1. Peter Grose, A Changing Israel (Vintage Books, 1985), 46.

2. Rita Simon, “The ‘Religious Issue’ in Israeli Public Life,” Israel Horizons (Summer 1989): 29.

3. Uri Huppert, Back to the Ghetto: Zionism in Retreat (Prometheus Books, 1988), 183.

4. Charles S. Liebman, “Introduction,” in Conflict and Accommodation between Jews in Israel, ed. Charles S. Liebman (Keter Publishing House, 1990), xi.

5. Shlomit Levy, Hanna Levinsohn, and Elihu Katz, Beliefs, Observances and Social Interaction among Israeli Jews (The Louis Guttman Israel Institute of Applied Social Research, 1993), B-3.

6. Survey by O. Cohen, cited in Sammy Smooha, Israel: Pluralism and Conflict (University of California Press, 1978), 196.

7. Charles Liebman and Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics in Israel (Indiana University Press, 1984), 130.

8. See discussions of this point in Asher Arian, Politics in Israel: The Second Generation, rev. ed. (Chatham House, 1989), 238–39; and in Alan Dowty, “Religion and Politics in Israel,” Commonweal 110 (15 July 1983): 393–96.

9. Smooha, Israel: Pluralism, 43–45, 109, 143, 222.

10. Don-Yehiya, “The Resolution of Religious Conflicts in Israel,” in Conflict and Consensus in Jewish Public Life, ed. Stuart Cohen and Eliezer Don-Yehiya (Bar-Ilan University Press, 1986), 203.

11. Martin Edelman, “The Utility of a Written Constitution: Free Exercise of Religion in Israel and the United States,” paper presented at the 15th World Congress of the International Political Science Association, Buenos Aires, July 21–25, 1991.

12. Ibid., 21 ff. On freedom of religion in Israel generally see Zvi Berinson, “Freedom of Religion and Conscience in the State of Israel,” Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 3 (1973): 223–32, and Simon Shetreet, “Some Reflections on Freedom of Conscience and Religion in Israel,” Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 4 (1974): 194–218.

13. See the argument by Simha Meron, “Freedom of Religion as Distinct from Freedom from Religion,” Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 4 (1974): 219–40.

14. Dan Horowitz and Moshe Lissak, Trouble in Utopia: The Overburdened Polity of Israel (State University of New York Press, 1989), 144.

15. S. Zalman Abramov, Perpetual Dilemma: Jewish Religion in the Jewish State (World Union for Progressive Judaism, 1976), 99–100; Emile Marmorstein, Heaven at Bay: The Jewish Kulturkampf in the Holy Land (Oxford University Press, 1969).

16. A haredi is, literally, “one who trembles,” meaning one who lives in fear or awe of God; the term is in common use among haredim themselves, while the problematic label of “ultra-Orthodox” is not. The distinction between modern Orthodox and haredi is explained below.

17. Abramov, Perpetual Dilemma, 50–51.

18. Ibid., 53.

19. Menachem Friedman, “The State of Israel as a Theological Dilemma,” in The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers, ed. Baruch Kimmerling (State University of New York Press, 1989), 166; the struggle between secularization and tradition in modern Jewish history is outlined by Marmorstein, Heaven at Bay.

20. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, “Introduction,” in Fundamentalisms and the State, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (University of Chicago Press, 1993), 3; idem, “Conclusion: Remaking the State: The Limits of the Fundamentalist Imagination,” 620.

21. Friedman, “State of Israel,” 178, 200.

22. See the account in Amos Elon, Herzl (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975), 237.

23. Menachem Friedman, “The Structural Foundation for Religio-Political Accommodation in Israel: Fallacy and Reality,” in Israel: The First Decade of Independence, ed. S. Ilan Troen and Noah Lucas (State University of New York Press, 1995), 51–81; Susan Hattis Rolef, ed., Political Dictionary of the State of Israel (Macmillan, 1987), 287–88; Daniel Elazar, Israel: Building a New Society (Indiana University Press, 1986), 132; Abramov, Perpetual Dilemma, 127.

24. Abramov, Perpetual Dilemma, 140, 144; Friedman, “State of Israel,” 191.

25. Don-Yehiya, “Resolution of Religious Conflicts,” 206.

26. See, for example, Shubert Spero, “Who Needs Religious Political Parties?” Jerusalem Post, 26 May 1988.

27. Don-Yehiya, “Resolution of Religious Conflicts,” 207.

28. See the discussion by Allen Shapiro, “MK Porush, Civics Instructor,” Jerusalem Post, 24 May 1991.

29. Liebman, “Relations between Dati and Non-Dati Jews—Some Final Reflections,” in Conflict and Accommodation between Jews in Israel, ed. Charles S. Liebman (Keter Publishing House, 1990), 216–17; Don-Yehiya, “Resolution of Religious Conflicts,” 208; Shlomo Avineri, “The Violated Social Contract,” Jerusalem Post International Edition, 28 June 1986.

30. Smooha, Israel: Pluralism, 223.

31. Liebman, “Jewish Fundamentalism and the Israeli Polity,” in Fundamentalisms and the State, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (University of Chicago Press, 1993), 76–77; Ira Sharkansky, What Makes Israel Tick: How Domestic PolicyMakers Cope with Constraints (Nelson-Hall, 1985), 59.

32. Poll carried out by the Smith Research Center; Jerusalem Post, 15 May 1986.

33. Simon, “The ‘Religious Issue’,” 27.

34. Liebman and Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics, 99.

35. See the description of Leibowitz’s thinking in Lawrence Meyer, Israel Now: Portrait of a Troubled Land (Delacorte Press, 1982), 369.

36. Abraham Rabinovich, “O, Jerusalem, Where Is Thy Sabbath Gone?” Jerusalem Post Magazine (2 June 1989): 7; see also the “scorecard” of Sam Lehman-Wilzig, “For the Sin of Ultra-Orthodox Bashing,” Sh’ma, 9 September 1990.

37. On the Sabbath work permit controversy historically, see Peter Y. Medding, The Founding of Israeli Democracy 1948–1967 (Oxford University Press, 1990), chap. 5.

38. Ehud Sprinzak, “Three Models of Religious Violence: The Case of Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel,” in Fundamentalisms and the State, ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (University of Chicago Press, 1993), 468.

39. Jerusalem Post, 15 May 1986.

40. See, for example, Elihu Katz and Michael Gurevitch, The Secularization of Leisure: Culture and Communication in Israel (Harvard University Press, 1976).

41. Liebman, “Introduction,” xvi–xvii.

42. Ibid.

43. The slight increase in 1992 may result from better efforts to include haredim, who were underrepresented in earlier polls. Among the 20 percent “religious,” 10 percent identified themselves as haredim and 10 percent as simply religious; in 1989 only 7 percent were identified as haredim with the religious accounting for 10 percent.

44. Charles Liebman, “The Religious Component in Israeli Ultra-Nationalism,” The Eighth Annual Rabbi Louis Feinberg Memorial Lecture in Judaic Studies, University of Cincinnati, April 16, 1985. Poll results add up to 99.1 percent; the remaining .9 percent are not accounted for.

45. Levy, Levinsohn, and Katz, Beliefs, Observances, 330.

46. Haim Shapiro, “20% of Israeli Weddings Are Not Orthodox—Study,” Jerusalem Post International Edition, 9 March 1996.

47. Gary S. Schiff, “Recent Developments in Israel’s Religious Parties,” in Israel after Begin, ed. Gregory S. Mahler (State University of New York Press, 1990), 273–90; Eliezer Don-Yehiya, “Religion and Ethnicity in Israeli Politics: The Religious Parties and the Elections to the 12th Knesset” (in Hebrew), Medina, Mimshal, V’yahasim Benle’umiim [State, Government, and International Relations], no. 32 (Spring 1990): 11–54. On the phenomenon of Shas and the development of a Sephardi-haredi subculture, see Friedman, “State of Israel,” 175–85.

48. Haim Shapiro, “Reform Jews Charge Ministry Kept Their Strength a Secret,” Jerusalem Post, 17 May 1989; the poll was conducted by the Guttman Institute.

49. Levy, Levinsohn, and Katz, Beliefs, Observances, B-4.

50. Hostility among the secular public toward the religious sector is based much more on a “lifestyle defense,” reflecting broad negative perceptions of difference, than on actual threats to individual self-interest; see Kenneth Wald and Samuel Shye, “Inter-Religious Conflict in Israel,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 2–5, 1993.

51. For a full statement of this thesis, see Charles Liebman and Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion in Israel: Traditional Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State (University of California Press, 1983).

52. Liebman and Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics, 6.

53. Elazar, Israel: Building a New Society, esp. 124, 143, provides a fuller description of this process; see also Grose, A Changing Israel, 42–44.

54. Liebman and Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics, 52–53.

55. Levy, Levinsohn, and Katz, Beliefs, Observances, 93.

56. Survey carried out by the Guttman Institute; see Simon, “The ‘Religious Issue’.”

57. Yehuda Ben-Meir and Peri Kedem, “An Index of Religiosity for the Jewish Population in Israel” (in Hebrew), Megamot 24 (February 1979): 353–62; see also Peri Kedem, “Dimensions of Jewish Religiosity in Israel,” in Tradition, Innovation, Conflict: Jewishness and Judaism in Contemporary Israel, ed. Zvi Sobel and Benjamin BeitHallahmi (State University of New York Press, 1991), 251–72.

58. Yochanan Peres, “Most Israelis Are Committed to Democracy,” Israeli Democracy 1 (February 1987): 17–18.

59. The Knesset member was Avrum Burg, who was himself religious. Both quotations from “Shas in Zionist land,” The Jerusalem Post, 28 May 1993.

60. Robert I. Friedman, Zealots for Zion: Inside Israel’s West Bank Settlement Movement (Random House, 1992), 156–57.

61. This analysis of haredi society is taken, for the most part, from Menachem Friedman, Haredi Society: Sources, Trends, and Processes (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, 1991); for a summary in English see Friedman, “The UltraOrthodox and Israeli Society,” in Whither Israel? The Domestic Challenges, ed. Keith Kyle and Joel Peters (I. B. Tauris, 1993), 177–201. See also David Landau, Piety and Power: The World of Jewish Fundamentalism (Hill and Wang, 1993).

62. Liebman and Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics, 122; Menachem Friedman, “‘If They Are Free—They Are Not Jews’,” Israeli Democracy 1 (February 1987): 22.

63. For an analysis of the NRP’s decline, see Menachem Friedman, “The NRP in Transition—Behind the Party’s Electoral Decline,” in The Roots of Begin’s Success: The 1981 Israeli Elections, ed. Dan Caspi, Avraham Diskin, and Emanuel Gutmann (Croom Helm and St. Martin’s Press, 1984), 141–68.

64. Rabbi Israel Meir HaCohen, the “Hafetz Haim” (d. 1933), quoted by Friedman, “If They Are Free,” 22.

65. Amnon Levi, “The Haredi Press and Secular Society,” in Conflict and Accommodation between Jews in Israel, ed. Charles S. Liebman (Keter Publishing House, 1990), 27.

66. Sprinzak, “Three Models,” 465.

67. Friedman, “State of Israel,” 198, 208.

68. Liebman, “Jewish Fundamentalism,” 71.

69. Among the haredim in the survey, 76 percent said that only Jews had rights to the Land of Israel, as opposed to 65 percent of the (non-haredi) religious, 43 percent of traditional, and 28 percent of secular Israelis. Yochanan Peres, “Religiosity and Political Positions” (in Hebrew), Democracy (Winter 1992): 26–31. See also Efraim Inbar, Gad Barzilai, and Giora Goldberg, “Positions on National Security of Israel’s Ultra-Orthodox Political Leadership,” International Journal of Comparative Religion 2 (Winter 1995).

70. Itzhak Galnoor, Steering the Polity: Communication and Politics in Israel (Sage, 1982), 354–55.

71. See the analysis by Yosef Fund, “Agudat Yisrael Confronting Zionism and the State of Israel—Ideology and Policy” (in Hebrew), paper presented at the annual meeting of the Israel Political Science Association, Ramat Gan, May 1991; Inbar et al., “Positions on National Security.”

72. See especially the study by Samuel Heilman, Defenders of the Faith: Inside Ultra-Orthodox Jewry (Schocken Books, 1992).

73. Joseph Shilhav and Menachem Friedman, Growth and Segregation—The Ultra-Orthodox Community of Jerusalem (in Hebrew) (The Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies, 1989); Micha Odenheimer, “A Society in Flux,” Jerusalem Post International Edition, 14<$k$f$> January 1989.

74. Matt Wagner, “‘Modesty Patrol’ Targets Haredi Renegades,” Jerusalem Post International Edition, 1 January 1994; Friedman, Haredi Society.

75. Friedman, Haredi Society, 192.

76. For the religious arguments against the sacralizing of territory, see Adam Doron, The State of Israel and the Land of Israel (in Hebrew) (Hotsa’at Beit Berl, 1988).

77. Liebman, “Jewish Fundamentalism,” 70, 72; Ian Lustick, For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel (Council on Foreign Relations, 1988), 165–68.

78. Liebman, “Jewish Fundamentalism,” 73.

79. Marty and Appleby, “Conclusion: Remaking the State,” 621.

80. Ibid., 622, 641.