesis, University of the Philippines, 1970).
13. Ledesma et al., Liberation , pp. 71-78, 81-87. See also Frank Lynch, S.J., A Bittersweet Taste of Sugar: A Preliminary Report on the Sugar Industry in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1970); The Sugar Workers of Negros (n.p.: Association of Major Religious Superiors in the Philippines, 1975); Dennis Shoesmith, ed., The Politics of Sugar: Studies of the Sugar Industry in the Philippines , People Monograph, no. 1 (Frankton, Australia: Asian Bureau Australia, 1977); Pahayag (Honolulu), March-April 1977, pp. 9-11; Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., The Making of Cane Sugar: Poverty, Crisis and Change in Negros Occidental , La Salle Monograph Series, no. 2 (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1984).
14. Action Now 1, no. 44 (October 18, 1969). See also Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, The Sacadas of Negros: A Poverty Profile , Research Notes Series, no. 1 (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1984), p. 10; idem, The Sugarcane Workers in Transition: The Nature and Context of Labor Circulation in Negros Occidental (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1985), pp. 2-3; interview with Alan Gamboa, Bacolod, August 11, 1973; Yoshiko Nagano, Share Tenancy and Landless Rural Workers: Reflections on the Feudalism and Capitalism Debate , The Philippines in the Third World Papers Series, no. 40 (Quezon City: Third World Studies Center, University of the Philippines, 1984), pp. 18-33. Scott Guggenheim, at the Third World Studies Center, University of the Philippines, on August 12, 1982, noted that sacadas from Negros Occidental now cut cane in and around Tuguegarao, Cagayan, in northern Luzon.
15. Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition (Manila: Sugar News Press, 1972), p. 80 foldout; Yoshiko Nagano, "Philippine Sugar Economy in Crisis: Views from the Center and the Periphery," Philippine Journal of Industrial Relations 8 (1986): 106-9; Ponciano Intal, Cristina David, and Gerald Nelson, "Philippine Economic Policies and Agricultural Development: A Review and an Agenda for the Future," paper given at the Seminar on Economic Development in the Philippines: Analysis and Perspectives, School of Economics, University of the Philippines, December 5-6, 1985, p. 26; David Reinah, "Philippine Sugar Industry Market Considerations and United States Policy," in Rebuilding a Nation: Philippine Challenges and American Policy , ed. Carl H. Landé (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute Press, 1987), pp. 144-51; Pineda-Ofreneo, "Sugar Crisis," pp. 466-68.
16. Emmanuel S. de Dios, ed., An Analysis of the Philippine Economic Crisis: A Workshop Report (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1984), pp. 42-49; Fortune , February 1977, pp. 106-14; Charles C. McDougald, The Marcos File: Was He a Philippine Hero or a Corrupt
Tyrant? (San Francisco: San Francisco Publishers, 1987), pp. 233-38; Hawes, pp. 94-99; Philippine Times (Chicago), December 10, 1979, p. 5; Buffalo News , February 5, 1984, p. 1; Far Eastern Economic Review , October 3, 1980, p. 37; April 18, 1985, pp. 60-63; Pineda-Ofreneo, "Sugar Crisis," pp. 461-63; Reinah, "Market Considerations," pp. 141, 143-45, 152; interview with Father Edgar Saginsin, La Carlota, August 11, 1973; interview with Carlos Ledesma, Makati, March 12, 1986; George C. Abbott, Sugar (London: Routledge, 1990).
17. Interview with Attorney Johnny Hagad, Offices of Hilado and Hilado, Bacolod, November 5, 1982; interview with Joe Dureza, Bacolod, November 4, 1982; Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, Crisis in Sugarlandia: The Planters' Differential Perceptions and Responses and Their Impact on Sugarcane Workers' Households (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1986), chap. 3. One planter described Benedicto's credit stranglehold through the RPB as having the hacenderos "by the eggs" (interview with Juvy Dianongco, Kabankalan, November 6, 1982).
18. Nagano, "Crisis," pp. 111-13; Philippine Sugar Handbook, 1972 Edition , p. 18; "A Preliminary Study on the Sugar Centrals in Mindanao," Mindanao Focus 3 (January 1986): 4-24; Alfred W. McCoy, "Rural Philippines: Technological Change in the Sugar Industry," in The Philippines after Marcos , ed. R. J. May and Francisco Nemenzo (London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985), pp. 175-90.
19. Violeta Lopez-Gonzaga, Crisis and Poverty in Sugarlandia: The Case of Bacolod , Monograph Series, no. 3 (Bacolod: La Salle Social Research Center, 1985), chap. 2; PN , February 5-11, 1977, p. 2.
20. Realidad Santico-Rolda, "The Capampangan Changing Life Styles: A Case Study," in Seven Probes in Rural South East Asia: Socio-Economic and Anthropological , ed. Barend Jan Terwiel (Gaya, Bihar: Centre for South East Asian Studies, 1979), pp. 51-63; PN , January 15-21, 1977-August 5-11, 1978; Bulletin Today , July 18, 1982, p. 2; Asiaweek , December 3, 1982, p. 47.
21. Conrado F. Estrella, Philippine Report: Agrarian Reform in the New Society (Manila: By the Author, 1974), pp. 129-93; interview with Gerry Rodriguez, General Manager of Pasudeco, San Fernando, March 11, 1986.
22. PN , March 14-20, 1974-May 20-26, 1978; "Preparing for Revolution in the Philippines: The United Front in the Philippines," Southeast Asia Chronicle 62 (May-June, 1978): 14-16; New York Times , November 23, 1965, p. 14; Richard J. Kessler, Rebellion and Repression in the Philippines (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
23. Interviews with Gerry Rodriguez, March 11, 1986; Alfredo Arrastia, Pasudeco, March 11, 1986; interview with Gloria and Dan Deegan, members of Samahan Ngayon Dampe, Floridablanca, April 3, 1992; PN , November 28-December 4, 1974, p. 12.
24. Interview with Edgardo Yap, Executive Vice-president, Philippine Sugar Association, Makati, March 12, 1986; interview with Sister Milagros Dayrit, on flight between Bacolod and Manila, March 14, 1986; New York Times , October 18, 1987, p. 20.
25. PN , July 29-August 4, 1978, p. 3; Philippine Daily Inquirer , March 8, 1986, p. 16; Ang Pahayagang Malaya (Manila), March 15, 1986, p. 12; Wall Street Journal , April 3, 1986, pp. 1, 10; Asiaweek , April 12, 1986, p. 26; Star (Kuala Lumpur), June 27, 1987, p. 13; New Straits Times (Kuala Lumpur), June 29, 1987; "The Negros Enigma," Diliman Review 34 (1988), no. 4, 14-20; John A. Larkin, "Father Gore Faces Murder, Gun Charges," National Catholic Reporter , March 4, 1983, p. 6; Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Australia, 1984); Niall O'Brien, Seeds of Injustice: Reflections on the Murder Frame-up of the Negros Nine in the Philippines (Dublin: O'Brien Press, 1985).
26. Pineda-Ofreneo, "Sugar Crisis," p. 455; Asiaweek , January 28, 1988, p. 62; World Bank, Annual Report, 1988 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988), p. 91.
27. Yoshiko Nagano, "Agrarian Reform under Aquino: A Macro-View from Negros," Solidarity 120 (October-December 1988): 83-90.