Notes
1. See Roy Porter, "History Says No to the Policeman's Response to AIDS," British Medical Journal 2 (1986): 1589-1590.
2. See the discussion of Professor Julian Peto's proposals in R. Mckie, Panic : The Story of AIDS (New York: Thorson's, 1986), 102-107, and of Professor Richard Doll in J. Laurance, "The Ethics of Testing for AIDS," New Society , 13 February 1987, 20. For other medical views see E. D. Acheson (chief medical officer to the Department of Health and Social Security), "AIDS: A Challenge to the Public Health," The Lancet 1 (22 March 1986): 662-666, and "British Medical Association's Evidence on AIDS to Parliament," British Medical Journal 1 (1987): 61. For further general histories and medical background, see Graham Hancock and Enver Carim, AIDS : The Deadly Epidemic (London: Victor Gollancz, 1986); Nicholas Wells, The AIDS Virus : Forecasting Its Impact (London: Office of Health Economics, 1986).
3. M. Fitzpatrick and D. Milligan, The Truth about the AIDS Panic (London: Junius, 1987); M. D. Kirby, "AIDS Legislation—Turning Up the Heat?" Journal of Medical Ethics 12 (1986): 187-194; Raanan Gillon (editor of the Journal of Medical Ethics ), quoted in Laurance, "The Ethics of Testing for AIDS," 20; Nigel Pugh, "Civil Rights under Threat," Community Care : The Independent Voice of Social Work , 22 January 1987, 13-15.
4. See R. Lambert, Sir John Simon , 1816-1904 , and English Social Administration (London: Macgibbon and Kee, 1963); and A. Wohl, Endangered Lives : Public Health in Victorian Britain (London: Methuen, 1984).
5. See W. M. Frazer, History of English Public Health , 1834-1939 (London: Ballière, Tindall & Cox, 1950); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (New-York: M. D. Publications, 1958); C. F. Brockington, The History of Public Health in the Nineteenth Century (Edinburgh: Livingstone, 1965); R. H. Shryock, The Development of Modern Medicine (1937; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979).
6. For discussion see Medical Fringe and Medical Orthodoxy , ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
7. Don Locke, William Godwin : A Fantasy of Reason (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
8. George Rosen, From Medical Police to Social Medicine (New York: Sci-
ence History Publications, 1974), 120-157, and for a much earlier instance, R. Palmer, "The Control of Plague in Venice and Northern Italy, 1348-1600" (Ph.D. diss., University of Kent, 1978). The concept of medical police had been more readily taken up in Scotland by Andrew Duncan and his successors; see B. White, "Training Medical Policemen," paper presented at the conference on the History of Legal Medicine, University of Lancaster, 1987. In England the most aggressive policing had been used during the seventeenth-century plague years. See P. Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985).
9. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859; Harmmondsworth: Penguin Classics, 1986).
10. R. P. Anschutz, The Philosophy of J . S . Mill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); Isaiah Berlin, Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); Gertrude Himmelfarb, On Liberty and Liberalism : The Case of John Stuart Mill (New York: Knopf, 1974).
11. S. E. Finer, The Life and Times of Edwin Chadwick (London: Methuen, 1952), 319-474.
12. Lambert, Sir John Simon , 261-560; R. M. Macleod, "The Anatomy of State Medicine," in Medicine and Science in the 1860s , ed. F. N. L. Poynter (London: Wellcome Institute, 1968), 201-227.
13. Wohl, Endangered Lives , 199, 308-319.
14. Lambert, Sir John Simon , 250-258.
15. Quoted by David Roberts, Paternalism in Early Victorian England (London: Croom Helm, 1979), 200.
16. Paul McHugh, Prostitution and Victorian Social Reform (London: Croom Helm, 1982), 35-43; Judith Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society : Women , Class and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 69-89.
17. Sir Arthur Whitlegge and Sir George Newman, Hygiene and Public Health (London: Cassell, 1917), 526-543; D. E. Watkins, "The English Revolution in Social Medicine" (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1984), 214-239.
18. Sir John Simon, Report of the Medical Officer to the Local Government Board , vol. 9 (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1869), 11.
19. Finer, Edwin Chadwick , 12-37; see also R. A. Lewis, Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement (London: Longmans, Green, 1952).
20. For a review of the debate see R. M. Macleod, "Statesmen Undisguised," American Historical Review 78 (1973): 1386-1405.
21. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization : A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason , trans. Richard Howard (New York: Random House, 1985).
22. W. L. Parry-Jones, The Trade in Lunacy (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971), 14.
23. N. Hervey, "The Lunacy Commission, 1845-60, with Special Reference to the Implementation of Policy in Kent and Surrey" (Ph.D. diss., University of Bristol, 1987).
24. D. J. Mellett, The Prerogative of Asylumdom (New York: Garland, 1982).
25. See Henry Rumsey, Essay on State Medicine (London: Churchill, 1856),
and Essays and Papers on Some Fallacies of Statistics (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1875), 30-36; John Simon, English Sanitary Institutions (London: Cassell, 1890), 433-487.
26. B. J. Stern, Should We Be Vaccinated? A Survey of the Controversy in Its Historical and Scientific Aspects (London: Harper, 1927), 58-61.
27. William White, The Story of a Great Delusion (London: Allen, 1885), is the best account of the history of the antivaccination movement told by a historian from within the movement's own ranks. In this vein, see also William Scott Tebb, A Century of Vaccination and What It Teaches Us (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1899).
28. Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, "The Politics of Compulsory Smallpox Vaccination and the Gloucester Epidemic 1895-96," Medical History , forthcoming.
29. Porter and Porter, ibid.; R. M. Macleod, "Law, Medicine and Public Opinion: The Resistance to Compulsory Health Legislation, 1870-1907," Public Law 107 (1967): 189-211.
30. Stuart M. F. Fraser, "Leicester and Smallpox: The Leicester Method," Medical History 24 (1980): 315-332.
31. Lambert, Sir John Simon , 391-394, 437-447.
32. Porter and Porter, "The Politics of Smallpox Vaccination."
33. Alain Corbin, Les Filles de Noce (Paris, 1978), and "Commercial Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century France: A System of Images and Regulations," in The Making of the Modern Body : Sexuality and Society in the Nineteenth Century , ed. C. Gallagher and T. Laqueur (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), 209-219.
34. McHugh, Prostitution , 35-53; Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society , 69-89.
35. McHugh, Prostitution , 55-70.
36. Walkowitz, Prostitution , 77.
37. Keith Thomas, "The Double Standard," Journal of the History of Ideas 20 (1959): 195-210.
38. McHugh, Prostitution , 48; Lambert, Simon , 405-406.
39. Walkowitz, Prostitution , 108-136.
40. This was a quotation from Francis W. Newman, professor at University College London, which the Vaccination Inquirer frequently used, together with the quotation from Mill, as an epigraph to each issue. See, for example, April-July 1894.
41. Fitzpatrick and Milligan, AIDS Panic , 1-4. There are historical parallels of scaremongering during the cholera epidemics of the nineteenth century leading to a variety of social responses, from "choleraphobia" to riot. See Michael Durey, The Return of the Plague : British Society and Cholera 1831-32 (London: Gill and Macmillan Humanities Press, 1979), 131-140, and R. J. Morris, Cholera 1832 : The Social Response to an Epidemic (London: Croom Helm, 1976), 95-127; Roy Porter, "Plague and Panic," New Society (12 December 1986): 11-13.
42. Watkins, "English Revolution in Social Medicine"; Whitlegge and Newman, Hygiene , 526-543; A. Newsholme, Hygiene and Public Health (London:
Gill, 1902), 317-334; B. Burnett Ham, Handbook of Sanitary Law (1899; London: Lewis, 1938), 69-94.
43. This is true with the exception of emergency powers for medical policing introduced during periods of widespread epidemics such as cholera in 1832-1833. See Durey, Return of the Plague , and Morris, Cholera 1832 .
44. Watkins, "English Revolution," 299-302.
45. Thomas Crawford, "The Position of Medical Officers of Health in Regard to the Administration and Working of the Infectious Diseases and Notification Act," Journal of the Sanitary Institute 16 (1895-96): 353-361.
46. Watkins, "English Revolution," 215-216, 301-302.
47. Morris, Cholera 1832 , 109-114.
48. Ibid., 97.
47. Morris, Cholera 1832 , 109-114.
48. Ibid., 97.
49. "The Control of Venereal Diseases," Public Health 26 (1913): 51-52; "The History of the Fight against Venereal Disease," British Medical Journal 2 (1916): 230-231.
50. Public Health 26, ibid., 51. The editorial in Public Health is quoting from an official inquiry into venereal disease, undertaken for the Local Government Board by Dr. R. W. Johnstone in 1912 and published as part of the Annual Report of the Medical Officer of the Local Government Board , 1913-14 .
51. "Final Report of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases," The Lancet 1 (1916): 575-576; "The Treatment of Venereal Diseases by the State," The Lancet 2 (1916): 869-870.
52. See quotations from Johnstone's report and Arthur Newsholme's introduction in the Annual Report of the Medical Officer to the Local Government Board , 1913-14 in Frazer, History of English Public Health , 338. See also Arthur Newsholme, Medicine and the State (London: Allen and Unwin, 1932), 212.
53. Final Report of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases [cd.8189] (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1916).
54. Ibid., 60-62; The Lancet 1 (1916): 575-576.
53. Final Report of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases [cd.8189] (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1916).
54. Ibid., 60-62; The Lancet 1 (1916): 575-576.
55. The Venereal Diseases Act, 1917.
56. Final Report . . . on Venereal Diseases , 64. For a history of some of the controversies that surrounded the education policy, see Bridget A. Towers, "Health Education Policy 1916-1926: Venereal Disease and the Prophylaxis Dilemma," Medical History 24 (1980): 70-87.
57. "The Prevention and Treatment of Venereal Diseases: The Intervention of the State," The Lancet 1 (1916): 153-154; "The Fight against Venereal Disease," The Lancet 1 (1916): 682; "The State Treatment of Venereal Diseases," The Lancet 2 (1916): 283-284.
58. Towers, "Health Education," 75-77, 80-83.
59. "Control of Venereal Disease," British Medical Journal 2 (1942): 611-612.
60. "Medical Society for the Study of Venereal Diseases," The Lancet 1 (1942): 561-562.
61. The Lancet 2 (1916): 284.
62. British Medical Journal 2 (1942): 611.
63. "Venereal Disease in War-Time," The Lancet 2 (1942): 21.
64. "New Compulsory Powers in Control of Venereal Disease," The Lancet 2 (1942): 589; N. P. Shannon, "The Compulsory Treatment of Venereal Diseases under Regulation 33B," British Journal of Venereal Diseases 19 (1943): 22-25.
65. British Medical Journal 2 (1942): 611.
66. The Lancet 1 (1943): 691-692.
67. The Lancet 1 (1944): 167.
68. The Lancet 1 (1943): 723.
69. British Medical Journal 2 (1942): 612.
70. The Lancet 1 (1946): 615-616.
71. Ibid., 615.
70. The Lancet 1 (1946): 615-616.
71. Ibid., 615.
72. "Control of Venereal Disease," The Lancet 2 (1942): 577-578; the Ministry of Health and The Central Council for Health Education, "Ten Plain Facts About V.D.," newspaper advertisement issued in 1942.
73. The Lancet 2 (1942): 738.
74. The Lancet 1 (1943): 317 (27 February).
75. R. A. Lyster, "Prevention of Venereal Disease," The Lancet 1 (1943): 476. Lyster was then president of the National Society for the Prevention of Venereal Disease.
76. Shakespeare Cooke, "Prevention of Venereal Disease," The Lancet 1 (1943): 350-351. See also correspondence of James Sequeira in The Lancet throughout 1943.
77. Ibid., 511.
76. Shakespeare Cooke, "Prevention of Venereal Disease," The Lancet 1 (1943): 350-351. See also correspondence of James Sequeira in The Lancet throughout 1943.
77. Ibid., 511.
78. The Lancet 1 (1945): 324; "Venereal Diseases: Educational Campaign," Ministry of Health Circulars 42/45 and 92/45, 1945.
79. Frank Mort has suggested that the British state opted for a basically noninterventionist policy with regard to STDs largely because the "personal life of mass society" remained outside the traditional boundaries of its broader political culture. See Frank Mort, Dangerous Sexualities : Medico-Moral Politics in England since 1830 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987). For a history of American policy, including the current issues surrounding the AIDS epidemic, see Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet : A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880—With a New Chapter on AIDS (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).