1. La Mettrie, Man a Machine, pp. 71 (French), 141 (English).

2. Ibid., pp. 70 (French), 140–41 (English).

3. Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, “Discours préliminaire,” in Encyclopédie, vol. 1, p. xiii; idem, Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, trans. Richard N. Schwab (Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), pp. 42–43.

4. “O” [d’Alembert], “Androïde,” and “Automate,” in Encyclopédie, vol. 1, pp. 448–51 and 896–97, respectively.

5. Howard C. Rice, Jr., Thomas Jefferson’s Paris (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 79.

6. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia in Writings, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Library of America, 1984), pp. 190–91.

7. [Diderot], “Art,” in Encyclopédie, vol. 1, pp. 713–17. Cobban, History of Modern France, vol. 1, p. 113, writes of Louis XVI: “He was a better locksmith—for in true Rousseauist fashion he had learnt a manual craft—than king.”

8. Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), chaps. 1, 2; concluding summary of his argument on pp. 270–81.

9. d’Alembert, “Discours préliminaire,” in Encyclopédie, vol. 1, p. xiii; idem, Preliminary Discourse, p. 42.

10. Tulard, Fayard, and Fierro, Histoire et dictionnaire de la Révolution, p. 601; Charles Coulton Gillispie, Science and Polity in France at the End of the Old Regime (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1980), pp. 459–60; “Patent,” in The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., 32 vols. (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1974), vol. 9, pp. 194–95.

11. “Espozione,” in Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, 36 vols. (Rome: Istituto Giovanni Treccani, 1929–39), vol. 14, pp. 363–64; Colmont, Histoire des expositions des produits, pp. 317–18. Industrial expositions were held in Paris in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, and 1849. There were 110 exhibitors in 1798 and more than 4,000 exhibitors in 1849.

12. Zeldin, France 1848–1945, vol. 2, p. 613.

13. Vidocq, À M. le Président, p. 7.

14. Gazette des tribunaux 6, no. 1739 (11 March 1831): 440.

15. Colmont, Histoire des expositions des produits, pp. 327, 556.

16. Ibid., pp. 53, 157–64.

17. Heine, Lutèce, p. 221, refers to Liszt as the “knight-errant of every or-der.” Liszt titled one of his virtuoso showpieces the “Grand galop chromatique.” Walker, Franz Liszt, vol. 1, pp. 294–95, lists the cities where Liszt gave concerts between 1838 and 1847.

18. Robert Darnton, “Philosophers Trim the Tree of Knowledge: The Epistemological Strategy of the Encyclopédie, ” in The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York: Vintage, 1984), p. 198.

19. d’Alembert, “Discours préliminaire,” in Encyclopédie, vol. 1, p. xiii; idem, Preliminary Discourse, p. 42.

20. On the Académie des Sciences encyclopedia: Frederick B. Artz, The Development of Technical Education in France, 1500–1850 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), p. 72. See also Robert L. Collison, Encyclopedias: Their History throughout the Ages (London: Hafner, 1966), pp. 108–9 (Oekonomisch-technologische Encyklopädie), 110–12 (Encyclopédie méthodique), chap. 4 (Encyclopédie of Diderot and d’Alembert), chap. 5 (Encyclopædia Britannica), chap. 6 (Conversations-Lexikon), p. 174 (Carlyle’s quotation); “Encyclopedias and Dictionaries,” in The New Encyclopedia Britannica, 30 vols. (Chicago, 1986), vol. 18, pp. 365–94; “Encyclopédie,” in Grand dictionnaire encyclopédique Larousse, 10 vols. (Paris, 1983), vol. 4, pp. 3734–35.

21. Paul Hazard, European Thought in the Eighteenth Century, from Montesquieu to Lessing, trans. J. Lewis May (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1973), pt. 2, chap. 6; Mornet, Rousseau, pp. 144–49; Artz, Development of Technical Education, pp. 65–71; Harvey Chisick, The Limits of Reform in the Enlightenment: Attitudes toward the Education of the Lower Classes in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981), esp. pp. 167–75; F[rançois] de La Fontainerie, ed., trans., and intro., French Liberalism and Education in the Eighteenth Century: The Writings of La Chalotais, Turgot, Diderot, and Condorcet on National Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1932).

22. Bourrienne, Mémoires de M. de Bourrienne, vol. 1, pp. 25–26; Tulard, Napoléon, ou Le mythe du sauveur, p. 41.

23. Artz, Development of Technical Education, pp. 87–98.

24. Zeldin, France 1848–1945, vol. 2, p. 333.

25. Artz, Development of Technical Education, p. 147.

26. Gillispie, Edge of Objectivity, pp. 175–78; idem, Science and Polity in France, p. 74.

27. Robert B. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1967), p. 116, chap. 7, “The Educator”; Artz, Development of Technical Education, pp. 133–35, 145–46; Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, pp. 31–37.

28. Henry May, The Enlightenment in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), p. 212, observes, “Great ages of science seem to be associated not with frugal and Spartan republics but with centralized and even warlike national or imperial states.”

29. Gillispie, Science and Polity in France, pp. 21 (quotation), 50–65 (Gunpowder Administration).

30. Alfred Cobban, “The Myth of the French Revolution,” an inaugural lecture delivered at University College, London, 6 May 1954 (London: H. K. Lewis for University College, 1955), app., pp. 22–25.

31. Tulard, Fayard, and Fierro, Histoire et dictionnaire de la Révolution, pp. 506, 888, 1106–7.

32. Maurice Daumas, ed., Histoire générale des techniques, 5 vols. (Paris: P.U.F., 1962–79), vol. 3, pp. 417 (Conté), 659 (million-franc prize). On Conté: Henry Petroski, The Pencil: A History of Design and Circumstance (New York: Knopf, 1992), chap. 6. The source of the quotation of Fain, secretary to Napoleon: Baron [Agathon-Jean-François] Fain, Mémoires du baron Fain (Paris: Plon, 1908), p. 153. The source of Gillispie’s quotation: Gillispie, Science and Polity in France, p. 22. See also Fernand Beaucour, “Techniques,” in Dictionnaire Napoléon, pp. 1627–31.

33. Philidor, L’Analyze des échecs, 1749 ed., unpaginated pref.

34. Editions discussed here: ibid.; Analyse du jeu des échecs (London: n.p., 1777); Analysis of the Game of Chess (London: P. Elmsly, 1790). Unfortunately, the last edition published by Philidor did not bring together all of his general principles of play, many of which had been collected in a few pages of a holograph manuscript of the 1780s but which in the publication of 1790 were dispersed among the analyses of particular games. The holograph manuscript: “Manuscript believed to be in the handwriting of Philidor” [1780s], John G. White Collection, Fine Arts and Special Collections Dept., Cleveland Public Library, Cleveland, Ohio.

35. Société des amateurs [Verdoni, Léger, Carlier, and Bernard], Traité théorique et pratique du jeu des échecs (Paris: Stoupe, 1775).

36. Eales, Chess, pp. 114–15.

37. Cussy, “L’Art culinaire,” in Classiques de la table, 1855 ed., vol. 1, p. 361.

38. Michel, Études de philologie comparée sur l’argot, pp. i–xxii, esp. xvi–xvii; Émile Chautard, La Vie étrange de l’argot (Paris: Denoël et Steele, 1931), p. 7; Sainéan, Sources de l’argot ancien, vol. 2, pp. 4–12, 97–108.

39. Vidocq, Voleurs, 1957 ed., pt. 3.

40. “Paganini’s Concert,” Times (London), Monday, 6 June 1831, p. 7; Fétis, Biographical Notice of Nicolo Paganini, p. 79; Pulver, Paganini, the Romantic Virtuoso, pp. 211, 318; Schwarz, Great Masters of the Violin, pp. 157, 168.

41. Schwarz, Great Masters of the Violin, p. 196; Walker, Franz Liszt, vol. 1, p. 307.

42. Root-Bernstein, Boulevard Theater and Revolution, pp. 34–37, 49–50, 64–65, 235–36, finds that the evolution of fair and boulevard theater generally supports Burke’s hypothesis. Isherwood, Farce and Fantasy, pp. 37–38, 250, does not find distinct elite and popular theatrical cultures in eighteenth-century Paris, contrary to Burke’s hypothesis, but he does find that fair and boulevard theater attracted the elite more and more over the course of the century.

43. Albert, Théâtres de la foire, p. 5, argues that acrobatics was so important to the fair theaters that “les premiers et les plus célèbres de leurs acteurs seront toujours en même temps de très agile sauteurs ou danseurs de corde, et dans leurs pièces les plus littéraires il y aura presque toujours place pour des exercices de force et d’adresse. Comme le drame antique est sorti des danses de vignerons grecs, la comédie foraine est née des danses d’acrobates français.” For examples of funambulist routines: Isherwood, Farce and Fantasy, pp. 38–41. For information on Nicolet’s players in this paragraph and the next: Albert, Théâtres de la foire, pp. 221–32; idem, Théâtres des boulevards, chap. 1; Henri Beaulieu, Les Théâtres du boulevard du crime (1752–1862) (Geneva: Slatkine, 1977; reprint of Paris ed., 1904), pp. 11–16; Brazier, Chroniques des petits théâtres de Paris, vol. 1, pp. 12–25; Root-Bernstein, Boulevard Theater and Revolution, passim; Isherwood, Farce and Fantasy, pp. 167–80. On Lalanne, the father of Mme Saqui: Ginisty, Mémoires d’une danseuse de corde, p. 30. On the inclusion of gymnastics in the fête of 1799: Ozouf, La Fête révolutionnaire, pp. 44–45. For information on Mme Saqui: Ginisty, Mémoires d’une danseuse de corde, pp. 84–132; Beaulieu, Théâtres du boulevard du crime, p. 47.

44. For information on Nicolet’s players, see the previous note. On the use of Philidor’s music in boulevard theater: Winter, Theatre of Marvels, p. 17; idem, “Le Spectacle forain,” in Histoire des spectacles, p. 1448. For information on Placide: idem, Theatre of Marvels, pp. 15–17; idem, “Le Spectacle forain,” in Histoire des spectacles, pp. 1447–49. In both of these works, Winter repeatedly insists on the importance of acrobatics in the evolution of the theaters of the fairs into the theaters of the Boulevard du Temple.

45. August von Kotzebue, Erinnerungen aus Paris im Jahre 1804 (Berlin: Frölich, 1804), pp. 497–98. On the excessive use of pirouettes by early-nineteenth-century French dancers, see also Ivor Guest, The Romantic Ballet in Paris (London: Dance Books, 1980), p. 17.

46. The source of the “French male dancers” quotation: Winter, Theatre of Marvels, p. 85. Lincoln Kirstein, Dance: A Short History of Classic Theatrical Dancing (New York: Dance Horizons, 1969), p. 229, writes of the same period: “The French had not been slow to abuse their reputation for virtuosity.” For the evolution of dancing sur la pointe out of fair theater acrobatics: Guest, Romantic Ballet in Paris, pp. 17–18; Winter, Theatre of Marvels, p. 123. The source of the “victory for the ballerina” quotation: Bronislaw Horowicz, “Le Romantisme: La mise en scène d’opéra et le ballet,” in Histoire des spectacles, p. 955. Kirstein, Dance, p. 246, writes: “Taglioni inaugurated the brilliant, dangerous tradition of modern virtuosity.”

47. Winter, Theatre of Marvels, p. 66.

48. On the recognition of Masson as European champion: Evan Baillie Noel and J. O. M. Clark, A History of Tennis, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1924), vol. 1, p. 91; Albert de Luze, La Magnifique histoire du jeu de paume (Bordeaux/Paris: Delmas/Bossard, 1933), p. 340; Morys George Lyndhurst Bruce, Baron Aberdare, The Willis Faber Book of Tennis and Rackets (London: Stanley Paul, 1980), p. 335. The Parisian glazier Ménétra mentions Masson in his autobiography; see Ménétra, Journal of My Life, pp. 192–94. On the acrobatics of Masson: [comte de Mannevieux or Manevieux], Traité sur la connoissance du royal jeu de paume…par M. de Man***eux, amateur (Neuchâtel: n.p., 1783), pp. 140–42. On the acrobatics of Labbé, Barre, and Delahaye: Julian Marshall, The Annals of Tennis (Baltimore: Racquet Sports and Information Services, 1973; reprint of 1st ed., London, 1878), p. 49, incl. note 1; E. Nanteuil [de Lanorville], G. de Saint-Clair, and [Charles] Delahaye, La Paume et le lawn-tennis (Paris: Hachette, 1898), p. 102. The original source of this information appears to be Eugène Chapus (the author is often erroneously listed as Édouard Fournier, who wrote the preface), Le Jeu de paume, son histoire et sa description (Paris: Didier, 1862); see Aberdare, Willis Faber Book of Tennis and Rackets, p. 81.

49. Harrys, Paganini in seinem Reisewagen und Zimmer, pp. 33–34.

50. The sources of the first anecdote: Imbert de Laphalèque, Notice sur le célèbre violiniste, pp. 58–61; Schottky, Paganinis Leben und Treiben, p. 311. The sources of the second and third anecdotes: Codignola, Paganini intimo, pp. 362 n, 363 n, and 227 n, respectively.

51. Letter of Niccola Zamboni to Giancarlo Conestabile, 22 October 1844, in Giancarlo Conestabile, Vita di Niccolò Paganini (Perugia: Bartelli, 1851), p. 301.

52. The plaster casts of the hands of Paganini and Liszt are pictured in Day, Paganini of Genoa, between pp. 302 and 303, and Searle, “Liszt,” in New Grove Dictionary, vol. 11, p. 34, respectively. On the distinguishing characteristics of Liszt’s playing: ibid., pp. 33–35; Walker, Franz Liszt, vol. 1, pp. 297–305. The source of Liszt’s quotations: Liszt [and d’Agoult], “Lettres d’un bachelier ès musique,” in Pages romantiques, pp. 102–4.

53. On prestidigitators and empirics: Fournel, Vieux Paris: Fêtes, jeux, spectacles, p. 245. On Comus, see the works cited in chapter 6, note 30.

54. The source of the quotation describing Maelzel’s acrobat: Hamel, Nouveau manuel complet du facteur d’orgues, vol. 3, pp. 458–59. The source of the quotation describing Robert-Houdin’s acrobat: Robert-Houdin, Confidences et révélations, unpaginated app., “Programme général.” See also Decremps, Magie blanche dévoilée, vol. 2, Supplément à la magie blanche dévoilée, chap. 4, sec. 8; Houdini, Unmasking of Robert-Houdin, pp. 166–75.

55. “M. Vidocq’s Exhibition,” Times (London), 9 June 1845, p. 6.

56. For the quotation about Labourdonnais, see chapter 1 in this volume, p. 44. For quotations of and information about Carême, see chapter 2 in this volume, p. 67. For information about Paganini: Courcy, Chronology of Paga-nini’s Life, pp. 34–64; Pulver, Paganini, the Romantic Virtuoso, p. 270. Paganini himself counted 151 concerts that he gave from March 1831 to March 1832; Codignola, Paganini intimo, p. 360. For information about Liszt: Walker, Franz Liszt, vol. 1, pp. 285, 294–95.

57. William R. Paulson, Enlightenment, Romanticism, and the Blind in France (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987), chap. 5, “From Chateaubriand to Balzac: Literature and the Loss of Sight.” The source of the first quotation: Balzac, Louis Lambert, in Comédie humaine, vol. 10, p. 381. The source of the second quotation: Paulson, Enlightenment, Romanticism, and the Blind, pp. 146–47.

58. Louis Chardigny, L’Homme Napoléon (Paris: Perrin, 1987), p. 54.

59. Baron Claude-François de Méneval, Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de Napoléon I^er, depuis 1802 jusqu’à 1815, 3 vols. (Paris: Dentu, 1893), vol. 1, p. 422; Baron C. F. de Méneval, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, trans. uncredited, 3 vols. (New York: Collier, 1910), vol. 1, p. 352. Mnemonic systems based on the mental representation of a compartmentalized space go back at least to classical Rome: Frances Yates, The Art of Memory (London/Chicago: Routledge and Kegan Paul/University of Chicago Press, 1966), chap. 1, “The Three Latin Sources for the Classical Art of Memory.”

60. Fain, Mémoires du baron Fain, p. 76. On the livret system of Napoleon: ibid., pt. 1, chap. 8; Méneval, Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire, vol. 1, pp. 417–18.

61. The source of the quotation about Labourdonnais: Walker, “Chess, without the Chess-Board,” Fraser’s Magazine 21, no. 123, p. 312. The source of the quotation about Zukertort: Anne Sunnucks, ed., The Encyclopedia of Chess (London: Robert Hale, 1970), p. 32.

62. Vidocq, Mémoires, pp. 509–10.

63. Schonberg, Great Pianists, pp. 175–79.

64. Gautier, Histoire de l’art dramatique, vol. 4, pp. 163–64.

65. Robert-Houdin, Confidences et révélations, pp. 262–66, 277–80; Houdini, Unmasking of Robert-Houdin, chap. 7.

66. “An Exciting Scene: M. Blondin’s Feat at Niagara Falls,” New York Times, 4 July 1859, p. 3; G[eorge] Linnaeus Banks, ed., Blondin: His Life and Performances (London: Routledge, Warne and Routledge, 1862); “Ropewalker Blondin Dead,” New York Times, 23 February 1897, p. 7; “Obituary: M. Blondin,” Times (London), 23 February 1897, p. 7.

67. Zeldin, France 1848–1945, vol. 2, pp. 983–86.