INDEX

A

Adze, 36

Agriculture:

calendar for, 116 , 187 ;

cycle of, 111 , 135 , 168 -169;

dance drama based on, 168 -169;

domestication as basis of, 168 ;

gods of, 7 , 61 {see also Chac; Tlaloc);

origin of, 22

regeneration of, 60 , 61 , 116 , 156 ;

rituals for, 116 -117, 118 , 119 , 146 -147, 160 , 168 -169, 174 ;

serpent associated with, 30 .

See also Corn

Aires, 171

Almenas, 38 -39, 41 , 48

Altars, 24 -26

Amaranth, 159

Amatlán, Veracruz, 76

Anales de Quauhtitlán,115

Ancestors, 148 ;

as floating images, 57 , 58 -59;

as gods, 28 ;

as mediators between worlds, 102 , 117 , 127 ;

shaman's, 102 ; worshipped, 28 , 117 , 127

Animal:

as companion/alter ego (nagual), 5 , 55 , 102 , 105 , 144 -145, 202 -203, 204 ;

domesticated, 168 ;

emergence of human from mouth of, 48 , 50 , 70 -77;

gods associated with, 208 n. 43 (see also Jaguar; Serpent);

man merges with, in mask, 78 , 103 - 104 , 168 (see also Were-jaguar);

in pascola, 180 , 181 , 183 , 184 , 185 , 189 ;

in ritual, 66 , 103 , 167 , 169 , 170 , 176 ;

sacrificed, 103 , 167 , 171 ;

transformation

into, 103 -104, 143 , 144 -145

The Annals of the Cakchiquels,112

Architectural masks, xiii , 82 -87;

calendrical symbolism of, 87 ;

at cave entrances, 83 -84;

of Chac, 61 , 85 , 86 (pl), 87 ;

doorways framed by, 82 , 85 -86;

on facades, 82 , 86 -87;

function of, 82 , 86 -87;

Maya, 61 , 75 , 86 , 87 ;

signify sacred places, 82 -87;

solar observatories marked by, 109 ;

stairways lined by, 82 , 84 -85, 85 -86

Architecture, 82 -83;

siting of, 119 .

See also Center, ceremonial/ritual Arizona.

See Yaqui

Arroyo Pesquero, Veracruz, 89

Art/artist:

as dynastic, 208 n. 36;

breaks barrier between matter and spirit, 147 -148, 148 -150;

defines reality, 196 ;

function of, xi , xiv , xviii, 195 -196;

modern Mexican, xiv , 196 -205;

as metaphor for creation, 149 ;

transformation via, xiv , 147 -150

Ascent. See Climbing

Astrology, 131

Astronomy:

astrology based on, 131 ;

Aztec, 132 ;

calendar based on, xiii , 130 (see also Cycle, of sun);

cycles in, 130 , 131 -132;

Maya, 109 , 110 , 112 , 114 -115, 122 , 131 -132;

observatories for, 109 -110;

Olmec, 109 .

See also Moon; Sun; Venus

Autosacrifice, 111 , 144 , 145 , 146

Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, Luis, 89

Aveni, Anthony, 109 , 115 , 130

Avenue of the Dead (Via Sacra), Teotihuacán, 35 , 45 , 55 , 123 , 124

Axayacatl, 95

Aztecs:

astronomy of, 132 ;

baptismal rite of, 159 ;

butterfly imagery of, 148 ;

calendars of, 36 , 122 -123, 130 -131, 132 (see also Calendar, 260-day; Cycle, 52-year);

Catholicism accepted by, 156 ;

on caves, 83 , 126 , 127 ;

communion rite of, 159 ;

confession rite of, 159 ;

creation myth of, 4 , 5 , 6 , 111 , 112 , 125 , 136 , 143 -144, 145 ;

cremation by, 88 , 95 ;

cult effigies of, 95 ;

on death, 88 , 95 , 120 ;

face painting by, 80 ;

on Fifth Sun, 111 , 113 , 124 ;

funerary bundles of, 95 ;

funerary masks of, 95 -96;

gods of, xv , 4 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 21 , 41 , 85 , 112 -113, 114 , 125 , 137 -138, 143 -144, 148 (see also individual gods by name);

hallucinogens used by, 104 -105;

on heavens, 124 ;

healing by, 105 ;

ideal face for, 95 ;

influence of, 54 ;

mosaic masks of, 96 ;

Olmecs influence, xv , 10 , 11 , 28 , 90 ;

origin myth of, 83 , 126 ;

as people of sun, 6 , 113 ;

poetry/song of, 120 , 148 , 149 , 150 ;

priests of, 104 -105, 130 -131;

on regeneration, 119 ;

religion of, 52 , 101 , 136 -138, 156 ;

rituals/festivals of, 6 , 51 , 52 , 124 -125, 146 -147, 159 , 162 ;

on sacrifice, 6 , 124 , 125 , 145 , 146 , 147 ;

self-image of, 6 , 7 -8, 51 -52, 113 ;

on serpents, 42 , 85 ;

shaman of, 104 , 105 , 145 ;

site of (see Tenochtitlán);

state, 5 -6, 7 -8;

stone masks of, 95 ;

on sun and moon, 112 -114;

Toltec heritage of, 51 -52;

on transformation, 73 , 143 -144, 145 , 147 , 149 , 150 ;

wanderings of, 5 -6

B

Bac-T'ul, 145

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 174

Balankanche cave, 62

Ball players, 30

Baptism, 159

Barnett, H. G., 156

Bastian, Adolph, xii , xv

Bats, 93

Beals, Ralph, 161 , 181

Belize, 59

Berlo, Janet, 148

Bernal, Ignacio, 9 , 28 , 30 , 78 , 80

Beyer, Hermann, 36 , 112 , 136 , 139

Bird:

dead warrior's soul becomes, 6 ;

Ehécatl associated with, 64 , 79 ;

fire associated with, 93 ;

hook-beaked, 61 , 64 , 79 , 93 ;

Huitzilopochtli associated with, 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ;

human emerges from mouth of, 48 , 74 ;

masks, 42 , 64 , 71 , 93 ;

rain god associated with, 21 ;

ritual use of, 66 , 167 ;

sacrificed, 167 , 171 ;

shaman associated with, 104 ;

transformation to, 104

Bird Jaguar of Yaxchilán, 59 , 61 , 70 , 71

Birth:

carnivals celebrate, 147 ;

of Christ, 164 ;

day of, determines destiny, 131 , 145 , 159 ;

of Huitzilopochtli, 5 , 6 , 113 ;

lunar cycle represents, 116 ;

of sun, 5 , 125 (see also Sun, daily cycle of).

See also Regeneration

Black:

Itzamná associated with, 139 ;

masks, 178 ;

Tezcatlipoca, 4 , 138 , 149

Black Elk, 102 -103, 106

Blood:

Christ's, 182 , 186 ;

as creation force, 111 ;

flowers associated with, 182 , 186 ;

in life-force, 111 , 144 ;

as reciprocal to rain, 30 , 45 , 126 , 171 , 186 ;

as reciprocal for god's sacrifice, 145 , 147 ;

sacrificial, 6 , 30 , 38 , 45 , 60 , 75 -76, 103 , 126 , 135 , 145 -146, 147 , 167 , 182 , 186 ;

serpent associated with, 30 , 38 , 45

Bloodletting, 60 , 145 , 146 ;

to heal, 105 ;

to produce visions, 75 -76, 142 , 145

Blue:

Huitzilopochtli associated with, 4 , 5 , 137 -138;

Tlaloc as, 62

Bode, Barbara, 163

Body, spirit housed in, 144 , 145

Bonampak, 48

Bone, 91 , 111 , 117 , 144

Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel,114 , 129

Book of Chilam Balam of Kaua,122

Boos, Frank, 28 , 139 , 145

Bricker, Victoria, 177 -178

Broda, Johanna, 127

Bruce, Robert, 112 , 116 , 119

Brundage, Burr Cartwright, 145

Buccal masks, 59 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79

Bufomarinus,104

Burials/burial practices:

Aztec, 95 ;

in caves, 83 , 94 , 95 , 118 , 127 ;

in cavities resembling wombs, 118 ;

ceramic offerings in, 93 -94;

Chac associated with, 59 -60;

Classic, 89 ;

decapitation/mutilation in, 91 , 92 ;

early, xiii , 89 , 90 , 103 ;

effigy urns in, 33 (see also Funerary urns);

face preserved in, 89 , 91 ;

fire god and, 93 ;

Izapan, 57 ;

jade used in, 118 ;

masks in (see Funerary masks);

Maya, 59 -60, 88 -89, 90 -92, 117 -118;

Mixtec, 94 -95, 118 ;

music in, 93 ;

as passage to spirit world, 88 ;

Preclassic, 91 , 92 ;

regeneration beliefs reflected in, 117 -118, 119 ;

of rulers, 57 , 90 , 92 (see also Pacal);

sacrificial victims interred in, 90 ;

secondary masks in, 95 ;

shamanistic beliefs in, xiii , 103 ;

shells in, 45 , 46 , 90 ;

in Tehuacan valley, xiii , 89 , 103 ;

Tlatilco, 103 .

See also Cremation; Death

Butterfly, 42 ;

fire associated with, 43 , 148 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 43 , 50 ;

transformation by, 43 , 148

C

Cacaxtla, 47 , 48 -49, 50 , 52

E1 Calalá,175

Calendar:

agricultural, 116 , 187 ;

on architectural masks, 87 ;

astronomical cycles as basis of, xiii , 130 ;

Aztec, 36 , 122 -123, 130 -131;

Catholic, 155 , 160 , 186 , 187 ;

in codices, 110 ;

Cocijo associated with, 33 ;

companion animal associated with, 145 ;

52-year (Calendar Round), 36 , 46 , 54 , 123 , 131 -132;

gods associated with, 33 , 42 , 53 -54, 131 ;

human gestational cycle tied to, 130 ;

as interface between worlds, 131 ;

long count as, 110 , 132 ;

mathematical, 129 -130;

Maya, 122 , 129 , 130 , 132 , 158 -159, 160 ;

in Oaxaca, 33 , 110 , 130 ;

Olmec, 110 ;

orders time, 129 , 131 , 143 ;

past/history charted on, 130 , 131 ;

Preclassic, 110 ;

priests, 130 -131;

for prophecy/divination, 130 , 131 ;

as quincunx, 123 ;

ritual/sacred, 33 , 36 , 110 , 116 , 129 -132, 135 , 145 , 158 -159, 160 ;

solar (365-day), xiii , 33 , 87 , 109 , 110 , 123 , 129 , 130 , 131 -132, 135 , 158 -159;

on stelae, 110 ;

Stone, 208 n. 42;

systematizes reality, 35 ;

at Teotihuacan, 46 , 87 , 122 ;

transformation via, xii , 143 ;

260-day, 33 , 36 , 129 -132, 133 , 135 , 145 , 160 ;

Yaqui, 186 , 187

Camaxtli, 4

Campbell, Joseph, xi -xv, xviii, 65 , 69 ;

on artist's function, xiv , 149 , 195 -196;

on masks, 120 , 121 ;

on mythology, xi , 136 , 195 -196;

on Navajo ritual, 137 ;

on priest's function, 67 ;

on shamanism, 101

Capella, 109

Cardinal directions, 54 , 122

See also East; North; South; West

Carnivals, 147 , 173 -175, 176 , 178 ;

Tamayo on, 197 -199, 200

See also Festivals; Rituals

Carrillo Azpeitia, Rafael, 160 -161

Carrillo de San Vicente, Fr. Luis, 112

Caso, Alfonso, 7 , 30 , 78 , 80 , 93 , 94 , 122 ;

on Coatlicue, 119 ;

on funerary urns, 28 ;

on monotheism, 136 ;

on shamans, 105

Castillo de Teayo, Veracruz, 53 , 76

Catholicism:

accomplishments of, 155 , 156 , 166 ;

Aztecs accept, 156 ;

calendar of, 155 , 160 , 186 , 187 ;

churches of, 160 ;

conversions attempts of, 155 , 156 -157, 163 , 165 -166;

Indian reaction to, 155 , 156 , 158 , 160 , 165 , 166 ;

masks affected by, xiv ;

Mayas on, 156 , 158 ;

parallels Mesoamerican religion, 137 , 156 -160;

reworked, 179 , 182 ;

rituals of, 157 ;

on separation of god and man, 157 , 166 ;

serpent symbolism of, 31 ;

on shamanism, 165 ;

syncretism of, with Mesoamerican religion, xiv , xviii, 155 , 156 -166, 172 -173, 179 -182, 183 , 184 -186, 187 , 188 , 192

Cauac Monster, 84

Cave, 40 , 41 , 42 ;

architectural masks at, 83 -84;

artificial, 16 , 83 , 84 , 122 , 126 ;

Aztecs on, 83 , 126 , 127 ;

Balankanche, 62 ;

bats associated with, 93 ;

burials in, 83 , 94 , 95 , 118 , 127 ;

ceremonial centers located near, 34 , 70 -71, 78 , 83 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 171 , 213 n. 82;

at Chalcatzingo, 15 , 16 -17, 23 , 24 ;

as entry to underworld, 84 , 127 ;

fertility associated with, 71 , 126 , 128 ;

as heart of earth, 3 ;

jaguar associated with, 15 -16, 17 , 83 -84, 126 , 127 , 167 , 170 ;

at Juxtlahuaca, 16 ;

as liminal zone/meeting point of worlds, 83 -84, 122 , 126 , 143 ;

mouth equated with, 15 , 16 , 17 , 24 , 83 -84, 127 ;

Naj Tunich, 208 n. 51; at

Oxtotitlán, 34 , 70 -71, 78 , 171 ;

at Oztoteotl, 160 ;

as place of emergence/origin/return, 15 , 83 , 84 , 126 , 127 ;

under Pyramid of the Sun, 83 , 126 , 127 -128, 213 n. 82;

as quincunx, 127 , 128 ;

rain/cloud/lightning associated with, 16 -17, 19 , 126 , 167 ;

rain god associated with, 23 -24, 85 , 126 , 127 ;

rituals in, 16 , 83 , 86 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 143 , 167 , 170 , 171 , 176 , 177 ;

sun disappears into, 83 , 86 ;

temple doorway equated with, 83 -84, 85 -86;

toads guard, 128 ;

as transformation site, 126 -127, 143 ;

water channel in, 128 ;

as water source, 23 , 71 , 126 , 128 ;

as womb, 15 , 19 , 83 , 126 , 127

Ceiba tree, 118 , 158 , 160

Cenotes, 17 , 21

Center:

architectural masks at, 82 -87;

axis at, 121 -122, 126 ;

Catholic churches built at, 160 ;

cave near, 34 , 70 -71, 78 , 83 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 171 , 213 n. 82;

ceremonial/ritual, 7 , 45 -46, 51 , 52 , 82 -87, 109 , 110 , 123 -124, 127 , 160 (see also Ciudadela; Copán; Monte Albán; Pyramid; Temple; Templo Mayor; Teotihuacán; Tikal; Uaxactún; Uxmal);

heart as, 76 ;

mountain as, 83 , 84 ;

as observatory, 109 -110;

passage to, 84 ;

pilgrimage to, 160 ;

as point where planes meet, 83 , 84 , 121 , 122 , 126 ;

political, 23 , 46 , 83 ;

pyramid as, 7 , 83 , 84 ;

of quincunx, 45 -46, 122 , 123 -124, 158 ;

replicates cosmos, 45 -46, 83 ;

siting of, 83 , 109 , 110 , 123 -124, 127 ;

of universe, 45 -46;

of world, 121 , 122 , 124

Cerro Cruzco mountain, 171

Cerro de las Mesas, Veracruz, 76 , 77 (pl)

Cerros, 84 , 86

Chac, 26, 59 -62, 155 ;

on architectural masks, 61 , 85 , 86 (pl), 87 ;

bloodletting associated with, 60 ;

burials associated with, 59 -60;

caves associated with, 126 ;

ceramic plate of, 60 ;

Classic, 56 , 61 ;

Cocijo compared to, 60 , 61 ;

in Codex Dresden, 61 , 62 (pl);

on effigy urns, 62 ;

face of, 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ;

at Mayapán, 62 ;

Olmec origin of, 9 , 56 , 63 ;

order associated with, 61 ;

on pectorals, 59 ;

Postclassic, 56 , 62 ;

Preclassic, 56 ;

at Puuc site, 61 ;

as quadripartite and unitary, 58 , 60 , 61 , 63 ;

red associated with, 60 , 62 , 212 n. 17;

regeneration associated with, 60 , 61 , 156 ;

rulership associated with, 58 , 59 , 61 ;

serpent associated with, 56 ;

spiral at mouth of, 59 ;

sun associated with, 60 , 156 ;

tigre mask compared to, 169 ;

at Tikal, 60 -61;

Tlaloc compared to, 60 -61, 62 ;

at Uxmal, 62 , 85 , 86 (pl);

World Tree from head of, 60

Chac Mool, 54 , 55

Chac Xib Chac, 58 , 59 , 60 , 212 n. 17

Chalcatzingo, Morelos, 27 ;

altars at, 24 ;

cave at, 15 , 16 -17, 23 , 34 ;

as fertility shrine, 15 -16;

Monument I (El Rey) of, 15 , 23 , 24 , 71 , 83 ;

Monument 4 at, 16 ;

Monument 9 at, 15 , 16 , 24 , 83 ;

Monument 13 at, 24 ;

Tlaloc at, 34

Chalchiúhtlicue, 111

Chalma, 160

Chamula, 158 , 166

Chenes, 84

Chiapa de Corzo, 110

Chiapas, 158 , 175 . See also Chamula; Zinacantan

Chichén Itzá, 30 , 31 , 50 , 61 , 75 , 109

Chicomoztoc (Seven Caves), 83 , 126

Children, 18 -19, 24

Cholula, 47 , 49 , 160

Christ, 112 , 157 , 158 , 164 ;

pascola associated with, 179 , 182 , 183 , 186 , 187 -188

Christianity. See Catholicism

Cities, 124 , 143 . See also Center; individual cities by name

Ciudadela of Teotihuacán:

calendrical significance of, 46 ;

as center of quincunx, 45 -46;

as center of universe, 45 -46;

frieze at, 43 -45, 46 ;

as political center, 46 ;

as sacred center, 45 -46, 83 , 124 ;

sacrifices at, 45 ;

serpent at, 31 , 43 , 44 ;

Temple of Quetzalcóatl at, 40 , 43 -45, 46 , 87 ;

Tlaloc at, 39 , 43 -45, 46 ;

union of opposites in, 45

Classic period, 78 , 92 ;

burials, 89 ;

Olmec influence on, 26, 90 ;

rain gods of, 26, 34 , 58 (see also Chac; Cocijo; Tlaloc);

sites (see Cacaxtla; Cholula; Copán; Jaina; Monte Albán; Palenque; Teotihuacán; Tikal; Uxmal; Yaxchilán)

Cleft, 22 ;

fertility denoted by, 14 -15, 19 ;

head, 13 , 14 -15, 16 , 19 , 26, 30 ;

sexuality in, 14 -15;

tongue, 30

Climbing (ritual ascent of stairway), 84 , 85 , 124 -125

Clouds, 16 -17, 23 -24.

See also Lightning; Rain

Clowns, in festivals, 169 , 170 , 174 -175, 179 , 184 , 187

Coatlicue, 19 , 38 , 88 , 208 n. 42;

assaulted by Coyolxauhqui, 5 , 6 , 113 ;

Huitzilopochtli and, 6 , 113 ;

as mother-earth goddess, 119 ;

ritual to, 119 ;

serpents associated with, 30 , 119 ;

Virgin Mary compared to, 157 -158

Cocijo, 26-33, 54 ;

buccal mask of, 78 ;

calendar associated with, 33 ;

Chac compared to, 60 , 61 ;

corn associated with, 32 ;

eyes/eyebrows of, 28 , 29 , 32 , 37 , 60 , 61 ;

headdress of, 28 , 29 -30, 31 -32;

jaguar associated with, 28 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 63 ;

lightning associated with, 33 , 34 ;

at Monte Albán, 29 ;

mouth of, 28 , 29 , 63 ;

Olmec origins of, 9 , 28 , 29 , 34 , 63 ;

power of, 33 ;

as quadripartite, 33 , 63 ;

rulership associated with, 33 ;

seasons associated with, 33 ;

serpent associated with, 29 , 30 , 31 , 37 , 38 , 79 ;

tigre mask similar to, 169 ;

Tlaloc compared to, 34 , 37 , 47 , 61 ;

tongue of, 29 , 30 , 31 , 37 , 63

Codex Borbonicus, 5 (pl)

Codex Borgia, 36 , 37 , 46 , 48 , 53 -54, 115 , 117

Codex Dresden, 61 , 62 (pl), 114 -115

Codex Fejérváry-Mayer, 122

Codex Madrid, 122

Codex Matritensis, 117

Codex Nuttall, 94

Codex Vindobonensis, 117

Codices, 61 , 110 , 131 -132. See also codex by name

Coe, Michael, xv , 19 , 64 , 78 , 80 , 115 , 118 ;

on Izapan stela, 57 ;

on Maya, 90 , 104 , 147 , 159 ;

on Olmecs, 9 -10, 11 , 14 , 27 ;

on were-jaguar, 13

Coggins, Clemency, 61 , 122

Colina, Armando, 203 -204

Commercial masks, 189 , 192 -193, 194 -195

Communion rite, 81 , 159 -160

Composite beings/masks, 9 -12, 13 , 2728, 29 , 73 , 75 -76, 78 , 212 n. 26. See also Were-jaguar

Concheros dance troupe, 156 , 163 , 165 , 166

Conde, Teresa del, 205

Confession ritual, 159

Conquest, 98 , 155 -166;

dance of, 162 -164;

churches built during, 160 ;

oral tradition destroyed by, 135 ;

religion affected by, 155 , 156 ;

as victory for Christianity, 163

Cook, Garrett, 163

Copal, 54 . See also Incensarios

Copán, 83 , 84 , 146

Cora culture, 186 , 187

Cordry, Donald, 194 , 195

Corn, 156 ;

cleft associated with, 22 ;

Cocijo associated with, 32 ;

cycle based on, 116 ;

as divine sustenance, 111 ;

man formed from, 22 ;

regeneration/rebirth of, 116 -117, 118 ;

rituals based on, 116 -117, 118 , 146 ;

ruler equated with, 118 ;

sacrifices to, 116 , 118 , 146 ;

serpent associated with, 44 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 37 , 39 , 44 , 53

Cortés, Hernán, 97 -98, 155 , 158 , 160 , 214 n. 2

Cosmology/cosmos, 3 ;

cities/centers replicate, 83 , 124 , 127 ;

cycles in, xiii , 115 -116, 119 ;

duality in (see Duality);

life-force energizes, 135 ;

man is center of, 68 ;

Maya, 60 , 119 ;

order in, 102 -103, 106 , 108 , 110 , 115 -116, 122 , 124 ;

shaman's, 102 -103, 106 , 108 ;

transformation in, xi -xii, xiii -xiv;

unity in, xvii , 103 .

See also Religion, Mesoamerican

Costa Chica, Oaxaca, 173 , 174 , 175

Covarrubias, Miguel, 19 , 26, 49 , 74 , 93 , 103 ;

on Chac, 56 ;

on funerary practices, 32 , 92 ;

on jaguar, 18 ;

on rain god, 9 , 10 , 13 , 20

Coyolxauhqui, 5 , 6 , 113 -114

Creation/creation myths, 15 , 149 , 213 n. 36;

Aztec, 4 , 5 , 6 , 111 , 112 , 125 , 136 , 143 -144, 145 ;

from bone and blood, 111 ;

from corn, 22 ;

as cyclical/ongoing, 111 , 132 , 137 , 141 ;

duality in, 23 ;

fertility and, 79 ;

god of, 4 , 5 , 6 , 12, 136 , 137 , 141 (see also Hunab Ku; Ometeotl);

Maya, 4 , 22 -23, 111 -112;

Mixtec, 146 ; sacrifice and, 111 , 145 , 146 ;

shamanism in, 111 ;

of sun, 144 ;

sun's role in, 111 , 112 ;

transformation in, 143 -144

Cremation, 19 , 88 , 91 , 92 , 95

Crocker, J. C., 174

Crocodilian, 15 , 17 , 71 , 122

Cross:

Christian, 155 , 158 , 160 ;

cult, 171 ;

"dressed," 171 , 172 , 173 ;

foliated, 158 , 160 ;

Maya, 158 ;

on pascola mask, 189 , 190 ;

petroglyph, 109 -110, 124 ;

protection of, 158 , 190 ;

as quincunx, 26, 158 , 189 ;

sacrifice related to, 158 ;

St. Andrew's, 14 , 15 -16, 24 , 26;

at Teotihuacán, 109 -110, 124 ;

in tigre dance, 171 , 172 , 173

Crumrine, N. Ross, 180 , 181 , 182 , 189

Cue, 160

Cuecuex, 212 n. 240

Cuello, 89

Cuetzalan, festival of, 192

Cuevas, José Luis, 196

Cuicatecs, 95 . See also Mixtecs

Culture:

disseminated via trade, 26 -27, 34 , 179 ;

v. nature, 22 -23, 168 , 178

Curl Snout, 59 , 61

Cycles, xix ;

of agriculture, 111 , 116 , 135 , 168 -169;

astronomical, 130 , 131 -132;

carnivals recognize, 174 ;

of creation, 111 , 132 , 137 , 141 ;

52-year, 36 , 46 , 54 , 123 , 131 -132;

of life/death/regeneration, xiii , 88 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 127 ;

lunar, 110 , 114 -115, 116 , 132 , 133 ;

order expressed by, xii , xiii , 108 , 115 -116, 119 , 121 , 143 ;

of rulers, 118 ;

sacrifice continues, 146 ;

of seasons, 5 , 109 , 135 ;

of sun, xii , 5 , 33 , 87 , 108 -116, 119 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 129 , 130 , 131 -132, 133 , 135 , 158 -159;

of time/history, xiii , 36 , 108 , 116 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 143 , 187 ;

of Venus, 110 , 132 , 135

D

Dainzú, 83 . See also Monte Albán

Dance/dance-drama, 103 , 161 -163, 167 , 174 -175;

agricultural, 168 -169;

of Concheros, 156 , 163 , 165 , 166 ;

Moors and Christians, 161 -162, 163 , 193 .

See also Pascola; Tigre dance

Dance of the Conquest, 162 -164

Danza del Tigre. See Tigre dance

Davies, Nigel, 50

Day: 108 ;

of birth, 131 , 145 , 159 ;

eagle associated with, 86 ;

as god, 129 ;

number associated with, 129 ;

sun equated with/represents, 86 , 109 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 122 , 133 ;

Tezcatlipoca associated with, 137 ;

as unit of time, 109 , 112 , 122 , 129

Day of San Nicolás Tolentino, 172 -173, 177

Day of the Holy Cross, 170 -172, 173 , 175

Death, 94 , 174 ;

Aztecs on, 88 , 95 , 120 ;

climbing stairs represents, 84 ;

as cycle, 88 , 116 , 127 ;

and life, as duality, 4 , 31 , 88 , 89 , 103 , 109 , 127 ;

man becomes god at, 33 , 59 , 80 , 117 , 119 , 143 ;

mask (see Funerary mask);

Mayas on, 59 , 90 , 91 , 117 , 119 ;

mutilation after, 91 , 92 ;

mystery of, 120 ;

as precursor to life, 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 148 , 167 , 169 , 177 ;

red associated with, 31 ;

as return to life-force, 88 ;

shaman on, 148 ;

shaman's trance as, 103 , 104 ;

Tezcatlipoca associated with, 138 ;

as transformation, 88 , 103 , 143 , 148 ;

west/sunset associated with, 88 , 115 .

See also Burials/burial practices; Cremation; Funerary bundles

Decapitation, 30 , 113 , 119 , 147 ;

after death, 91 , 92

Deer dance/deer dancer, 175 , 179 , 182 , 184 , 185 -186

de la Fuente, Beatriz, 10 , 11 , 12

de la Serna, Jacinto, 159

de Santillana, Giorgio, 133

Devil, 179 , 181 , 182

Diablo, 161

Diego, Juan, 157

Diehl, Richard, 17 , 47 , 50

Divine essence. See Life-force

Domestication, 168

Doorways, temple:

architectural masks on, 82 , 85 -86;

cave associated with, 83 -84, 85 -86;

as mouth of monster, 84

Dos Pilas, 59

Dow, James, 144

Dragons, 139 , 148

Drains, 16 -17, 21

Drennan, Robert, 27

Drought, 18

Drowning, 19

Drucker, Philip, 27

Drum, 172 , 173 , 177

Duality, 45 , 136 , 166 ;

in creation myth, 23 ;

day/night, 108 -109;

inner/outer, xv , 3 , 31 , 37 ;

of gods, 137 , 138 , 139 , 141 ;

life/death, 4 , 31 , 88 , 89 , 103 , 109 , 127 ;

of masks, 103 , 109 ;

matter/spirit, xvii -xviii, 23 , 31 , 93 , 102 , 106 , 109 , 121 ;

sexual, 15 , 137 ;

sun/moon, 112 -114;

in tigre dance, 170 ;

up/down, 170 , 176 , 177

Durán, Fr. Diego, 5 , 7 , 132 ;

on Aztec calendar, 122 -123;

compares Catholicism to Mesoamerican religion, 155 , 156 -157, 159 -160;

on hallocinogens, 104 -105;

on rituals, 116 , 124 -125, 213 , n. 30;

on Tlaloc, 126 , 127

Dwarf, 19 , 24 , 26, 103

Dzavui, 49

E

Eagle, 5 , 6 , 86

Ears, 146 ;

Chac's, 60 , 61 , 62 ;

Cocijo's, 28 , 60 ;

Olmec rain god's, 13 , 21 , 28 , 37 ;

Tlaloc's, 37 , 41 , 43 , 50 , 52 , 60 , 61 , 62

Earth, 121 ;

as female, 15 ;

gods of, 81 , 139 ;

jaguar associated with, 167 , 168 ;

monster, 85 -86, 143 -144;

spirit envelops, 84 , 122 ;

toad represents, 15 ;

womb of, 86

Earthquakes, 111

Easby, Elizabeth, 72

East, 122 ;

begins count of time, 129 ;

Chac associated with, 60 , 212 n. 17;

Itzamná associated with, 139 ;

red associated with, 117 , 119 , 137 , 139 ;

sun's regeneration from, 115 ;

Xipe Tótec associated with, 137 , 138

Eclipses, 110 , 114 -115, 133

Edmonson, Munro, 22

Effigy urns, 36 , 62 ;

burials associated with, 33 (see also Funerary urns);

Tlaloc on, 33 , 34 , 37 , 48 , 50 , 52 -53, 54 ;

Toltec, 73

Ehécatl:

as aspect of Quetzalcóatl, 44 , 64 , 79 , 106 , 111 , 138 , 178 ;

as bird, 64 , 79 ;

fertility associated with, 64 ;

plumed serpent associated with, 44 ,

177 , 178 ;

as primary mask, 64 ;

Second Sun associated with, 111 ;

as shaman, 106 ;

Tezcatlipoca associated with/opposed to, 44 -45, 79 , 138 , 178 ;

as wind/breath, 44 , 64 , 79 , 111

Ejutla, 94 -95

El Advino, Uxmal, 75 (pl), 85 , 86 (pl)

Eliade, Mircea, 69 , 88 , 128 ;

on breakthrough in plane, 121 , 124 ;

on center, 83 , 84 , 121 ;

on climbing, 84 , 125 ;

on cycles, 116 ;

on shamanism, 101 , 104 , 106

El Riego phase, xiii , 89 , 103

El Tajin, 46 , 47 , 87

Emergence, 70 -77;

from animal, 48 , 72 , 73 , 75 -76;

from bird's mouth, 48 , 74 ;

from cave, 15 , 83 , 84 , 126 , 127 ;

from composite mask, 73 , 75 -76, 93 ;

from jaguar's mouth, 50 , 126 ;

of Quetzalcóatl, 73 ;

from serpent's mouth, 73 , 75 -76;

of Tlaloc, 50

Escalante, Evodio, 201

Esser, Janet, 195

Evening star. See Venus, as evening star

Evers, Larry, 184

Eye:

band, 42 ;

brows, 13 , 20 -21, 28 , 29 , 52 ;

Chac's, 60 , 62 ;

Cocijo's, 28 , 37 , 60 ;

diamond-, 41 -42, 54 , 64 ;

goggle-, 29 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 41 , 43 , 48 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 62 , 71 , 169 , 170 , 171 ;

jaguar's, 29 , 167 , 170 , 171 ;

rain god's, 13 -14, 20 , 21 ;

serpent's, 43 -44;

stripe through, 64 , 80 ;

Tlaloc's, 29 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 41 , 42 , 43 -44, 48 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 62 , 71 ;

Xipe Tótec's, 64 , 80

F

Facades, 82 , 86 -87

Face, 77 , 92 , 93 ;

concern for, in burials, 89 , 91 ;

ideal, 95 ;

mask reveals, 56 (pl), 57 , 70 , 71 ;

painting, 5 , 6 , 78 , 79 -80, 89 ;

reveals spirit, 150

Fangs:

Chac's, 61 , 62 , 63 ;

jaguar's, 18 , 19 , 167 , 179 ;

lacking, 18 , 19 ;

Tlaloc's, 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 43 , 48 , 55 , 63

Fatalism, 131

Fernández, Justino, 119

Fertility:

Bird Jaguar associated with, 71 ;

caves associated with, 71 , 126 , 128 ;

Chac associated with, 61 ;

cleft represents, 14 , 15 , 19 ;

creation and, 79 ;

fire and water and, 42 ;

god of, xiii , 13 , 14 , 15 , 19 , 39 , 48 , 52 , 53 , 56 , 63 , 64 , 81 , 113 -114, 138 , 139 ;

jaguar associated with, 15 , 44 , 167 , 168 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 ;

rituals/shrines for, 15 -16, 71 , 81 , 83 , 128 , 146 , 168 , 170 , 174 , 175 , 177 , 178 , 219 n. 70 (see also Veintena festivals);

sacrifice for, 170 ;

serpent associated with, 30 , 38 , 44 , 73 ;

shells suggest, 46 ;

Sowing Priests and, 73 ;

in Spanish dance-dramas, 219 n. 70;

union of opposites results in, 45 , 93 ;

were-jaguar associated with, 18 -19

Festival of San Nicolás Tolentino, 172 -173, 177

Festival of San Sebastián, 175 -177

Festivals, 175 -178;

Aztec, 125 , 147 , 171 ;

calendar marked by, 110 ;

death/regeneration as focus of, 176 , 177 ;

harvest, 110 , 170 -171, 172 -173, 175 , 177 ;

jaguar in, 167 , 172 -173, 175 (see also Tigre dance);

plumed serpent in, 177 , 178 ;

for rain, 171 , 176 , 177 ;

sexuality in, 176 ;

as syncretic, 172 -173, 192 ;

today, 192 ;

veintena, 110 , 125 ;

year-ending, 175 ;

in Zinacantan, 175 -177.

See also Rituals

Feynman, Richard, 133

Fire:

bird associated with, 93 ;

butterfly associated with, 43 , 148 ;

god of, 7 , 42 , 64 , 93 , 136 , 139 , 148 ;

serpent linked to (fire serpent), 7 , 30 , 42 , 148 ;

as transforming agent, 43 , 54 , 88 , 148 ;

and water/rain, 41 -42, 43 , 54 -55, 128

Flanet, Véronique, 170 , 173 , 174

Flannery, Kent, 66 , 78

Flayed skin, 30 , 80 -81, 116 -117, 147

Flowers, 182 , 186 , 188 , 189

Folk plays, 164

Foster, George, 144 -145

Frost, Gordon, 175

Funerary bundle, 88 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 95 , 96

Funerary masks, xiii , 88 -96;

Aztec, 95 , 96 ;

of bats, 93 ;

in central Mexico, 92 -93;

ceramic, 90 , 92 , 93 -94;

Classic, 92 , 93 -94;

creates another being, 89 ;

expresses inner, not outer, identity, 88 , 95 ;

face painting as, 80 , 89 ;

face preserved by, 90 -91;

function of, 93 -94;

fused life and death, 88 , 89 ;

greenstone, 90 , 91 ;

idealized, 80 , 89 , 92 , 93 ;

Izapan, 90 ;

jade, 89 , 90 , 91 , 93 ;

at LaVenta, 89 ;

Mayan, 88 -89, 90 -92;

as metaphor, 88 , 89 , 91 ;

Mixtec, 90 , 93 , 94 -95, 96 ;

at Monte Albán, 93 ;

mosaic, 80 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 94 -95, 96 ;

in Oaxaca, 89 -90, 93 -94, 95 , 96 ;

Olmec, 89 , 92 ;

Pacal's, 90 , 91 , 119 ;

as portrait (realistic), 88 -89, 90 -91, 92 , 93 , 152 ;

pottery, 89 -90, 92 ;

Preclassic, 89 ;

ruler becomes god via, 89 , 90 -91;

shell, 90 ;

stone, 92 , 95 -96;

at Teotihuacán, 92 , 95 -96;

at Tikal, 90 , 91 , 92 ;

at Tlatilco, 89 -90, 92 ;

in Veracruz, 89 ;

Zapotec, 93 -94

Funerary rites. See Burials/burial practices; Cremation

Funerary urns, 28 -33;

ancestors on, 28 -29;

Cocijo on, 29 , 31 ;

emerging from mask on, 74 -75, 93 ;

face painting on, 80 ;

Mayan, 117 ;

at Monté Alban, 28 -29, 32 , 74 -75, 80 , 93 , 145 ;

scarification on, 80 ;

were-jaguar on, 28

Furst, Jill, 117

Furst, Peter, 14 , 15 , 101 , 104

G

Gay, Carlo, 14

Geertz, Clifford, 23 , 67 -68

Genauer, Emily, 197

Gibson, Charles, 156 , 166 , 167

Gill, Sam, 68 -69, 70 , 77

Gillespie, Susan D., 23

Gimbutas, Marija, xiv , 208 n. 29

Gingerich, Willard, 207 n. 7

Goat, pascola as, 179 , 188 -189

Goddess, mother-earth, 119 , 157 , 158 .

See also Coatlicue; Toci; Tonantzin

God K, 64 , 212 n. 17

Gods:

of agriculture, 7 , 61 ;

ancestors as, 28 ;

animals associated with, 145 , 208 n. 43 (see also Jaguar; Serpent);

Aztec, xv , 4 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 13 , 21 , 28 , 41 , 42 , 85 , 104 , 112 -113, 114 , 125 , 137 -138, 143 -144, 148 (see also individual gods by name);

calendar associated with, 33 , 42 , 53 -54, 131 ;

Christian, 157 , 166 ;

creator, 4 , 12 , 22 , 136 , 139 , 157 (see also Hunab Ku; Ometeotl);

cult names of, 139 ;

days as, 129 ;

duality of, 137 , 138 , 139 , 141 ;

earth, 81 , 139 ;

fertility, xiii , 13 , 14 , 15 , 19 , 39 , 48 , 52 , 53 , 56 , 63 , 64 , 81 , 113 -114, 138 , 139 ;

fire, 7 , 42 , 64 , 93 , 136 , 139 , 148 ;

head (see Life-force);

impersonator, 40 , 42 , 60 , 66 , 68 -69, 71 , 72 , 78 , 125 , 146 , 147 , 164 , 213 n. 30;

Izapan, 56 , 57 , 58 ;

long-lipped, 56 , 57 , 58 ;

man/ruler becomes, at death, 21 , 33 , 59 , 80 , 88 , 89 , 90 -91, 117 , 119 , 143 ;

man/ruler becomes, through ritual, xiii , xiv , xviii, xix , 21 , 66 , 68 -69, 70 , 71 , 72 , 78 , 79 , 80 ;

mask identifies, xii , 3 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 35 , 40 , 64 , 70 , 84 , 106 ;

Maya, 4 , 56 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 64 , 139 , 212 n. 17 (see also individual gods by name);

as mediators, 4 , 66 , 90 , 117 ;

merge identities/as unitary, xii , 3 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 10 -11, 13 , 32 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 60 , 61 , 135 -136, 137 , 138 , 139 ,  141 -142, 159 ;

Mixtec, 28 , 49 , 146 ;

of month, 132 ;

mountains as, 213 n. 80;

Olmec, xv , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12, 13 -15, 16 -17, 19 , 23 -24, 26, 28 , 29 , 32 , 34 , 56 ;

origin of, 125 ;

paradise of, 128 ;

personified in idols, 159 ;

quadripartite, 4 , 5 , 7 , 14 , 26, 33 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 63 , 137 -138, 139 ;

rain, 9 , 10 , 13 -15, 16 -17, 19 , 20 -21, 23 -24, 26, 28 , 29 , 49 , 63 , 64 (see also Chac; Cocijo; Tlaloc);

sacrifice by, 145 , 147 ;

sacrifice to (see Sacrifice);

saints equated with, 159 ;

shamanic origins of, 105 -106;

Spanish on, 28 , 139 -140;

speak through rulers, xix , 21 , 70 , 142 ;

Toltec, 28 , 62 ;

variation in symbols for, 7 ;

water provided by, 17 , 21 -22;

Zapotec, 28 , 29 , 32 , 139 (see also Cocijo)

Goldman, Shifra, 199

Greenberg, James, 166

Greenstone, 49 , 90 , 91

Grieder, Terence, xix

Griffith, James, 181 , 192

Grove, David C., 83 ;

on Chalcatzingo, 15 , 23 , 27 , 210 n. 142;

on Oxtotitlán, 71 ;

on Tlaloc, 34 , 210 n. 142

Guatemala, 110 , 163 , 165 , 175 , 208 n. 51

Guerrero:

commercial masks made in, 194 -195, 222 -223 n. 8;

cross cult in, 171 ;

festivals in, 172 -173, 174 -175, 177 ;

jaguar in, 173 ;

Olmec influence in, 16 , 27 , 70 -71;

tigre dance in, 167 -168, 169 , 170 -172, 173 , 174 , 175

H

Hales, Donald, 117

Hallucinations, 75 -76, 145 . See also Visions

Hallucinogens, 76 , 103 , 104 -105

Hammond, Norman, 87 , 124 , 207 n. 4, 212 n. 246

Hauberg Stela, 145

Headdress/headband:

Cocijo's, 28 , 29 -30, 31 -32;

Coyolxauhqui's, 114 ;

movable, 71 ;

Olmec, 13 , 21 , 24 , 26, 57 ;

open-jawed, 73 -74;

serpent's, 73 -74, 75 ;

Sowing Priests', 73 -74, 75 ;

Tlaloc's, 36 , 42 , 48 , 50 , 53

Healing, 102 , 103 , 105 , 144

Heart:

cave as, 3 ;

as center, 76 ;

deified, 150 , 151 ;

as inner, 3 ;

sacrifice, 3 , 76 , 125 , 135 , 158

Heavens, 121 ;

cities laid out as, 83 , 143 ;

heart of, 3 ;

mountains/pyramids as entrance to, 84 ;

north as, 83 ;

shape of, 124 , 143

Hell. See Underworld

Helmet masks, 71 , 73 -74, 76 , 77 , 169 , 170 -171

Henderson, John, 119 , 130

Heraclitus, 3

Hesse, Hermann, 133 -134

Highwater, Jamake, 151 , 214 n. 2

Hinduism, xii

Hopi kachina dances, 68 -69, 70 , 72 , 142

Horcasitas, Fernando, 167 , 170 , 175

Huastec Standing Figure, 76

Huehuetéotl, 41 -42, 54 , 64 . See also Ueueteotl; Xiuhtecuhtli

Huey Totoztli,171

Huitzilopochtli, xii , 13 ;

animal companion of, 5 ;

arrows of, 5 ;

and Aztec leader, 5 , 6 , 137 -138;

birds associated with, 4 , 5 -6, 7 ;

birth/conception of, 5 , 6 , 113 ;

blue associated with, 4 , 5 , 137 -138;

Christian God compared to, 157 ;

and Coatlicue, 6 , 113 ;

and Coyolxauhqui, 5 , 113 -114;

dragons associated with, 148 ;

face painting of, 5 , 6 , 80 ;

and fire god, 7 ;

and fire serpent, 5 , 7 , 113 ;

mask manifests, 4 -8;

as mediator, 6 , 7 ;

and Ometeotl, 4 , 5 , 6 ;

quincunx carried by, 5 , 7 ;

sacrifice to, 6 ;

saints associated with, 160 ;

south associated with, 6 , 137 -138;

sun associated with, 4 , 5 , 7 , 138 ;

temple to, 6 , 50 -51, 113 , 160 ;

as tutelary god, 4 -5;

as Tezcatlipoca, 4 , 5 , 137 -138;

Texcatlipoca opposed to, 138 ;

and Tlaloc, 7 -8, 50 -51, 113 ;

as warrior/war god, 5 , 7 , 113 -114, 137 -138

Hummingbird, 4 , 5 , 6 , 7

Hunab Ku, 4 , 138 . See also Itzamná

Hunt, Eva, 135 -136, 137 , 156 , 158 , 165

Hurricanes, 18 , 111

Huya ania, 180 , 181 -182, 184 , 185 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 190

Hvidtfeldt, Arild, 136 , 213 n. 30

I

Identity:

birthday determines, 131 , 145 , 159 ;

lost in transformation, 142 ;

in ritual, 180 , 186

Iguana House, 122 , 138 -139

Incensarios, 42 , 43 , 54 , 148 , 160

Inner:

flayed skin reveals, 80 -81;

heart as, 3 ;

mask reveals, xv , 31 , 37 , 63 ;

mouth expresses, 38 , 63 ;

and outer, xv , 3 , 31 , 37

Inquisition, 167

Itzamná, 122 , 138 -139

Izapa: art of, 56 , 58 -59;

burials, 57 ;

funerary masks of, 90 ;

god of, 56 , 57 , 58 ;

influence Maya, 56 , 57 , 58 -59, 90 ;

Olmec influence, 56 , 57 , 90 ;

stelae, 56 , 57 , 117

Izcalli, feast of, 7

J

Jacobsen, Thorkild, xviii, 65

Jade:

in burials, 118 ;

masks, 79 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 93

Jaguar:

caves associated with, 15 -16, 17 , 83 -84, 126 , 127 , 167 , 170 ;

Cocijo associated with, 28 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 63 ;

death of, 167 ;

devours man, 17 , 111 ;

earth associated with, 167 , 168 ;

emergence from, 50 , 126 ;

eyes of, 29 , 169 , 170 , 171 ;

fangs of, 18 , 19 , 167 , 169 ;

fertility associated with, 15 , 44 , 167 , 168 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 ;

man merges with (see Were-jaguar);

Maya, 28 ;

mouth of, 15 , 16 -17, 48 , 50 , 51 (pl), 55 , 57 , 83 -84, 126 , 127 , 167 , 169 , 170 ;

in nature-culture opposition, 168 , 178 ;

night associated with, 86 , 111 , 126 ;

nose of, 44 , 167 , 169 , 171 ;

Olmec, 9 , 10 , 11 , 15 , 17 -18, 23 -24, 28 , 46 , 71 , 126 , 127 ;

rain associated with, 9 , 10 , 15 , 17 -18, 21 , 23 -24, 28 , 167 , 177 , 178 ;

in rituals/festivals, 18 , 167 , 172 -173, 175 , 177 , 178 , (see also Tigre dance);

rulers associated with, 21 , 23 -24, 28 , 46 , 57 , 71 , 178 ;

serpent associated with, 21 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 37 , 44 , 72 ;

shaman associated with, 103 , 104 ;

Shield, 71 ;

sun associated with, 86 , 126 ;

teponaxtli as voice of, 172 , 173 ;

Tezcatlipoca associated with, 55 ;

tigre mask as, 161 , 167 -168, 170 , 172 , 173 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 37 , 46 , 48 , 50 , 51 (pl), 55 , 126

Jaina, 71 , 89

Jiménez Moreno, Wigberto, 46

Joralemon, Peter, xv , 19 , 57 , 64 , 78 , 139 ;

on Olmec gods, 9 -10, 11 , 13 , 14

Joyce, James, 148

Jung, Carl, 67

Jupiter, 133

Juxtlahuaca, Guerrero, 16 , 174 -175

K

Kabah, 87

Kaminaljuyú, 56 (pl), 57 , 58 -59, 90

Kan Xul, 59 , 60

Kendal Tomb, Belize, 59

Kennedy, Alison, 15

Kerényi, C., 88 , 89

Kin,109 , 112 , 122 , 130

Klee, Paul, 204

Klein, Cecelia, 95

Krickeberg, Walter, 124

Kubler, George, xv , 34 , 35 , 46 , 92 , 118 , 122 , 212 n. 17

Kuebler, Joanne, 197

Kukulcán, 62 , 64 , 72 , 75 . See also Quetzalcóatl

Kurath, Gertrude, 161

L

Labná, 61

Landa, Diego de, 91 -92, 105 , 158

Lapida de Aparicio, 30

La Venta, 11 , 127 , 135 , 143 ;

altars at, 24 , 25 , 26;

funerary masks at, 89 ;

monuments of, 20 , 72 -73;

stela Z at, 57

La Ventilla, 42

Leach, Edmund R., 3 -4, 6 , 63

Leather masks, 170 -171

Lenten drama (Mayo/Yaqui), 186 -188;

clowns in, 187 ;

as good v. evil, 187 -188;

pascola's role in, 179 , 188 ;

as rebirth, 188 ;

on time as cyclical, 187

León-Portilla, Miguel, 112 , 131 , 136 , 137 , 150

Levi-Strauss, Claude, 6 -7, 8 , 106

Life:

death precedes/is precursor to, 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 148 , 167 , 169 , 177 ;

duality of, with death, 4 , 31 , 88 , 103 , 109 , 127 ;

mask represents, 88 , 120 ;

source of (see Life-force); as transformation, 88 , 116

Life-force (divine essence, godhead), 12 ;

blood as basis of, 111 , 144 ;

in bones, 111 , 117 , 144 ;

death as return to, 83 , 88 ;

as energy of cosmos, 3 , 102 , 135 ;

gods unfold, xii , 3 , 7 , 8 , 10 -11, 13 , 32 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 60 , 61 , 135 -136, 137 , 138 , 139 , 159 ;

manifestations unfold, 139 , 140 , 141 -142, 143 , 166 ;

mask unfolds, xii , xiv , xix , 3 , 4 , 26, 68 , 108 ;

Mayo/Yaqui (huya ania), 180 , 181 -182, 184 , 185 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 190 ;

order expresses, xiii , 135 -140;

sacrifice to, 135 ;

sun as source of, 111 ;

transformations manifest, 19 , 141 -150

Lightning:

cave associated with, 19 , 126 ;

Cocijo associated with, 33 , 34 ;

mountain associated with, 126 ;

rulers associated with, 33 ;

serpent associated with, 21 , 30 , 42 , 46 , 79 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 7 , 30 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 42 , 46 , 48

Lightning Tlaloc, 36 , 48

Liminal zone/liminal state, xiii , 66 , 67 ;

bloodletting as entry to, 76 ;

cave as entry to, 83 -84, 122 , 126 , 143 ;

ceremonial centers at point of, 45 ;

god-impersonator's, 68 -69;

mask as entry to, 68 -69, 70 , 72 -73, 84 , 87 , 89 ;

mountains as, 126 , 143 ;

mouth as, 17 ;

pyramid steps as, 84 ;

serpent's role in, 31 , 45 , 75 -76;

as stages of unfolding, 72 , 78

Lip. See Mouth

Long Count, 110 , 132

López Austin, Alfredo, 212 n. 240, 214 n. 4

Lord of Las Limas, 10 , 11 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 21 , 24 , 78 , 80

Los Angeles Times,166

Luckert, Karl, 15

Lutes, Steven, 184 , 188 , 190

M

MacNeish, Richard, xiii , 89 , 103

McVicker, Donald, 48

Madsen, William, 156 , 157 , 219 n. 91

Malinalco, 85 -86

Man, merges with animal in mask, 78 , 103 -104, 168 . See also Were-jaguar

Mann, Thomas, xvii

Marcus, Joyce, 139

Mars, 133

Matter/spirit, 126 ;

art breaks barrier between, 147 -148, 148 -150;

calendar as interface between, 131 ;

Christ as, 164 ;

duality/union of, xvii -xviii, 23 , 31 , 93 , 102 , 106 , 109 , 121 ;

mediators between, xvii -xviii, 3 -4, 6 , 12, 17 , 19 , 68 , 88 , 102 , 106 ;

meeting point of, 45 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 110 ;

ruler unites, 23 ;

transformation from one to other, xiv , 54 , 75 , 88 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 145 -150

Maya:

ancestor worship, 117 ;

animism of, 163 ;

architectural masks, 61 , 75 , 86 , 87 ;

astronomy, 109 , 110 , 112 , 114 -115, 122 , 131 -132;

baptismal rite, 159 ;

buccal masks, 59 ;

burial/funerary practices, 59 -60, 88 -89, 90 -92, 117 -118;

calendar, 122 , 129 , 130 , 131 -132, 158 -159, 160 ;

on Catholicism, 156 , 158 , 163 , 166 ;

on caves, 84 , 127 ;

confession by, 159 ;

creation myth, 4 , 22 -23, 111 -112;

cross, 158 ;

dance-drama, 163 , 175 ;

on death, 59 , 90 , 91 , 117 , 119 ;

on earth, 122 ;

face painting, 80 ;

funerary masks, 88 -89, 90 -92;

funerary urns, 117 ;

gods, 4 , 37 , 56 , 58 , 59 , 64 , 118 , 138 , 155 , 212 n. 17 (see also individual gods by name);

in Guatemala, 112 , 175 ;

hallucinogens used by, 104 ;

on heavens, 124 ;

influence, 47 , 48 ;

jaguar, 28 ;

on moon, 110 , 114 , 132 , 156 ;

Olmec influence on, 28 , 56 , 57 , 58 -59, 60 -61, 90 , 139 , 212 n. 246;

priests, 105 ;

Quiché, 22 -23, 112 , 163 ;

on rain, 55 , 56 , 156 (see also Chac);

on regeneration, 59 , 117 -118;

religion/cosmology, 60 , 112 , 119 , 136 , 138 -139, 157 ;

rituals, 18 , 70 , 125 , 141 , 142 , 145 , 147 , 158 -159;

rulers, 58 , 59 , 71 , 90 -91, 117 , 119 , 141 (see also Pacal);

sacrifice, 18 , 142 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 158 ;

sites, 59 , 84 , 86 , 87 , (see also Palenque; Tikal; Uxmal; Yucatán);

on sun, 114 , 118 , 156 ;

on Tecum, 163 ;

tigre dance, 175 -176;

on time, 109 , 112 , 122 , 132 , 160 , 216 , n. 4;

Tzotzil, 125 , 144 , 175 -177;

underworld, 59 , 60 , 84 , 90 , 119 , 127 ;

villages (see Chamula; Zinacantan);

vision quests, 142 , 145 ;

water lily motif, 36 , 37 ;

x-ray technique, 70 -71;

Yucatec, 61 , 62 (pl), 84 , 105 , 114 -115, 122

Mayapán, 62 , 109

Mayo, 160 ;

on ambivalence of power, 181 ;

on Catholicism, 183 , 186 , 187 ;

Lenten drama of, 186 -188;

life-force of, 180 , 181 -182, 184 , 185 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 190 ;

masks, 189 ;

on nature, 180 , 181 ;

pahko ritual of, 183 , 184 -186, 188 , 189 , 190 ;

pascola, 161 , 164 , 179 -190

Medellin Zenil, Alfonso, 89

Mediation/mediators:

ancestors as, 102 , 117 , 127 ;

caves as, 122 ;

gods as, 4 , 6 , 7 , 11 , 66 , 90 , 117 ;

mask as, 4 , 12, 63 ;

between matter and spirit, xvii -xviii, 3 -4, 6 , 12, 17 , 19 , 68 , 88 , 102 , 106 ;

mountains as, 122 ;

priests as, 66 , 122 ;

shaman as, 4 , 102 , 122 ;

taboos on, 4 ;

were-jaguar as, 17 , 19

Melville, Herman, 151

Mendieta, Fr. Gerónimo de, 95

Mendoza, Ruben G., 83

Mercury, 133

Merlo Juárez, Eduardo, 192

Merlons, 38 -39, 41 , 48

Mesoamerica, as single culture, 9 , 207 n. 4

Metaphor:

defined, 69 ;

function of, 136 ;

mask as, xi , xiv , xvii -xix, 3 , 35 , 37 , 40 , 55 , 56 , 60 , 63 , 66 , 69 , 70 , 84 , 97 -98, 103 , 107 , 120 , 142 , 179 , 190

Mictlan, 88

Mictlantecutli, 119

Midnight, in ritual, 184 , 185 , 189

Miles, S. W., 212 n. 246

Miller, Mary Ellen, 59 , 70 , 75 , 118 , 130 , 142 , 146 , 147 , 151 -152, 207 n. 4, 212 n. 17

Millon, René, 42 , 45 , 83 , 124 , 127 , 128

Mirror, of Tezcatlipoca, 64 , 105 -106, 137 , 165

Mixcoatl, 4

Mixe, 159

Mixtec, 47 ;

afterlife, 94 ;

burial practices, 94 -95, 118 ;

carnivals, 174 -175, 176 , 178 ;

codex, 49 ;

creation myth, 146 ;

fire serpent, 148 ;

funerary masks, 90 , 93 , 94 -95, 96 ;

gods, 5 , 28 , 49 , 53 ,

146 ;

sites, 94 -95 (see also Oaxaca);

tigre dance, 174 -175

Mixteca-Puebla: codices, 59 ;

style, 49 , 211 n. 209

Moctezuma, 96 (pl), 97 -98, 155 , 214 n. 2

Molina, Felipe, 181 , 184 , 190 , 192

Momostenango, 163

Monotheism, 136

Monsters, 84 , 85 -86, 118 , 143 -144

Monte Albán, 83 , 117 ;

Cocijo at, 29 ;

Danzante sculpture at, 131 ;

funerary offering of, 93 -94;

funerary urns at, 28 -29, 32 -33, 74 -75, 80 , 93 , 145 ;

god-impersonator at, 71 ;

observatory at, 109 ;

quincunx at, 122 ;

rain god mask at, 28 ;

serpent mask at, 78 -79;

Xipe Tótec at, 80

Moon:

Aztecs on, 112 -114;

butterfly associated with, 148 ;

cycles of, 110 , 114 -115, 116 , 132 , 133 ;

eclipses disrupt, 114 -115;

as female, 113 , 114 ;

god of, 112 -113, 114 ;

Mayas on, 110 , 114 , 132 , 156 ;

night equated with, 113 ;

rabbit in, 113 ;

and sun, as duality, 112 -115;

sun destroys, 113 , 114

Moors, 161 -163;

masks of, 193 -194

Mora, Lino, 193

Morelos, 167 -168, 169 , 173 , 175 . See also Chalcatzingo

Morisca, 161 -163

Mosaic, 127 ;

masks, 5 , 80 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 94 -95, 96

Moser, Christopher, 94 -95

Motolinia, Fr. Toribio de, 95

Mountain:

artificial, 84 , 122 , 126 , 127 ;

cave in, 127 , 171 ;

as center, 83 , 84 ;

climbing of, 125 ;

as deity, 213 n. 80;

as entrance to heavens, 84 ;

lightning from, 126 ;

as liminal, 20 , 126 , 127 , 143 , 144 ;

as mediator, 122 ;

rain associated with, 126 ;

rituals on, 126 , 143 , 176 , 177 ;

on Tlalocan mural, 40 , 41 , 42 ;

as transformation agent/site, 126 , 143

Mouth:

cave associated with, 15 , 16 -17, 24 , 83 -84, 127 ;

Chac's, 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 63 ;

Cocijo's, 28 , 29 , 63 ;

drains associated with, 16 -17;

emergence from, 48 , 50 , 70 -77, 126 ;

expresses/reveals, 38 , 63 , 82 ;

handlebar-mustache, 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 52 -53, 55 , 61 , 63 ;

jade in, 118 ;

jaguar's, 15 , 16 -17, 48 , 50 , 51 (pl), 55 , 57 , 83 -84, 127 , 167 , 169 , 170 ;

as liminal point, 17 ;

mask-wearer looks through, 167 , 169 , 171 ;

as mediator, 17 , 19 ;

Olmec, 13 , 15 -16, 17 , 18 , 19 , 29 , 34 , 36 , 56 , 57 , 63 , 127 , 169 ;

rain god's, 13 , 14 , 15 , 19 ;

scroll element/ spiral near, 16 , 23 , 59 , 78:

serpent's, 15 , 41 , 44 , 72 -73, 76 -77;

temple doors as, 84 ;

Tlaloc's, 34 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 48 , 52 -53, 54 , 55 , 57 , 61 , 63 , 169 , 171 ;

toad's, 15 ;

toothless, 13 , 18 -19;

water-lily in, 36 , 37 -38, 48 ;

were-jaguar's, 15 -16, 17 , 18 , 19 , 26, 28 , 29 , 36 , 56 , 57 , 63 , 169

Murals. See Oxtotitlán cave; Tlalocan mural

Mushrooms, hallucinogenic, 104

Myth, xi , xii , 6 -7, 8 , 136 , 195 -196;

metaphorical, xiv -xv;

transformation as basis of, 143 -144.

See also Creation/creation myth

N

Nagual/nahualli, 5 , 55 , 102 , 104 , 105 , 144 -145, 202 -203, 204

Nahua people (Nahuatl-speaking people), 127 , 137 , 144 -145, 146

Naj Tunich cave, 208 n. 51

Name, 159

Nanahuatzin, 112 , 113 , 114 , 144

Nature, 18 , 101 -102;

v. culture, 22 -23, 168 , 178 ;

mask of, 3 , 31 , 135 , 151 ;

Mayo/Yaqui on, 180 , 181

Navajo, 137

Navarrete, Carlos, 167

los Negritos, 178

Nicholson, Henry B., 43 , 44 , 49 , 52 , 54 , 80 , 81 , 105 , 106 , 136

Nicholson, Irene, 136

Night: /day duality, 108 -109;

jaguar associated with, 86 , 111 , 126 ;

moon as, 113 ;

Tezcatlipoca associated with, 137 , 138

North, 83 , 122 , 138 , 139

Nose:

jaguar's, 44 , 167 , 169 , 171 ;

rain god's, 13 , 15 , 50 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 171

Novalis (Friedrich von Hardenberg), xv

Ñuiñe tradition, 47

Numbers, as sacred, 85 , 129

O

Oaxaca:

astronomy in, 109 ;

calendars of, 33 , 110 , 130 ;

carnivals in, 173 , 174 , 175 ;

composite masks/beings in, 27 , 28 , 29 ;

face painting in, 79 -80;

funerary masks in, 89 -90, 93 -94, 95 , 96 ;

funerary urns in, 28 -30, 31 -33;

gods of (see Cocijo);

Olmec influence in, 27 , 28 , 29 , 32 ;

people of (see Mixtecs; Zapotecs);

sites in (see individual sites by name);

tigre dance in, 173 , 175

Obsidian, 105 -106, 214 n. 152

Océlotl, 111 . See also Jaguar

Ochpaniztli, festival of, 147

Oettinger, Marion, 175

Olivera B., Mercedes, 175

Olmec:

astronomy, 109 ;

biologically impossible creatures, 9 -12, 13 (see also Were-jaguar);

bird, 71 ;

buccal masks, 78 ;

calendar, 110 ;

caves, 15 , 16 , 24 (see also Oxtotitlán cave);

on children, 18 , 24 , 26 ;

cleft imagery of, 13 , 14 , 15 , 19 , 26, 30 ;

creator god, 12 ;

crocodilian, 17 ;

cross, 14 , 15 -16, 24 , 26 ;

dragon, 13 , 139 ;

face painting, 79 ;

on fertility, 13 , 14 , 15 , 19 ;

funerary masks, 89 , 92 ;

hallucinogens, 104 ;

influence, xv , 9 , 10 , 11 , 26 -27, 28 , 29 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 56 , 57 , 58 -59, 60 -61, 63 , 90 , 139 , 169 , 210 n. 159, 212 n. 246;

jade mask, 152 ;

jaguar, 9 , 10 , 11 , 15 , 17 -18, 23 -24, 28 , 46 , 71 , 126 , 127 ;

mediation beliefs, 12, 17 , 19 ;

mosaics, 127 ;

mountains, 20 , 127 ;

mouth/nose imagery, 13 , 15 -16, 17 , 18 , 19 , 29 , 34 , 36 , 56 , 57 , 63 , 127 , 169 ;

origin myth, 126 ;

quincunx, 122 ;

rain god, 9 , 13 -26, 28 , 29 , 30 , 34 , 36 , 57 , 63 , 169 , 208 n. 43;

rulers/rulership, 21 , 22 , 23 -24, 24 -26, 27 , 28 , 57 , 71 , 139 ;

scarification, 79 ;

serpent, 17 ;

sites (see individual sites by name);

trade, 26 -27, 34 , 60 ;

village cultures fused with, xiii , 26 , 27 -28, 34 , 90 ;

on volcanoes, 127 ;

water images, 16 , 17 , 19 , 21 ;

were-jaguar, xii , 8 -26, 28 , 34 , 36 , 56 , 57 , 63 , 169 , 208 n. 38;

Xipe Tótec prototype, 80 ;

x-ray technique, 70 -71

Ometeotl:

aspects/manifestations of, 4 , 5 , 6 , 136 , 137 , 138 ;

Christian God compared to, 157 ;

as creator, 4 , 136 , 141 ;

duality of, 137 , 141 ;

as godhead, 138

Omeyocán, 138

Opossum mask, 71 , 72 (pl), 78

Oral tradition, 135

Order, 102 -103, 106 ;

calendar expresses, 129 , 131 , 143 ;

Chac associated with, 61 ;

cycles express, xii , xiii , 108 , 115 -116, 119 , 121 , 143 ;

devil disrupts, 182 ;

life-force as source of, xiii , 135 -140;

mathematical, 129 -134;

reality displayed by, xi , xvii ;

ritual restores, 18 , 182 ;

spatial, xii , 121 -128, 143 ;

sun as source of, 121 , 128 ;

temporal, xii , 108 -120, 121 , 143

Origin:

cave as place of, 15 , 83 , 84 , 126 , 127 ;

myth, 83 , 126

Orozco, José Clemente, 196

Otomi people, 144

Outer, xv , 3 , 37 . See also Inner

Ovid, 67 , 69

Oxtotitlán cave, 12 , 24 , 34 , 57 , 70 -71, 78 , 171

Oztoteotl, 160

P

Pacal:

funerary mask of, 90 , 91 , 119 ;

regeneration associated with, 31 , 91 , 118 -119;

serpent and, 31 ; tomb of, 19 , 20 (pl), 31 , 91 , 92 , 118 -119, 158

Paddock, John, 29

Paganism. See Religion

Pahko ritual, 184 -186, 190 ;

community participates in, 183 -184, 186 ;

as identity ritual, 186 ;

midnight in, 184 , 185 , 189 ;

phases of, 184 -186;

pascola's role in, 183 , 184 -186, 188 ;

for rain, 186 ;

rama in, 183 ;

or regeneration, 185 -186

Palenque, 59 , 60 ;

Pacal's tomb at, 19 , 20 (pl), 31 , 91 , 92 , 118 -119, 158 ;

Temple of the Cross at, 119 ;

Temple of Inscriptions at, 91 , 118 , 119

Pantheism, 135 -136, 165

Paradis, Louise, 27

Paret-Limardo de Vela, Lise, 175

Partial masks, 78

Pascola/pascola dance, 179 -190;

animals in, 180 , 181 , 183 , 184 , 185 , 189 ;

Christ associated with, 179 , 182 , 186 ;

clown in, 179 , 185 ;

deer dancer in, 175 , 179 , 182 , 184 , 185 -186;

devil linked to, 179 , 181 ;

entry to other world in, 181 -182, 183 -184, 186 ;

flowers associated with, 182 , 186 , 188 , 189 ;

as force for good, 181 -182;

goat as, 179 , 188 -189;

as host, 179 , 183 , 184 , 186 ;

huya ania in, 180 , 181 -182, 184 , 185 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 190 ;

in Lenten drama, 179 , 188 ;

mask, xiv , 188 , 189 , 190 , 192 ;

origin of, 179 ;

in pahko ritual, 183 , 184 -186, 188 ;

power of, 182 -183;

quincunx in, 189 -190;

recruitment of, 180 -181;

regeneration as basis of, 186 , 187 , 188 ;

as sanctification, 182 ;

sea ania in, 182 , 185 ;

as syncretic, xiv , 161 , 164 , 179 -182, 183 , 184 -186, 187 , 188 ;

yo ania in, 180 , 181 , 182

Pastorelas, 161 , 164

Pasztory, Esther, xv , 34 , 35 , 48 , 50 , 86 , 95 , 96 ;

on Aztec self-image, 7 -8;

on duality, 136 ;

on fire serpent, 30 ;

on Mixteca-Puebla style, 211 n. 209;

on Tlaloc, 36 , 38 , 53 , 210 n. 160

Paul, Anne, 212 n. 17

Paynal, 7

Paz, Octavio, xviii, 82 , 83 , 87 , 98 ;

on Tamayo, 196 , 197 , 199

Pectorals/pectoral masks, 14 , 59 , 152

Peñates,49

Petroglyphs, 109 -110, 124

Picasso, Pablo, 197 , 198 , 200

Piña-Chan, Roman, 46

Pleiades, 132

Plumbate sculpture, 50 , 73

Pohorilenko, Anatole, 10 -11, 13

Political use of mask, 196

Polytheism, 136

Pomar, Maria Teresa, 194

Ponce, Juan Garcia, 197 , 201

Popol Vuh, 22 -23, 90 , 112 , 114 , 115 , 118 , 131 , 146 , 147

Postclassic period, 49 , 53 -54, 56 , 62 , 80

Pottery masks, 78 , 89 -90, 92

Preclassic period, 9 , 34 , 56 , 79 -80, 89 , 91 , 92 , 110

Priests, 67 ;

autosacrifice by, 146 ;

Aztec, 104 -105, 130 -131;

buried in caves, 83 ;

calendar, 130 -131;

Christian, 160 ;

as conduit toward spirit world, 66 , 74 ;

in funerary rituals, 93 ;

as god-impersonators, 60 ;

hallucinogens used by, 104 -105;

healing by, 105 ;

masks for, 66 , 72 -73, 79 ;

Maya, 105 ;

as mediators, 66 , 84 , 122 ;

petition gods, 126 ;

Quetzalcóatl's, 74 , 75 ;

ritual bag of, 72 , 73 ;

Sowing, 73 -74, 75 ;

Tlaloc's, 50 ;

Xipe Tótec's, 80 ;

Zapotec, 93

Primary mask, 63 -64, 65

Proskouriakoff, Tatiana, 75

Puebla, 47 , 53 . See also Mixteca-Puebla

Puuc site, 61 , 84 . See also Uxmal

Pyramid, 46 , 47 , 75 , 87 ;

as artificial mountain, 122 , 126 , 127 ;

cave under, 83 , 126 , 127 -128, 213 n. 82;

as entrance to heavens, 84 ;

masks flank stairway of, 82 , 84 -85, 85 -86, 125 ;

pilgrimages to, 125 , 160 ;

as quincunx, 125 ;

ritual climbing of, 84 , 85 , 124 -125;

as sacred center, 7 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 125 -126, 127 ;

siting/shaping of, 124 , 125 , 127 .

See also individual pyramids by name and site

Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent, Xochicalco, 47

Pyramid of the Magician (El Advina), Uxmal, 75

Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacán, 35 , 45 , 124

Pyramid of the Niches, El Tajin, 46 , 87

Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacán, 17 , 35 , 42 , 45 , 83 , 109 , 124 , 125 -126, 127 -128, 213 n. 82

Q

Quadripartite gods, 4 , 5 , 7 , 14 , 26, 33 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 63 , 137 -138, 139

Quadripartite Monster, 118

Quetzalcóatl, 30 , 112 ;

autosacrifice of, 111 , 144 , 145 ;

as evening star, 115 , 118 ;

costume of, 97 , 98 ;

creates man, 111 , 144 , 145 ;

Ehécatl aspect of, 44 , 64 , 79 , 106 , 111 , 138 , 178 ;

as morning star, 50 , 115 , 138 ;

priests of, 74 , 75 ;

serpent associated with, 44 -45, 72 , 73 , 78 , 97 , 177 , 178 ;

as shaman, 106 , 111 ;

temples to, 31 , 40 , 43 -45, 46 , 48 , 73 , 84 -85, 87 , 160 ;

and Tezcatlipoca, 4 , 137 , 138 , 157 ;

and Tlaloc, 44 -45, 48 , 50 ;

Tula symbolized by, 50 ;

turquoise associated with, 97 , 98 ;

west associated with, 137 , 138 ;

white associated with, 4 , 137 , 157 ;

at Xochicalco, 211 n. 205

Quetzalpapálotl Palace, Teotihuacán, 35 , 42

Quincunx:

calendar as, 123 ;

cardinal directions of, 122 , 158 ;

cave as, 127 , 128 ;

center of, 45 -46, 122 , 123 -124, 158 ;

cross as, 26 , 158 , 189 ;

Huitzilopochtli carries, 5 , 7 ;

at Monte Albán, 122 ;

in pascola, 189 -190;

pyramid as, 125 ;

space and time merged in, 83 , 122 , 123 , 158 ;

sun's path determines, 122 , 123 ;

at Tenochtitlán, 124 ;

Teotihuacán as, 45 -46, 83 , 123 -124;

Tlaloc figures form, 36 , 53 -54;

Venus as, 122

Quirarte, Jacinto, 212 n. 246

R

Rabbit, 113

Rain, 3 , 32 , 139 ;

blood as reciprocal to, 30 , 45 , 60 , 126 , 171 , 186 ;

cave associated with, 16 -17, 19 , 126 , 167 ;

children associated with, 18 -19;

ferocity of, 18 ;

fire as reciprocal to, 43 ;

god of (see Rain god);

gods provide, 21 ;

jaguar associated with, 9 , 10 , 15 , 17 -19, 21 , 23 -24, 28 , 167 , 177 , 178 ;

lack of, 18 ;

Maya on, 55 , 56 , 156 ;

mountain associated with, 126 , (see also Lightning);

priests ask for, 126 ;

ritual/festival for, 18 -19, 24 , 45 , 81 , 128 , 161 , 167 , 169 , 171 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 186 ;

ritual to control, 18 ;

rulership associated with, 21 , 22 , 23 -24, 24 -26, 28 , 33 ;

serpent associated with, 30 , 45 ;

as transforming agent, 54

Rain god, xiv , 56 , 139 ;

animals associated with, 208 n. 43;

Aztec (see T laloc);

birds and, 21 ;

cave associated with, 23 -24, 85 , 126 , 127 ;

Classic, 26 , 34 , 58 ;

dwarf helps, 19 ;

ears of, 13 , 21 , 28 , 37 , 60 , 61 , 62 ;

eyes of, 13 -14, 20 , 21 ;

fertility associated with, xiii ;

headdress of, 13 , 21 , 24 , 26, 28 , 29 -30, 31 -32, 36 , 42 , 48 , 50 , 53 ;

Maya (see Chac);

Mixtec, 49 ;

at Monte Albán, 28 , 29 ;

mouth of, 13 , 14 , 15 , 19 , 63 ;

nose of, 13 , 15 , 50 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 171 ;

Oaxacan (see Cocijo);

Olmec, 9 , 13 -26, 28 , 29 , 30 , 34 , 36 , 57 , 63 , 169 , 208 n. 43;

as primary mask, 64 ;

rulership associated with, xii -xiii, 9 , 21 , 46 , 48 , 61 , 63 ;

sacrifice to, 18 -19, 24 ;

serpent associated with, 20 , 21 , 31 ;

time associated with, 63 ;

variations in, 19 -21, 34 -35;

water flows from, 60 ;

were-jaguar as, xii , 13 , 15 , 28

Rattlesnake, 31

Ravicz, Marilyn, 157 , 164

Reality, xi , xvii , 97 -98, 105 -106, 129

Rebirth. See Regeneration

Reciprocity, 173 ;

of blood to rain, 30 , 45 , 60 , 126 , 171 , 186 ;

of fire to rain, 43 ;

for god's sacrifice, 145 , 147 ;

of ritual sacrifice, 30 , 45 , 60 , 116 , 126 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 157 , 158 , 171

Red:

Chac associated with, 60 , 62 , 212 n. 17;

death associated with, 31 ;

east associated with, 117 , 119 , 137 , 139 ;

Itzamná associated with, 139 ;

regeneration associated with, 117 , 119 ;

serpent associated with, 31 ;

Xipe Tótec as (Tezcatlipoca), 4 , 31 , 80 , 137

Redfield, Robert, 165 , 192

Regeneration, 5 , 116 -120;

in agriculture, 60 , 61 , 116 -117, 118 , 156 ;

Aztecs on, 119 ;

via bone, 91 , 111 , 117 ;

burial practices reflect belief in, 31 , 91 , 117 -118, 119 ;

Chac associated with, 60 , 61 , 156 ;

of Christ, 164 ;

cycle of, xiii ;

east equated with, 115 ;

funerary masks aid, 91 ;

in Lenten drama, 188 ;

Maya on, 59 , 117 -119;

pascola's role in, 186 , 187 , 188 ;

red associated with, 117 , 119 ;

ritual for, 176 , 177 , 185 -186;

of rulers, 59 , 91 , 118 -119;

sacrifice for, 118 ;

serpent suggests, 30 -31, 118 -119;

in Spanish dances, 163 , 219 n. 70;

of sun, 60 , 115 , 118 , 156 ;

Xipe Tótec embodies, 116 -117

Relaci6n de Texcoco , 5

Religion (Mesoamerican), 64 -65, 135 -140, 141 -150;

in art, 149 ;

Aztec, 52 , 101 , 136 -138, 156 ;

Catholicism parallels, 137 , 155 , 156 -160;

conquest affects, 155 , 156 ;

difficulty in studying, 136 -137;

dualism in, 15 , 136 , 166 ;

mathematics to comprehend, 133 ;

Maya, 60 , 112 , 119 , 136 , 138 -139, 157 ;

as monotheistic, 136 ;

ritual in (see Ritual);

as sexual, 15 ;

shamanism in, xiii , xviii, xix , 3 , 4 , 101 , 102 -105, 106 , 117 , 144 ;

still practiced, 155 -156;

syncretism of, with Catholicism, xiv , xviii, 155 , 156 -166, 172 -173, 179 -182, 183 , 184 -186, 187 , 188 , 192 ;

time in, 130 ;

on transformation, xi , 117 , 141 -150;

unity in, 103 , 166 ;

Yaqui, 186 , 187 , 188 .

See also Cosmology

Resurrection. See Regeneration

Rio Bec, 84

Ritual: agricultural, 116 -117, 118 , 119 , 146 -147, 160 , 168 -169, 174 ;

to aires, 171 ;

amaranth eaten in, 159 ;

ancestorworship, 127 ;

animals in, 66 , 103 , 167 , 169 , 170 ;

Aztec, 6 , 51 , 52 , 124 -125, 146 -147, 159 , 162 ;

baptismal, 159 ;

calendar, 33 , 36 , 110 , 116 , 129 -132, 135 , 145 , 158 -159, 160 ;

Catholic, 157 , 159 ;

in caves, 16 , 83 , 86 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 143 , 167 , 170 , 171 , 176 , 177 ;

centers, 47 , 82 , 83 , 85 , 103 (see also individual centers by name);

climbing in, 84 , 85 , 124 , 125 ;

to Coatlicue, 119 ;

combat, 170 , 171 ;

communion, 81 , 159 -160;

confession, 159 ;

for control, 18 , 182 ;

for fertility, 15 -16, 71 , 81 , 83 , 128 , 146 , 168 , 170 , 174 , 175 , 177 , 178 , 219 n. 70;

fire, 43 ;

function of, 45 , 66 , 67 , 157 ;

hallucination in, 75 -76;

for identity, 180 , 186 ;

of initiation, 67 , 86 ;

jaguar in, 18 , 167 , 172 -173, 175 , 177 , 178 (see also Tigre dance);

Lenten, 186 -188;

man becomes god in, xiii ,

xviii, xix , xxv, 21 , 66 , 68 -69, 70 , 71 ,

72 , 78 , 79 , 80 ;

Maya, 18 , 70 , 125 , 141 , 142 , 145 , 147 , 158 -159;

for merging with/meeting other worlds, 66 , 67 , 68 , 72 -73, 78 , 81 -82, 103 , 143 ;

on mountains, 126 , 143 , 176 , 177 ;

Navajo, 137 ;

pahko, 183 , 184 -186, 188 , 189 , 190 ;

pascola, 161 , 164 , 179 -190;

for rain, 18 -19, 24 , 45 , 81 , 128 , 161 , 167 , 169 , 171 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 ;

reciprocity in, 30 , 45 , 60 , 116 , 126 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 157 , 158 , 171 ;

for regeneration, 176 , 177 , 185 -186;

rulers in, 22 , 76 , 90 , 141 -142, 145 ;

sacrifice in, 6 , 18 -19, 24 , 30 , 80 -81, 82 , 85 , 103 , 116 -117, 125 , 142 , 145 , 146 -147, 158 , 167 , 213 n. 30;

serpent in, 177 -178;

sun in, 33 , 110 , 124 -125, 158 -159;

Tarascan, 178 ;

to Tezcatlipoca, 138 , 159 ;

Tlacaxipeualiztli, 81 -82;

to Tlazolteotl, 159 ;

transformation via, 43 , 70 , 75 , 102 , 141 , 142 , 145 , 147 ;

to Xipe Tótec, 30 , 81 , 82 , 116 -117;

Zapotec, 159

Ritual of the Bacabs,105

Rivera, Diego, 196

Robertson, Merle, 31 , 118

Robicsek, Francis, 117

Rodriguez, José, 194

Ruler/rulership, 56 ;

burials of, 57 , 90 , 92 (see also Pacal, tomb of);

corn associated with, 118 ;

cremated, 95 ;

cycle of, 118 ;

on death, becomes god, 21 , 33 , 59 , 80 , 88 , 90 -91, 117 , 119 , 143 ;

entreat gods, 141 -142;

gods provide, 21 ;

gods speak through, xix , 21 , 70 , 142 ;

jaguar associated with, 21 , 23 -24, 28 , 46 , 57 , 71 , 178 ;

legitimated, xix , 27 , 46 , 57 , 71 , 86 , 142 ;

lightning associated with, 33 ;

masks of, xix , 61 , 76 , 95 ;

Maya, 58 , 59 , 71 , 90 -91, 117 , 119 , 141 ;

Olmecs on, 21 , 22 , 23 -24, 24 -26, 27 , 28 , 57 , 71 , 139 ;

rain associated with, 21 , 22 , 23 -24, 24 -26, 28 , 33 ;

rain god associated with, xii -xiii, 9 , 21 , 24 , 33 , 46 , 48 , 49 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 63 , 139 ;

regeneration of, 59 , 91 , 118 -119;

in rituals, 22 , 76 , 90 , 141 -142, 145 ;

serpent associated with, 46 , 76 ;

transformation and, 141 -142;

union of matter and spirit in, 23 ;

Zapotec, 33

Ruz Lhuillier, Alberto, xix , 31 , 75 , 91 , 117 , 118

S

Sacrifice: animal, 103 , 167 , 171 ;

auto-, 111 , 144 , 145 , 146 ;

Aztec, 6 , 124 -125, 145 , 146 -147;

blood, 6 , 30 , 38 , 45 , 60 , 75 -76, 103 , 126 , 135 , 142 , 145 -146, 147 , 167 , 182 , 186 ;

to Chac, 60 ;

of children, 18 -19, 24 ;

Christian, 158 ;

for corn, 116 , 118 , 146 ;

climbing stairs precedes, 84 , 85 , 124 -125;

creation myths charge, 111 , 145 , 146 ;

cycles continued by, 146 ;

via decapitation, 30 , 113 , 119 , 147 ;

via drowning, 19 ;

for fertility, 146 , 170 ;

flayed skin in, 80 -81, 147 ;

flesh eaten at, 81 ;

flowers associated with, 182 , 186 ;

of god-impersonator, 125 , 146 , 147 , 213 n. 30;

heart, 3 , 76 , 125 , 135 , 158 ;

hour of, 124 -125;

to Huitzilopochtli, 6 ;

to life-force, 135 ;

Maya, 18 , 142 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 158 ;

of prisoners of war, 6 , 81 -82;

as reciprocal, 30 , 45 , 60 , 116 , 126 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 158 , 171 ;

to rain god, 18 -19, 24 ;

for regeneration, 118 ;

serpent associated with, 30 , 38 , 45 , 79 ;

simulated, 167 , 171 ;

site of, 6 , 45 , 85 , 113 (see also Ciudadela; Pyramid; Templo Mayor);

to sun, 6 , 124 -125;

in Tehuacán valley, 103 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 38 ;

to Toci, 147 ;

tongue associated with, 38 ;

for transformation, 145 -146, 147

Sahagún, Fr. Bernardino de, 5 , 6 , 18 , 138 , 141 , 149 , 202 ;

on Aztecs, 51 -52;

on Cortés and Moctezuma, 97 -98;

on feather artist, 150 ;

on 52-year cycle, 132 ;

on Huitzilopochtli, 80 , 148 ;

on sacrifice, 81 -82

St. Andrew's cross, 14 , 15 -16, 24 , 26

St. Anne, 159

St. James, 157 , 160

St. John the Baptist, 159

St. Thomas, 157

Salmerón, Francisco, 158

Sánchez Andraka, Juan, 171 , 172 , 173

San Isidro, Chiapas, 90

San Lorenzo:

drains at, 17 , 21 ;

monuments at, 11 -12, 13 , 17 , 21 , 24 , 29 , 37

San Martin Pajapán, 20 , 24

San Miguel Chapultepec, Veracruz, 76 , 77 (pl)

San Nicolás Tolentino, 172 -173, 177

Satterthwaite, Linton, 130

Saville, Marshall H., 94

Scarification, 79 -80, 125 , 146 , 147

Schele, Linda, 59 , 70 , 75 , 118 , 130 , 142 , 146 , 147 , 151 -152, 207 n. 4, 212 n. 17

Scott, John, 72

Sea ania, 182 , 185

Secondary masks, 13 , 40 , 64 , 65 , 95

Séjourné, Laurette, xv , 35 , 36 , 79 , 81 , 92 , 210 n. 152;

on Tlalocan mural, 42 , 45 , 213 n. 36

Sekaquaptewa, Emory, 68 , 69

Seler, Eduard, 17 , 30 , 36 , 46 , 52 , 115 ;

on butterfly, 148 ;

on flayed skin ritual, 81 ;

on Tlaloc, 53 -54

Sepúlveda Herrera, Maria Teresa, 194 , 222 -223 n. 8

Serpent:

agriculture associated with, 30 ;

Aztecs on, 42 , 85 ;

blood associated with, 30 , 38 , 45 ;

Chac associated with, 56 ;

Christianity on, 31 ;

of Coatlicue, 30 , 119 ;

Cocijo associated with, 29 , 30 , 31 , 37 , 38 , 63 , 79 ;

corn associated with, 44 ;

deified, 31 ;

Ehécatl associated with, 44 , 177 , 178 ;

emergence from, 72 -73, 75 -76;

eyes of, 43 -44;

fertility associated with, 30 , 38 , 44 , 73 ;

fire, 5 , 7 , 30 , 42 , 113 , 148 ;

headdress, 73 -74, 75 ;

jaguar associated with, 21 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 37 , 44 , 72 ;

as lightning, 21 , 30 , 42 , 46 , 79 ;

liminal role of, 31 , 45 , 73 , 75 -76;

at Monte Albán, 78 -79;

mouth of, 15 , 41 , 44 , 72 -73, 76 -77;

Olmec, 17 ;

as phallic symbol, 30 ;

plumed/feathered, 31 , 32 , 43 , 44 -45, 46 , 47 , 72 , 73 , 75 , 177 , 178 ;

Quetzalcóatl identified with, 44 -45, 72 , 73 , 78 , 97 , 177 , 178 ;

rain associated with, 15 , 30 , 45 ;

as red, 31 ;

regeneration associated with, 30 -31, 118 -119;

in ritual, 175 , 177 , 178 , 189 ;

rulership associated with, 46 , 76 ;

sacrifice and, 30 , 38 , 45 , 79 ;

sexuality associated with, 30 ;

shells associated with, 47 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 30 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 41 , 43 -44, 45 , 48 , 52 , 55 , 177 -178;

tongue of, 20 , 21 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 44 , 63 ;

as transforming agent, 148 ;

as undulating line, 30

Sexuality: disguised, 15 ;

duality in, 15 , 137 ;

in ritual, 170 , 174 , 175 , 176 ;

serpent associated with, 30

Shaffer, Peter, 67 , 69

Shaman/shamanism:

ancestors of, 102 ;

Aztec, 104 , 105 , 145 ;

birds associated with, 104 ;

in burial rituals, xiii , 103 ;

on center as sacred, 122 ;

and Christianity, 165 ;

on cosmology, 102 -103, 106 , 108 ;

in creation myth, 111 ;

on death, 148 ;

dwarf helper of, 103 ;

Ehécatl as, 106 ;

on gods, 105 -106;

hallucinogens used by, 104 , 145 ;

healing by, 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 144 ;

incantations of, 105 , 106 ;

jaguar associated with, 103 , 104 ;

journey of, 83 , 84 , 101 , 102 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 121 -122, 184 ;

on life-force, 102 , 117 ;

masks of, 102 , 103 , 106 ;

as mediator, 4 , 101 , 102 , 122 ;

in Mesoamerican religion, xiii , xviii, xix , 3 , 4 , 101 , 102 -105, 106 , 117 , 129 , 144 ;

Quetzalcóatl as, 106 , 111 ;

on reality, 105 -106, 107 ;

on spirit, 84 , 102 , 144 ;

Siberian, 108 , 219 , n. 91;

on solar cycles, 108 -109;

Tezcatlipoca as, 105 -106;

transformation by, 69 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 117 , 143 , 145 ;

on unity of all things, 101 -102, 108 , 145 ;

visions/trances of, 101 , 102 -103, 104 , 143 , 145

Sharp, Rosemary, 61

Shells, 43 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 52 , 90 , 92

Sierra de Puebla, 127 , 144 , 162 , 192

Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 196

Smith, Mary Elizabeth, 49

Song/singer, 105 , 106 , 148 , 149

Soul, 102 , 144 , 145 , 157 . See also Spirit

Soustelle, Jacques, 13 , 71 , 103 , 142 , 212 n. 246

South, 6 , 83 , 122 , 137 -138, 139

Sowing Priests of Teotihuacán, 48 , 73 -74, 75 , 213 n. 36

Soyaltepec, Oaxaca, 90

Space:

order of, xii , 121 -128, 143 ;

and time, merged, 45 -46, 54 , 83 , 122 -123, 143 , 158

Spanish dances, 161 -163

Speech glyphs, 16 , 23 , 59 , 78

Spicer, Edward, 179 , 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 186 , 187 , 188

Spirit:

body houses, 88 , 144 , 145 ;

face reveals, 150 ;

matter and (see Matter/spirit);

shaman on, 84 , 102 , 144

Spirit world:

burial as return to, 127 ;

communication with, 26, 103 , 104 ;

manifested, 63 ;

shaman enters, 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 143

Split masks, 89 -90, 92 , 109

Stairways:

as liminal, 84 ;

masks line, 82 , 84 -85, 85 -86, 125 ;

ritual climbing of, 84 , 85 , 124 -125

Starfish, 38 , 39 , 41

Stela, 56 , 57 , 110 , 117

Stierlin, Henri, 46 -47, 75 , 86 , 87

Stone, Martha, 165

Stone masks, 92 , 95 -96

Stormy Sky, 58 -59, 61

Stucker, Terry, 15

Suárez Jácome, Cruz, 171 , 173

Sun: xii , 108 -116;

Aztecs honor, 6 , 111 , 112 -114, 124 -125;

birth of, 5 , 113 , 125 ;

butterfly associated with, 148 ;

calendar based on, xiii , 33 , 87 , 109 , 110 , 123 , 129 , 130 , 131 -132, 135 , 158 -159;

Capella announces, 109 ;

cave associated with, 83 , 86 ;

centers aligned with, 109 , 110 , 119 ;

Chac associated with, 60 , 156 ;

Christ associated with, 112 ;

cosmic order revealed by, 110 , 115 -116, 119 , 121 , 128 ;

creation of, 144 ;

in creation myths, 111 , 113 , 124 , 125 , 132 ;

daily cycle of, 5 , 6 , 83 , 86 , 108 -109, 111 , 112 , 113 , 121 , 122 , 128 , 133 ;

eclipses disrupt, 114 -115;

god, 112 , 113 , 114 , 138 ;

Huitzilopochtli associated with, 4 , 5 , 7 , 138 ;

jaguar associated with, 86 , 126 ;

as life source, 111 ;

as male, 113 , 114 ;

Maya on, 114 , 118 , 156 ;

at night, 86 , 126 , 138 ;

observatories for, 109 -110, 124 , 125 , 127 ;

and other heavenly bodies, 112 -114, 115 ;

Pacal associated with, 118 ;

path of, 122 , 123 , 138 ;

regeneration of, 60 , 88 , 115 , 118 , 156 ;

revolves around world center, 121 ;

rise/rebirth of, 5 , 6 , 83 , 86 , 110 , 115 , 125 ;

ritual to, 6 , 33 , 110 , 124 -125, 158 -159;

sets/death of, 83 , 86 , 110 , 115 ;

yearly cycle of, 109 , 111 , 112 , 133 , 135 ;

zenith passage of, 125

Syncretism, 155 , 156 -166;

in pascola, xiv , 161 , 164 , 179 -182, 183 , 184 -186, 187 , 188 , 192 ;

in tigre dance, 172 -173

T

Taboada, Ernesto, 126

Tamayo, Olga, 197 , 199 -200

Tamayo, Rufino, 196 -201, 204 ;

Carnaval(s) of, 197 -199, 200 ;

Dos Hombres en el Espacio of, 199 ;

Masque Rouge of, 200 ;

Retrato de Olga of, 199 -200;

Tête of, 200 -201;

watermelons by, 200 -201

Tarascan rituals, 178

Tecciztécatl, 112 -113, 114

los Tecuanes, 167 -168, 169 -170, 173

Tecum, 163

Tedlock, Barbara, 130 , 163

Tehuacán valley, xiii , 89 , 103

Teicauhtzin, 7

los Tejorones, 173 , 174 , 178

Temple:

as artificial cave, 83 , 84 , 85 -86, 122 , 126 ;

doorways framed by masks, 82 , 83 -84, 85 -86.

See also Pyramid; Templo Mayor; Teotihuacán, Temple of Quetzalcóatl at

Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlán, 7 ;

Coyolxauhqui found at, 113 , 114 ;

as sacred center, 51 , 52 , 127 ;

serpent at, 31 ;

Temple to Huitzilopochtli at, 6 , 50 -51, 113 , 160 ;

Temple to Tlaloc at, 50 -51, 52 -53, 54 -55, 113

Tennyson, Alfred Lord, xviii

Tenochtitlán, 50 , 124 , 143 . See also Templo Mayor

Teotihuacán, 103 ;

art of, 210 nn. 152, 159;

Atetelco compound at, 38 ;

Avenue of the Dead of, 35 , 45 , 55 , 123 , 124 ;

butterfly at, 148 ;

calendar at, 46 , 87 , 122 ;

as center, 34 , 47 , 128 ;

Ciudadela of (see Ciudadela);

cross petroglyphs of, 109 -110, 124 ;

decline/fall of, 47 ;

diamond-eye motif at, 54 , 64 ;

face painting at, 80 ;

founded, 210 n. 138;

funerary masks at, 92 , 95 -96;

influence of, 34 , 47 , 110 , 210 n. 135;

as liminal point, 110 , 125 ;

masks at, 34 , 64 , 79 , 93 ;

merlons at, 38 -39, 41 , 48 ;

murals at, xv , 35 , 36 , 55 (see also Tlalocan mural);

Olmec influence on, 34 ;

Palace of Jaguars of, 38 ;

Pyramid of the Moon of, 35 , 45 , 124 ;

Pyramid of the Sun of, 17 , 35 , 42 , 45 , 83 , 109 , 124 , 125 -126, 127 -128, 213 n. 82;

Quetzalpapálotl Palace of, 35 , 42 ;

as quincunx, 45 -46, 83 , 123 -124;

siting of, 125 , 126 ;

Sowing Priests of, 48 , 73 -74, 75 , 213 n. 36;

Temple of Quetzalcóatl of, 31 , 39 , 40 , 43 -45, 46 , 48 , 73 , 84 -85, 87 ;

Tepantitla mural of (see Tlalocan mural);

Tetitla compound of, 36 -37, 38 , 41 , 46 , 79 , 92 ;

Tlaloc at, 33 -47, 48 -49, 52 , 55 , 210 n. 135;

Tlalocan mural of (see Tlalocan mural);

Tula as heir of, 50 ;

Tzacualli phase of, 33 , 36 ;

Zacuala, 37 , 38

Tepantitla mural. See Tlalocan mural

Tepeyac, 158

Teponaxtli, 172 , 173 , 177

Teresa de Mier, Fr. Servando, 157

Termer, Franz, 118

Tetitla, 92 ;

Tlaloc at, 36 -37, 38 , 41 , 46 , 79

Texcaltitlán, Guerrero, 168 , 170

Texcoco, 105

Tezcatlanextia, 137

Tezcatlipoca, 60 , 70 , 139 ;

black, 4 , 138 , 149 ;

cult of, 105 ;

day associated with, 137 ;

death associated with, 138 ;

as dual, 137 , 138 ;

east associated with, 137 , 138 ;

Ehécatl opposed to, 138 ;

face painting of, 5 ;

funerary mask of, 96 ;

Huitzilopochtli as/opposed to, 4 , 5 , 137 -138;

jaguar associated with, 55 ;

mirror of, 64 , 105 -106, 137 , 165 ;

names for, 138 ;

night associated with, 137 , 138 ;

north associated with, 138 ;

as Ometeotl, 137 , 138 , 141 ;

as quadripartite, 5 , 7 , 63 , 97 , 137 -138;

Quetzalcóatl as/opposed to, 4 , 137 , 138 , 157 ;

red, 4 , 31 , 80 , 137 ;

ritual to, 125 , 138 , 141 , 159 , 213 n. 30;

ruler entreats, 141 -142;

as shaman, 105 -106;

shells associated with, 97 ;

as unitary, 137 , 138 ;

as warrior, 138 ;

west associated with, 137 ;

white, 4 , 137 , 157 ;

Xipe Tótec as/opposed to, 4 , 31 , 80 , 137 , 138

Thompson, Donald, 158 , 191 -192, 194

Thompson, J. Eric S., 19 , 56 , 114 , 116 , 118 , 136 , 139 , 147 , 175 , 212 n. 17, 213 n. 80

Thunder, 126 . See also Lightning; Rain

Tianquiztli, 132

Tigre dance, 160 , 167 -168;

as agricultural ritual, 168 -169, 172 -173, 174 ;

animals in, 169 , 170 , 175 ;

caves in, 170 ;

clowns in, 169 , 170 , 174 -175;

church towers in, 170 , 172 , 173 ;

cross in, 171 , 172 , 173 ;

at Day of the Holy Cross, 170 -172, 173 , 175 ;

at Day of San Nicolás Tolentino, 172 -173, 177 ;

drum in, 172 , 173 , 177 ;

dualities in, 170 ;

fertility implications in, 168 , 170 , 174 , 175 , 219 n. 70;

in Guerrero, 167 -168, 170 -172, 173 , 174 , 175 ;

Indians perform, 161 ;

jaguar in, 161 , 167 -168, 170 , 172 , 173 ;

Maya, 175 -176;

Mixtec, 174 -175;

in Morelos, 167 -168, 175 ;

mountain in, 170 ;

nature v. culture in, 168 , 170 ;

in Oaxaca, 173 , 175 ;

parodies social order, 174 ;

pre-Columbian, 167 , 175 , 176 , 179 ;

procession in, 172 , 173 ;

for rain, 161 , 169 , 171 , 175 ;

rain god mask in, xiv , 169 ;

ritual combat in, 170 , 171 ;

sexuality in, 170 , 174 , 175 ;

simulated sacrifice in, 167 , 171 ;

Spanish on, 161 , 167 , 219 n. 70;

as syncretic, 172 -173;

tigre masks in, 169 -170, 171 ;

variants of, 167 , 168 -169, 170 , 173 ;

violence in, 170 , 174 , 175 ;

as year-ending ritual, 175 -176

Tikal:

burials at, 59 , 90 , 91 , 92 ;

pyramid at, 84 , 124 ;

stela at, 58 -59, 60 -61;

as trade center, 60

Time:

calculation/counting of, 110 , 129 , 132 , 160 ;

as cyclical, xiii , 36 , 108 , 116 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 143 , 187 ;

day measures, 109 , 112 , 122 , 129 ;

east begins, 129 ;

fire and water and, 43 ;

Maya on, 109 , 112 , 122 , 130 , 132 , 160 , 216 n. 4;

ordered, xii , 108 -120, 121 , 122 , 143 ;

rain god and, 63 ;

shape of, 189 -190;

space and, merged, 45 -46, 54 , 83 , 122 -123, 143 , 158 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 34 , 36 , 37 , 54 , 57

Tlacahuepan, 7

Tlacaxipeualiztli ritual, 81 -82

los Tlacololeros, 168 -169, 170 , 173

Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, 50

Tlaloc, 33 -55, 210 nn. 142, 160;

Aztec, 5 , 36 , 50 -51, 52 -53, 54 -55;

blue associated with, 62 ;

butterflies associated with, 43 , 50 ;

at Cacaxtla, 48 -49, 50 , 52 ;

calendar associated with, 53 -54;

caves associated with, 85 , 126 , 127 ;

at Cholula, 49 ;

Classic, 34 ;

in Codex Borgia, 36 , 37 , 48 , 53 -54;

compared to other rain gods, 34 , 37 , 47 , 49 , 60 -61, 62 ;

continuity of, 33 , 47 , 49 -55, 217 n. 32;

ear/ear coverings of, 37 , 41 , 43 , 50 , 52 , 60 , 61 , 62 ;

on effigy urns, 33 , 34 , 37 , 48 , 50 , 52 -53, 54 ;

Ehécatl associated with, 44 -45, 79 , 178 ;

emerges from jaguar mouth, 48 , 50 , 51 (pl);

fangs of, 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 43 , 48 , 52 , 55 , 63 ;

fertility associated with, 7 , 37 , 39 , 44 , 48 , 52 , 53 , 79 , 113 -114;

fire god associated with, 42 ;

fire and water united by, 54 -55;

goggle-eyes of, 29 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 41 , 42 , 43 -4, 48 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 62 , 171 ;

headdress of, 36 , 42 , 48 , 50 , 53 ;

Huitzilopochtli associated with, 7 -8, 50 -51, 113 -114;

on incensarios, 54 ;

influences on, 9 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 57 , 63 , 165 ;

jaguar associated with, 37 , 46 , 48 , 50 , 51 (pl), 55 , 126 ;

lightning associated with, 7 , 30 , 34 , 36 , 37 , 42 , 46 , 48 ;

marine life associated with, 38 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 46 , 52 ;

on merlons, 38 -39, 41 ;

Mixtec, 5 , 53 ;

mouth/handlebar mustache of, 34 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 48 , 52 -53, 54 , 55 , 57 , 61 , 63 , 169 , 171 ;

at Oxtotitlán cave, 34 ;

in plumbate pottery, 50 ;

Postclassic, 53 -54;

pre-Aztec, 9 ;

Preclassic, 34 ;

priests of, 50 ; v .

Quetzalcóatl, 44 -45, 48 , 50 ;

as quincunx, 36 , 53 -54;

ritual to, 171 ;

rulership associated with, 46 , 48 , 49 ;

sacrifice to, 38 , 45 ;

St. John the Baptist compared to, 159 ;

serpent associated with, 30 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 41 , 42 , 43 -44, 45 , 48 , 52 , 55 , 177 -178;

at Templo Mayor, 50 -51, 52 -53, 54 -55, 113 ;

at Teotihuacán, 33 -47, 48 -49, 52 , 55 , 79 , 210 n. 135;

and Third Sun, 111 ;

on tigre mask, 169 , 171 , 175 ;

time associated with, 34 , 36 , 37 , 54 , 57 ;

Tlaltecuhtli merges with, 85 ;

as Toltec god, 50 , 51 ;

tongue of, 36 -37, 38 , 39 , 41 , 44 , 48 , 52 ;

tongueless, 38 -39;

as transformation agent, 54 ;

in Valley of Mexico, 33 ;

variations of, 34 -35, 37 -40, 43 -44;

at Veracruz, 53 ;

warrior associated with, 38 ;

water dispensed by, 36 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 52 ;

water lily associated with, 36 , 37 -38, 48 ;

in Xochicalco, 47 -48, 49 , 50

Tlalocan, 41 , 97 , 128

Tlalocan mural (Tepantitla compound, Teotihuacán), 40 -43, 60 , 71 , 79 , 211 n. 175;

birds on, 42 , 93 ;

butterflies on, 42 , 43 ;

caves on, 40 , 41 , 42 , 128 ;

creation myth on, 125 ;

fire and rain united on, 41 -42, 43 , 54 , 128 ;

as liminal, 45 ;

mountains on, 40 , 41 , 42 ;

ritual depicted by, 42 ;

secondary masks on, 64 ;

serpent on, 45 , 73 ;

Sowing Priests on, 48 , 73 -74, 75 , 213 n. 36;

Tlaloc on, 37 , 39 , 41 -42, 43 , 45 ;

tree on, 40 , 41 , 45 ;

water images on, 37 , 40 , 41 , 128

Tlaltecuhtli, 85 , 143 -144

Tlapacoya, 34 , 89

Tlatilco, 78 , 89 -90, 92 , 103

Tlaxcala, 155 , 162

Tlazolteotl, 159

Tloque Nahuaque, 138

Toad, 15 , 122 , 128 ;

hallucinogenic, 104

Toci, 147 , 159

Toledo, Francisco, 196 , 197 , 201 -205;

Autoretrato of, 205 ;

Botellas of, 202 ;

Brujos y Hechiceros of, 202 -203;

portraits of, as masks, 203 -204, 205 ;

turtle-shell sculpture of, 203

Toltecs: 28 , 46 , 61 , 73 , 178 ;

as Aztec forebears, 51 -52;

gods of, 28 , 50 , 51 , 62 ;

as Hopi forebears, 142 ;

trade of, 179

Tonacacihuatl, 137

Tonacatecuhtli, 136 , 137

Tonalpohualli. See Calendar, 260-day

Tonantzin, 157 , 158

Tonatiuh, 7 , 138

Tongue: Cocijo's, 29 , 30 , 31 , 37 , 63 ;

jaguar's, 37 , 48 ;

serpent's bifid, 20 , 21 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 36 , 37 , 44 , 63 ;

Tlaloc's 36 -37, 38 , 39 , 41 , 44 , 48 , 52 ;

water lily as, 36 , 37 -38, 48

Totonacs, 178

Townsend, Richard, 86 , 95 , 139 , 143 , 213 n. 30

Tóxcatl, 125

Trade, as cultural diffuser, 26-27, 34 , 60 , 179

Transformation, xiii , 3 , 141 -150, 201 -202, 203 ;

artist's function in, xiv , 147 -150;

Aztecs on, 73 , 143 -144, 145 , 147 , 149 , 150 ;

body's role in, 145 ;

butterfly as symbol of, 43 , 148 ;

calendar embodies, xii , 143 ;

cave as site/agent of, 126 -127, 143 ;

in creation myth, 143 -144;

death as, 88 , 103 , 143 , 148 ;

fire as agent of, 43 , 54 , 88 , 148 ;

inter-changeability as basis of, xi , 142 , 143 ;

life as, 88 , 116 ;

life-force manifests through, 19 , 141 -150;

of man to animal, 103 -104, 143 , 144 -145;

mask as agent of, xi -xii, xiv , xv , xix , 70 , 88 , 102 , 103 -104, 106 , 142 , 151 ;

from matter to spirit, xiv , 54 , 75 , 88 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 145 -150;

mountain as agent of, 126 , 143 ;

rain as agent of, 54 ;

religion on, xi , 117 , 141 -150;

in ritual, 43 , 70 , 75 , 102 , 141 , 142 , 145 , 147 ;

by ruler, 141 -142;

by sacrifice, 145 -146, 147 ;

serpent as agent of, 148 ;

shaman's, 69 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 117 , 143 , 145 , 148 ;

simultaneous states in, xii , 142 , 143 ;

spatial order suggests, 143 ;

sun created through, 144 ;

via Tlaloc, 54

los Tres Grandes, 196

Tres Zapotes, 57 , 110

Tula, 47 , 50 , 61 . See also Toltecs

Turner, Victor, xiii , 31 , 69 ;

on liminal experience, 66 , 67 , 126

Turquoise, 96 , 97 , 98

Turtle, 203

Tuxtla mountains, 20 , 127

Tuxtla Statuette, 110

Tzitzimit, 163

U

Uaxactún, Petén, 84 , 109 , 125

Ueuetéotl, 141 . See also Hueteotl

Underworld, 83 ;

entered from cave, 84 , 127 ;

Maya (Xibalbá), 59 , 60 , 84 , 90 , 119 , 127 ;

Yaqui, 180 , 181

Unfolding, 63 , 97 ;

by gods, xii , 3 , 7 , 8 , 10 -11, 13 , 32 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 60 , 61 , 135 -136, 137 , 138 , 139 , 159 ;

liminality of, 72 , 78 ;

by manifestations, 139 , 140 , 141 -142, 143 , 166 ;

by masks, xii , xiv , xix , 3 , 4 , 26, 68 , 108

Upanishad, Kena, 136

Uxmal, 62 , 75 , 85 , 86 (pl), 87 , 109

V

Valley of Mexico, 34 , 47 , 73 , 78 , 79 -80, 89 -90, 109 , 144 -145. See also Aztecs; Teotihuacán; Toltecs

Valley of Oaxaca. See Oaxaca

van Gennep, Arnold, xiii , 67

Veintena festival, 110 , 125

Vela, David, 175

Velasco, José Maria, 196

Venus, 110 , 112 , 122 , 132 , 133 , 135 ;

as evening star, 60 , 115 , 118 , 130 ;

as morning star, 50 , 115 , 130 , 138 ;

Quetzalcóatl associated with, 50 , 115 , 118 , 138

Veracruz, 11 , 53 , 76 -77, 89 , 193

los Viejitos, 178

Vienna obverse codex, 49

Village cultures, xiii , 26, 27 -28, 34 , 90

Villagra Caleti, Agustin, 40 , 211 n. 175

Virgin Mary, 157 -158

Virgin of Guadalupe, 157 , 158

Visions, 75 -76, 142 , 145

Vogt, Catherine C., 219 n. 91

Vogt, Evon Z., 16 , 105 , 144 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 219 n. 91

Volcanoes, 127 , 144

von Dechend, Hertha, 133

W

War/warrior, 5 , 7 , 38 , 71 , 113 -114, 137 -138

Warman, Arturo, 162

Water: cave as source of, 23 , 71 , 126 , 128 ;

fire and, 41 -42, 43 , 54 -55, 128 ;

gods provide, 17 , 19 , 21 -22;

mountain as source of, 126 ;

Olmec imagery of, 16 , 17 , 21 ;

Teotihuacán image of, 34 , 37 , 40 , 41 , 128 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 36 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 52 ;

as undulating line, 30 .

See also Rain

Water lily, 36 , 37 -38, 48

Watts, Alan, 157

Were-jaguar, 8 -26, 208 n. 38;

cave associated with, 15 -16;

Chac associated with, 56 , 63 ;

as child/infant, 18 ;

Cocijo associated with, 28 , 29 , 32 , 63 ;

on funerary urns, 28 ;

at Las Limas, 13 ;

as mediator, 17 , 19 , 26;

at Monte Albán, 28 ;

mouth of, 15 -16, 17 , 18 , 19 , 26, 28 , 29 , 36 , 56 , 57 , 63 , 169 ;

rain associated with, xii , 13 , 15 , 18 -19, 28 ;

ruler associated with, 24 , 28 ;

at Teotihuacán, 34 ;

Tlaloc associated with, 36 , 57 , 63 , 169

West, 88 , 115 , 122 , 137 , 138 , 139

Westheim, Paul, xix , 92 , 95 , 118 , 119

White, 4 , 137 , 139 , 157

Whitman, Walt, 150 , 202

Wilder, Carleton, 186

Williams Garcia, Roberto, 171

Wind, 44 , 64 , 79 , 111 . See also Ehécatl

Wisdom, Charles, 165

Wolf, Eric R., 191 , 195

Womb, 86 , 118 , 119 ;

cave as, 15 , 19 , 83 , 126 , 127

Wooden masks, 96

The Wrestler, 11

X

Xibalbá, 59 , 60 , 84 , 90 , 119 , 127

Ximoan, Ximoayan,117

Xipe Tótec, 95 ;

as east, 137 , 138 ;

eyes of, 64 , 80 ;

face painting of, 64 , 80 ;

Olmec, 80 ;

as red Tezcatlipoca, 4 , 31 , 80 , 137 ;

regeneration associated with, 116 -117;

ritual to, 30 , 80 -81, 82 , 116 -117;

Tezcatlipoca opposed to, 138

Xiuhcóatl, 30 , 42 , 148

Xiuhtecuhtli, 7 , 42 , 64 , 141

Xochicalco, 47 -48, 49 , 50 , 211 n. 205

Xochipilli, 104

X-ray technique, 12, 57 , 59 , 70 -71, 72 , 78 , 171

Y

Yaqui:

agricultural ritual of, 160 ;

on ambivalence of power, 181 ;

Catholic calendar followed by, 186 , 187 ;

Christianity syncretized by, 182 , 183 , 186 , 187 ;

on flowers, 182 , 186 , 188 , 189 ;

on forest/nature, 180 , 181 ;

Lenten drama of, 160 , 186 -188;

life-force (huya ania) of, 180 , 181 -182, 184 , 185 , 186 , 188 , 189 , 190 ;

pahko of, 183 , 184 -186, 188 , 189 , 190 ;

pascola of, 161 , 164 , 179 -190;

religion, 186 , 187 , 188 ;

on time, 187 , 189 -190;

underworld (yo ania) of, 180 , 181 , 182

Yaxchilán, Bird Jaguar of, 59 , 61 , 70 , 71

Yax-Pac, 83

Yayahuala, 92

Yeats, William Butler, 195

Yellow, 139

Yo ania, 180 , 181 , 182

Yohualli, 138

Yucatán, 155 -156;

burials in, 59 -60, 91 -92;

Toltecs in, 61 -62.

See also Chichén Itzá; Maya, Yucatec

Z

Zaachila, 94

Zaaguy, 49

Zacatecas, 110

Zacuala Tlaloc, 37 , 38

Zapotecs, 34 , 47 , 90 , 210 n. 159;

ancestors deified by, 28 ;

astronomy of, 109 ;

burials of, 118 ;

calendar of, 130 ;

composite masks of, 27 -28;

confession ritual of, 159 ;

funerary masks of, 93 -94;

funerary urns of, 28 -29, 32 , 74 -75, 80 , 93 , 145 ;

gods of, 28 , 29 , 32 , 139 (see also Cocijo);

jaguar of, 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 46 ;

opposum mask of, 71 , 72 (pl), 78 ;

priests of, 93 ;

ritual of, 159 ;

rulers of, 33 ;

serpent of, 29 , 30 , 31 ;

site (see Monte Albán)

Zavui, 49

Zimmer, Heinrich, 30

Zinacantan, 16 , 105 , 144 , 158 , 175 -177, 178

Zitlala, Guerrero,

tigre dance in, 167 -168, 169 , 170 -172, 173 , 174 , 175 , 177

Designer: Linda M. Robertson

Compositor: Prestige Typography

Text: 10/12 Trump Medieval

Roman

Display: Trump Medieval