Index

A

Aid-Hubei War, 307

Andreski, Stanislav, 324 n7

Anglo-Chinese War, 31

Anhui, 22 , 27 -28, 166 , 170 , 173 , 263 , 282

Anhui faction:

in Beiyang Army, 250 , 252 , 284 , 299 , 300 , 306

Anti-Monarchical War:

elite support of, 214 ;

and emergence of warlordism, 207 , 244 , 271 ;

in Hubei, 207 , 212 -16, 218 , 237 -44, 241 , 271 , 278 ;

in Hunan, 214 , 215 , 216 -23;

political consensus in, 206 ;

political role of military in, 206 -7, 211 , 213 , 244 , 248 ;

popular uprisings in, 217 -18, 223 ;

revolutionary activists in, 213 -18, 221 -22, 223 ;

Tang Xiangming's switch of allegiance in, 220 -23;

in Yunnan, 205 , 210 , 214 , 219 . See also National Protection Movement

Anti-warlord movements, 311 , 313 ;

central government petitioned by, 297 , 305 -6;

in Hubei, 269 , 270 , 292 , 302 -7, 308 ;

in Hunan, 269 , 270 , 296 -302, 308 ;

and May Fourth Movement, 297 -98, 303 ;

and nationalism, 298 ;

provincial autonomy asserted in, 269 -70, 296 , 297 , 302 , 303 , 304 -5, 306 -7, 308 , 312 ;

resort to military force by, 299 -300, 306 -7

Armaments, Chinese:

production of, 31 -32

Armaments, Western:

in Qing dynasty, 19 , 31 , 33

Assemblies, provincial:

dissolved by central government, 174 , 176 , 194 ;

in Hubei, 70 , 72 , 91 -93, 108 -16 passim , 176 , 242 -43, 275 , 304 ;

in Hunan, 73 -75, 86 , 91 -93, 94 , 98 , 140 , 174 , 226 , 275 , 298 ;

military exclusion from, 139 ;

Nationalist Party in, 164 ;

in 1911 Revolution, 70 , 72 -75, 91 ;

in postrevolutionary period, 86 , 91 -93;

in Qing dynasty, 91 , 112 , 175 ;

restoration of, 226 , 230 , 242 -43;

in warlord period, 275

Autonomy, provincial:

and anti-

warlord movements, 269 -70, 296 , 297 , 302 , 303 , 304 -5, 306 -7, 308 , 312 ;

Duan Qirui's challenge to, 252 , 253 , 254 , 258 ;

and federalism, 161 , 269 -70, 300 , 305 , 306 ;

Hubei's assertion of, 14 , 82 , 90 , 162 , 241 , 242 , 243 -44, 302 , 303 , 304 -5, 307 , 308 ;

Hunan's assertion of, 14 , 82 , 90 , 162 , 225 -26, 229 -31, 244 , 269 , 296 , 297 , 300 , 302 , 306 , 308 ;

in Qing dynasty, 25 -29, 35 ;

Sichuan's assertion of, 306 ;

Yuan Shikai's challenge to, 162 , 166 , 172 -77, 186 -94, 203 , 253

B

Bandits, 178 , 217 , 232 , 276 , 283 , 290 , 365 n138

Banner Army:

compared to yongying , 30 , 31 , 32 ;

disbandment of, 38 ;

in Hubei, 41 , 42 , 43 , 68 ;

in Hunan, 42 ;

in 1911 Revolution, 68 ;

organizational structure of, 19 -22;

size of, 326 n3

Bays, Daniel, 28

Beijing government. See Central government

Beiyang Army:

in Anti-Monarchical War, 206 , 207 , 211 , 221 ;

central government dominated by, 246 , 252 , 264 , 297 ;

and Duan Qirui's premiership, 248 -53, 257 -58;

factionalism in, 247 , 249 -50, 251 -52, 258 , 284 ;

as instrument of central power, 166 , 178 , 231 ;

in North-South War, 257 -58, 259 -60, 262 , 263 ;

organizational structure of, 36 -37, 38 , 206 , 207 -8, 246 ;

in postrevolutionary period, 132 , 139 ;

in Qing dynasty, 34 -38, 63 ;

in Second Revolution, 166 , 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 ;

Wang Zhanyuan as commander in, 177 , 187 , 208 -11;

Yuan Shikai's control of, 166 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 207 -8, 211 -13, 221 , 240 ;

Yuan Shikai's creation of, 34 , 35 -36, 37 ;

Yuan Shikai's monarchism questioned in, 211 -13, 247 . See also Anhui faction; Zhili faction

Blood Pledge Society, 153 , 356 n116

Boxer Uprising, 34 , 51 , 53 , 57

Branch military governments, 101 , 103 , 123 , 129

Budgets:

of provincial governments, 125 -27, 243 , 273 -74, 275 , 363 n108

Bureaucracy:

central, 162 , 177 , 191 , 194 , 198 , 201 , 203 , 247 ;

elite career paths in, 50 ;

in Hubei, 88 -90, 111 , 113 , 242 , 272 , 344 n29;

in Hunan, 90 , 99 , 146 , 272 ;

in Qing dynasty, 20 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 36 , 37 , 55 , 90 , 161

C

Cai E, 167 , 221 , 229 , 335 n39

Cai Hanqing, 130 , 133 , 154 -55

Cai Jimin, 215 -16, 288 , 289 , 291 , 348 n91, 355 n74, 367 n20, 381 n62

Canton:

opposition government in, 245 , 254 , 268 , 270 , 271 , 288 , 291 , 295 , 297 , 309

Cao Kun, 177 , 178 , 185 , 284 , 307 , 312 , 366 n16

Censorship, 195 -96, 198 , 199 , 298

Central government (Qing dynasty), 18 , 24 -30, 36 , 38 , 39 , 55 , 90

Central government (Republican period):

anti-warlord petitions presented to, 297 , 305 -6;

and appointment of civil governors, 188 -90, 193 , 203 , 242 , 303 ;

and appointment of military governors, 166 , 167 , 175 , 176 , 186 -91, 194 , 203 , 253 , 271 -72;

Beiyang Army's domination of, 246 , 252 , 264 , 297 ;

and civil-military relations, 182 , 187 , 188 -91, 203 ;

and dependence on military force, 162 , 163 , 166 -72, 177 -86, 205 -6, 245 -46;

Nationalist Party's political objectives for, 164 -65;

and provincial autonomy, 82 , 161 -62, 241 , 242 , 243 -44, 245 , 252 , 253 , 254 , 269 -70;

provincial subjugation to, 162 , 166 , 172 -77, 186 -94, 203 , 252 ;

and suppression of political dissent, 173 , 176 , 195 -98;

and taxation, 193 , 198 , 273 , 363 n114;

Yuan Shikai's political objectives for, 161 , 163 -65, 172 -77, 186 -95, 203 . See also Hubei; Hunan

Chambers of Commerce, 72 , 201 , 251 , 275 -76, 285 , 298

Changsha uprising, 48 , 72 -77, 78 , 85 , 120

Chen Binghuan, 236 , 371 n93

Chen Fuchu, 150 , 182 , 231 , 232 , 233 , 234 , 236 , 265 , 281 , 283 ;

and Anti-Monarchical War, 224 ;

Fu Liangzuo's governorship supported by, 255 , 257 ;

and Second Revolution, 180 , 224

Ch'en, Jerome, 117 , 276 , 324 n11

Chen Jiayou, 232 -34, 236 , 255 , 257 ,259 , 295

Chen Yi, 230 , 254

Chen Zuoxin, 64 -66, 74 , 76 , 95 , 128

Cheng Qian, 134 , 145 , 228 , 231 -33, 235 -36, 255 , 300 , 301 , 369 n56;

and Anti-Monarchical War, 218 -21, 223 ;

and battle against Tang Xiangming, 226 -27, 235 ;

as leader of Constitutional Protection Army, 292 -96

Chenxian mutiny, 184 -85, 196 , 217

Chenzhou government, 294

Civil administration:

career paths in, 48 , 50 , 52 ;

and centralized control of provinces, 182 , 187 , 190 ;

in Hubei, 71 , 82 , 83 , 87 -93, 103 , 111 , 112 , 241 -43, 271 -76;

in Hunan, 74 , 76 , 82 , 83 , 87 -93, 190 , 225 , 229 , 271 -76;

in 1911 Revolution, 71 , 74 , 76 ;

in postrevolutionary period, 81 -83, 84 , 87 -93;

in Qing dynasty, 20 , 24 , 90 ;

in warlord period, 268 -69, 271 -76. See also Bureaucracy; Governors, civil

Civil authority, military relations with, 79 , 83 , 93 , 117 -18, 119 -20;

and centralized control of provinces, 182 , 187 , 188 -91, 203 ;

in Hubei, 83 , 93 , 110 -18, 115 -16, 117 -

18, 120 , 139 , 189 -90;

in Hunan, 75 -77, 83 , 89 -90, 93 , 100 , 117 -18, 120 , 189 -90, 244 ;

in Qing dynasty, 17 -20, 26 -30, 36 , 39 ;

in Yunnan, 118 , 120

Civilian provincialism, 269 -71, 302 , 307 , 308 , 313

Command structure, military:

and central government forces, 178 , 180 -83, 207 -8;

in 1911 Revolution, 128 ;

and party armies, 314 ;

and post-revolutionary provincial forces, 129 , 132 -33, 137 ;

in Qing dynasty, 19 -20, 22 -23

Communist Party, Chinese, 1 , 2 , 312 , 313 -15

Confucianism, 37 , 52

Conscription:

in Hubei post-revolutionary army, 156

Constitution, Republican, 164 , 166 , 173 , 245 , 247 , 252 , 254

Constitutional Protection Movement, 254 , 259 , 262 , 265 , 288 , 289 , 291 , 292 -96, 309

Constitutionalist movement:

in Hubei, 70 , 88 -89, 103 , 112 , 113 , 339 n93;

in Hunan, 73 , 88 -89, 94 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 100 , 175 , 229

Corruption:

in electoral politics, 93 ;

in provincial governments, 191 , 272 ;

in Qing military, 21 , 33

County magistrates, 87 , 112 , 192 , 272 , 286 , 294 , 377 n14

Cultural Revolution, 314

D

Decalo, Samuel, 5

Demobilization. See Disbandment

Democracy:

and federalism, 312 ;

in postrevolutionary armies, 137 , 160 ;

Western model of, 139

Deng Yulin, 130 , 132 , 133

Detective system, of political suppression, 196 -98

Disbandment:

of Hubei army, 120 , 151 -60, 171 , 180 , 187 , 241 ;

of Hunan army, 120 , 140 , 143 -51, 160 , 169 , 171 , 180 -81, 184 -85, 216 , 231 , 300 ;

of Qing armies, 34 , 38 , 40 -41, 123 , 331 n63

Discipline, military:

in Hubei army, 135 -36, 138 , 140 , 156 , 239 , 302 -3;

in Hunan army, 135 , 137 -38, 140 -41, 283 ;

in Qing armies, 21 , 32 -33

Du Bangjun, 130 , 155

Du Xijun, 130 , 133 , 179 -80, 279 , 282 , 339 n83

Duan Qirui:

as head of War Participation Board, 260 ;

as Hubei military governor, 176 , 179 , 186 , 189 -90, 192 , 209 , 230 -31;

as premier of Republic of China, 247 -53, 254 , 256 , 257 -59, 263 -64, 265 , 282 , 296 , 297 , 374 n16

Duan Shuyun, 189 , 190 , 192

Duan Zhigui, 176 , 186 -87, 189 , 190 , 192 , 209 , 239 , 278 , 279

Dujuntuan (military governors' association), 249 , 250 , 260

E

Economic resources:

and foreign military aid, 165 -66, 260 ;

in postrevolutionary governments, 125 -27. See also Military, financial support of; Taxation

Education:

as factor in 1911

Revolution, 46 , 56 -59;

fiscal cutbacks in, 193 , 274 , 363 n112

Electoral politics:

in Hubei, 93 , 108 ;

in Hunan, 92 -93, 99 -100;

in National Assembly, 92 -93, 164 , 165 , 172 -73, 175

Elites:

in coalition with military, 47 , 59 , 70 -72, 75 -77, 78 , 119 , 276 ;

and Hubei provincial politics, 70 -72, 78 , 82 , 83 , 85 , 242 ;

in Hunan post revolutionary army, 133 ;

and Hunan provincial politics, 75 -77, 78 , 82 , 83 , 85 , 86 , 228 ;

and monarchist movement, 199 , 201 ;

and participation in 1911 Revolution, 70 -72, 75 -78, 82 , 83 , 84 -87, 117 , 119 ;

politicization of, 47 -48, 55 , 56 , 59 , 78 , 161 ;

recruited for military careers, 48 -55, 56 , 78 , 82 ;

and Second Revolution, 162 , 163 , 172 , 194 -95;

social reforms sought by, 55 , 56 , 82 , 87 , 94 , 274 ;

and support for Anti-Monarchical War, 214 ;

as victims of political suppression, 198 ;

in warlord period, 274 , 276 -77

Esherick, Joseph, 14 , 66 , 96 , 98 ;

on elite support for 1911 Revolution, 75 , 85 , 86 ;

on politicization of military, 46 , 137

Examination system, traditional, 32 , 48 , 50 , 52 -54, 94 , 98

F

Factionalism, political:

in Beiyang Army, 247 , 249 -50, 251 -52, 258 , 284 ;

in Hubei, 104 , 105 , 114 , 116 , 140 , 141 , 243 , 304 ;

and warlordism, 247 , 250 , 288 , 291 , 292 , 295

Fan Guozhang, 257 , 258 , 263 , 284 , 309

Fan Zengxiang, 106 , 111 , 112 , 142

Federalism, 161 , 269 -70, 300 , 305 , 306 , 312

Feng Guozhang, 209 , 211 -13, 248 ;

as Republican president, 252 , 253 , 254 , 258 , 260 , 262 -63, 265 , 374 n16;

as Republican vice president, 249 -50

Feng Yuxiang, 281 , 284 , 286 , 297 , 299

Fincher, John, 91

Finer, Sidney, 11 , 83

Forward Together Society, 62 -63, 65 , 67 , 74 , 102 -6 passim , 130 , 141

Fragmentation, of state and military power, 4 , 7 , 9 , 110 -11, 203 , 245 -46;

in Qing dynasty, 10 , 18 -19, 38 -39, 42 , 45 , 68 ;

in warlord period, 266 , 267 , 287 , 288 , 292 , 311 ;

and Yuan Shikai's dictatorship, 203 , 206

Fu Liangzuo, 253 -58, 382 n81

Fung, Edmund, 46

G

Garrison command system, 181 -85, 233 -35, 255 , 282 -83, 287 , 293

Gentry:

in coalition with warlords, 276 ;

in provincial governments, 90 , 112 -13, 117 , 191 ;

recruited for military, 32 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 54 ;

taxation of, 140 ;

as victims of political suppression, 198 , 365 n138. See also Elites

Geographical factors, 9 , 12 -14, 18 , 19 , 184 , 185

Germany:

Japan's seizure of concessions from, 297 ;

Qing military organization derived from, 32 , 33 , 35

Gillin, Donald, 2

Gonghedang. See Republican Party

Governors, civil:

and Duan Shuyun's Hubei governorship, 189 , 190 , 192 ;

and He Peirong's Hubei governorship, 272 ;

and Liu Cheng'en's Hubei governorship, 304 ;

and Liu Xinyuan's Hubei governorship, 112 -16, 354 n65;

and Liu Xinyuan's Hunan governorship, 189 ;

and Lü Diaoyuan's Hubei governorship, 188 , 189 , 190 , 192 ;

and Rao Hanxiang's Hubei governorship, 116 , 188 ;

and Sun Chenjia's Hubei governorship, 303 -4;

and Tan Yankai's Hunan governorship, 229 , 256 , 301 , 371 n77;

and Wang Hu's Hunan governorship, 188 , 189 , 190 ;

and Wang Zhanyuan's Hubei governorship, 241 -42, 271 -72;

and Xia Shoukang's Hubei governorship, 114 -16, 304 ;

Yuan Shikai's centralized control of, 188 -90, 193 , 203 ;

and Zhao Hengti's Hunan governorship, 302

Governors, military:

and Cai E's Yunnan governorship, 167 , 229 ;

and Chen Yi's Sichuan governorship, 230 ;

and Duan Qirui's Hubei governorship, 176 , 179 , 186 , 189 , 209 , 210 ;

and Duan Zhigui's Hubei governorship, 176 , 186 -87, 189 , 209 -10, 239 ;

and Fu Liangzuo's Hunan governorship, 253 -58;

and Jiao Dafeng's Hunan governorship, 74 -77, 78 , 79 , 89 -90, 94 -95;

and Li Yuanhong's Hubei governorship, 71 -72, 100 -116, 128 -29, 139 -43, 159 , 167 , 175 -76, 195 ;

and Liu Renxi's Hunan governorship, 228 -30;

in Qing dynasty, 20 , 24 -29, 34 , 35 -36, 40 -43;

and Tan Yankai's Hunan governorship (first term), 77 , 86 , 93 -100, 117 , 128 -29, 140 , 141 , 146 , 159 , 174 -75;

and Tan Yankai's Hunan governorship (second term), 207 , 227 , 229 , 230 -37, 254 -56;

and Tan Yankai's Hunan governorship (third term), 295 -96, 300 -302;

and Tang Jiyao's Yunnan governorship, 254 , 291 , 294 , 309 , 310 ;

and Tang Xiangming's Hunan governorship, 175 , 180 -81, 185 -90, 195 -96, 198 , 207 , 216 , 217 , 220 -27;

and Wang Zhanyuan's Hubei governorship, 207 , 208 , 211 -13, 216 , 218 , 237 -44, 249 , 250 -52, 260 -61, 267 , 269 , 270 , 271 -78, 281 -82, 302 -8;

and Xiao Yaonan's Hubei governorship, 307 ;

Yuan Shikai's centralized control of, 166 , 167 , 175 , 176 , 186 -91, 194 , 203 ;

and Zeng Jiwu's Hunan governorship, 228 , 235 ;

and Zhang Jingyao's Hunan governorship, 263 , 267 , 269 ,

270 , 271 -78, 282 -85, 296 -302, 308 , 310 ;

and Zhang Xiluan's Hubei governorship, 210 ;

and Zhao Hengti's Hunan governorship, 301 -2, 306

Green Standard Army:

compared to yongying , 22 , 30 -32, 41 ;

disbandment of, 34 , 40 -41, 42 , 123 , 331 n63;

in Hubei, 41 ;

in Hunan, 77 , 123 , 150 , 181 , 184 , 185 , 287 , 331 n71, 351 n7, 361 n72;

organizational structure of, 19 -22;

size of, 326 n3, 331 n63

Guangdong, 28 , 166 , 254 , 257 , 263

Guangxi, 145 , 221 , 254 , 257 , 288

Guangxi Army, in Hunan, 145 , 146 , 148 , 149 , 228 , 237 , 256 , 295 , 296 ;

and Anti-Monarchical War, 221 , 222 ;

and battle against Tang Xiangming, 226 -27;

and North-South War, 257 , 263 , 288 , 293 ;

and Second Revolution, 170 , 180 , 181

Guard Corps, in Hunan, 150 -51, 180 -82, 184 -85, 219 , 233 -36, 287 , 293 , 361 n71, 368 n37

Guizhou, 205 , 218 , 219 , 221 , 291 , 330 n59

Guo Renzhang, 222 , 223 , 368 n44, 370 n65

Guomindang. See Nationalist Party

H

Han people:

as members of Qing military, 19

Hankou:

revolutionary branch government in, 101 , 103 ;

revolutionary organization in, 216 , 238

Hatano, Yoshihiro, 46 , 49

He Peirong, 272 , 373 n121

He Xifan, 69

Henan, 128 -29

Hsieh, Winston, 265 , 325 n11

Hu Ruilin, 192 , 362 n101

Hu Tingzuo, 131 , 155

Huai (Anhui) Army, 22 , 27 -28, 33 , 284

Huang Xing, 57 , 63 , 103 , 107 , 229 ;

and 1911 Revolution, 101 -2;

and plans for military disbandment, 145 -46, 151 ;

and relations with Tan Yankai, 96 -97, 99 , 145 -46, 151 , 346 n55, 370 n70;

and Second Revolution, 166 , 170

Huang Zhonghao, 72 -74

Huaxinghui, 63

Hubei:

Anti-Monarchical War in, 207 , 212 -16, 218 , 237 -44, 241 , 278 ;

anti-warlord movement in, 269 , 270 , 292 , 302 -7, 308 ;

budget of, 125 -27, 193 , 243 , 273 -74, 275 ;

bureaucratic ministries in, 88 -90, 111 , 113 , 242 , 272 , 344 n29;

Chamber of Commerce in, 72 , 201 , 251 , 276 ;

civil administration in, 71 , 82 , 83 , 87 -93, 103 , 111 , 112 , 241 -43, 350 n129;

civil-military relations in, 83 , 93 , 110 -18, 115 -16, 117 -18, 120 , 139 , 189 -90;

Constitutional Protection Movement in, 289 , 291 ;

constitutionalist movement in, 70 , 88 -89, 103 , 104 , 105 , 112 , 113 , 339 n93;

and Duan Qirui's military governorship, 176 , 179 , 186 , 189 -90, 192 , 209 , 210 ;

and Duan Shuyun's civil governorship, 189 , 190 , 192 ;

and Duan Zhigui's military governorship, 176 , 186 -87, 189 , 190 , 192 , 209 -10, 239 ;

educational cutbacks in, 193 , 274 ;

electoral politics in, 93 , 108 ;

elite political activism in, 70 -72, 78 , 82 , 83 , 85 , 242 ;

factionalization of politics in, 104 , 105 , 114 , 116 , 140 , 141 , 243 , 304 ;

geography of, 12 -14;

and He Peirong's civil governorship, 272 ;

and historical links with Hunan, 13 -15;

and Li Yuanhong's military governorship, 71 -72, 100 -116, 128 -29, 139 -43, 159 , 167 , 175 -76, 195 ;

and Liu Cheng'en's civil governorship, 304 ;

and Liu Xinyuan's civil governorship, 112 -16, 354 n65;

and Lü Diaoyuan's civil governorship, 188 , 189 , 190 , 192 ;

May Fourth Movement in, 303 ;

monarchist movement in, 200 -202, 210 ;

Nationalist Party in, 93 , 105 , 108 , 113 , 115 , 176 ;

1911 Revolution in, 66 -72, 78 , 79 , 81 -87, 121 , 171 ;

North-South War in, 260 -64, 278 ;

population of, 12 ;

Provincial Assembly in, 70 , 72 , 91 -93, 108 -16 passim , 176 , 242 -43, 275 , 304 ;

railroad-protection movement in, 59 , 70 , 71 , 112 ;

and Rao Hanxiang's civil governorship, 116 , 188 ;

Republican Party in, 93 , 105 , 107 -8, 115 , 140 ;

Revolutionary Party in, 214 , 238 ;

Second Revolution in, 157 -58, 166 -68, 171 , 179 ;

self-government in, 14 , 82 , 90 , 162 , 241 , 242 , 243 -44, 302 , 303 , 304 -5, 307 , 308 ;

student movement in, 303 ;

and Sun Chenjia's civil governorship, 303 -4;

suppression of political dissent in, 195 -97, 198 -99, 214 ;

Tang Caichang's uprising attempt in, 57 , 64 , 335 n39;

taxation in, 126 -27, 128 , 193 , 273 -74, 377 n22;

Tongmenghui in, 89 , 101 , 103 , 104 -5, 107 -8, 111 -12, 113 , 140 ;

and Wang Zhanyuan's civil governorship, 241 -42, 271 -72;

and Wang Zhanyuan's military governorship, 207 , 208 , 211 -13, 216 , 218 , 237 -44, 249 , 250 -52, 260 -61, 267 , 269 , 270 , 271 -78, 281 -82, 302 -8;

and Xia Shoukang's civil governorship, 114 -16, 304 ;

and Xiao Yaonan's military governorship, 307 ;

and Zhang Xiluan's military governorship, 210

Hubei, military in:

and Banner Army, 41 , 42 , 43 , 68 ;

and Blood Pledge Society, 153 , 356 n115;

central government's realignment of, 177 , 178 , 179 -80, 186 ;

and conscription, 156 ;

disbandment bonus payments in, 152 , 153 , 156 -57, 305 ;

disbandment of, 120 , 151 -60, 171 , 180 , 187 , 241 ;

discipline in, 135 -36, 138 , 140 , 156 , 239 , 302 -3;

Duan Zhigui's management of, 179 , 187 ;

egalitarianism in, 137 ;

expanded size of, 121 , 124 , 127 -28, 241 , 278 , 305 ;

financial support

of, 124 -27, 128 , 272 -77, 285 -87, 377 n22;

and Green Standard Army, 41 ;

independent forces in, 262 -64, 282 , 287 -92, 296 , 306 ;

irregular units in, 122 -23, 154 ;

Li Yuanhong's management of, 128 -29, 132 -33, 135 , 138 , 139 -43, 151 -60, 179 ;

literacy standards in, 49 , 53 , 54 , 64 ;

military schools of, 59 , 130 -31, 334 n28;

and New Army, 39 -43, 49 , 57 , 60 -64, 66 -72, 78 , 79 , 101 , 121 ;

non-Hubei units in, 154 , 158 , 179 , 180 , 187 , 241 , 260 , 261 , 282 , 372 n109;

organizational structure of, 120 , 121 -23, 132 -33, 154 -55, 178 -79, 187 , 278 -79, 281 -82;

and participation in 1911 Revolution, 46 , 67 -72, 78 , 79 , 101 , 121 ;

and Patrol and Defense Forces, 41 , 43 , 68 , 136 , 331 n65;

pensions in, 153 , 355 n115;

and people's armies, 217 -18;

political role of, 120 , 139 -43;

and Provincial Defense Corps, 241 , 243 , 278 , 281 , 377 -78nn;

revolutionary influence in, 59 , 60 -64, 128 -29, 132 -33, 137 , 157 , 159 , 168 , 215 -16, 336 n52;

rioting by, 105 , 132 -33, 140 , 141 , 305 ;

size of, 356 -57nn;

wages in, 156 , 305 , 380 n51;

Wang Zhanyuan's management of, 239 -41, 260 , 278 , 281 -82

Hubei, relations of central government with:

and appointment of civil governors, 188 -90, 241 , 303 -4;

and assertion of provincial autonomy, 14 , 82 , 90 , 162 , 241 , 242 , 243 -44;

and challenge to provincial autonomy, 162 , 172 , 176 , 191 -93;

and control of military governors, 175 -76, 186 -91;

and dissolution of Provincial Assembly, 176 ;

and realignment of military, 177 , 178 , 179 -80

Hubei, revolutionary activists in:

anti-Qing organizations of, 60 -64;

and Forward Together Society, 62 -63, 65 , 67 , 74 , 102 -6 passim , 130 , 141 ;

and independence movement, 288 -89;

infighting among, 104 , 105 ;

Li Yuanhong's governorship accepted by, 71 , 163 ;

Li Yuanhong's governorship challenged by, 101 -9, 168 ;

and Literature Society, 61 , 63 , 67 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 108 , 130 -31, 141 , 337 n59;

military units influenced by, 59 , 60 -64, 128 -29, 132 -33, 137 , 157 , 159 , 168 , 215 -16, 336 n52;

and struggle against constitutionalists, 88 -89, 339 n93;

Wang Zhanyuan's governorship challenged by, 216 , 218 , 238 -39;

Yuan Shikai's monarchy opposed by, 214 -16;

Yuan Shikai's presidency opposed by, 167 -68, 171 , 195

Hunan:

and Aid-Hubei War, 306 -7;

Anti-Monarchical War in, 214 , 215 , 216 -23;

anti-warlord movement in, 269 , 270 , 296 -302, 308 ;

budget of, 125 -27, 193 , 273 -74, 275 , 363 n108;

bureaucratic ministries in, 90 , 99 , 146 ,

272 ;

Chamber of Commerce in, 201 , 275 -76, 285 , 298 ;

civil administration in, 74 , 76 , 82 , 83 , 87 -93, 190 , 225 , 229 ;

civil-military relations in, 75 -77, 83 , 89 -90, 93 , 100 , 117 -18, 120 , 189 -90, 244 ;

constitutionalist movement in, 73 , 88 -89, 94 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 100 , 175 , 229 ;

educational cutbacks in, 193 , 274 ;

electoral politics in, 92 -93, 99 -100;

elite political activism in, 75 -77, 78 , 82 , 83 , 85 , 86 , 228 ;

and Fu Liangzuo's military governorship, 253 -59;

geography of, 12 -14;

and historical links with Hubei, 13 -15;

Jiao Dafeng's assassination in, 77 , 79 , 90 , 95 -96, 97 , 124 , 128 , 140 , 371 n93;

and Jiao Dafeng's military governorship, 74 -77, 78 , 79 , 89 -90, 94 -95;

and Liu Renxi's military governorship, 228 -30;

and Liu Xinyuan's civil governorship, 189 ;

May Fourth Movement in, 297 -98;

monarchist movement in, 200 -201;

National Protection Movement in, 214 , 217 -18, 221 -24, 235 ;

Nationalist Party in, 92 -93, 99 , 151 , 169 ;

1911 Revolution in, 72 -77, 78 , 79 , 81 -87, 120 -21;

North-South War in, 246 -47, 257 -59, 262 -63, 296 -97;

"popular party" in, 222 -25, 236 ;

population of, 12 ;

Provincial Assembly in, 73 -75, 86 , 91 -93, 94 , 98 , 140 , 174 , 226 , 230 , 232 , 275 , 298 ;

railroad-protection movement in, 94 ;

Revolutionary Party in, 214 -15, 221 ;

Second Revolution in, 167 , 169 -71;

self-government in, 14 , 82 , 90 , 162 , 225 -26, 229 -31, 244 , 269 , 296 , 297 , 300 , 302 , 306 , 308 ;

student movement in, 58 -59, 297 -99;

suppression of political dissent in, 195 -98, 214 , 298 ;

and Tan Yankai's military governorship (first term), 77 , 86 , 93 -100, 117 , 128 -29, 140 , 141 , 146 , 159 , 174 -75;

and Tan Yankai's military governorship (second term), 207 , 227 , 229 , 230 -37, 254 -56;

and Tan Yankai's military governorship (third term), 295 -96, 300 -302;

and Tang Xiangming's military governorship, 175 , 180 -81, 185 -90, 191 -92, 195 -96, 198 , 207 , 216 , 217 , 220 -27;

taxation in, 127 , 193 , 273 -74, 285 ;

Tongmenghui in, 65 , 74 , 98 , 99 , 100 ;

and Wang Hu's civil governorship, 188 , 189 , 190 ;

and Zeng Jiwu's military governorship, 228 , 235 ;

and Zhang Jingyao's military governorship, 263 , 267 , 269 , 270 , 271 -78, 282 -85, 296 -302, 308 , 310 ;

and Zhao Hengti's military governorship, 301 -2, 306

Hunan, military in:

and Banner Army, 42 , 43 ;

central government's realignment of, 180 -85;

and Constitutional Protection Army, 292 -96;

disbandment bonus payments in, 147 , 149 , 335 n93;

disbandment of, 120 , 140 , 143 -51,

160 , 169 , 171 , 180 -81, 184 -85, 216 , 231 , 300 ;

discipline in, 135 , 137 -38, 140 -41, 283 ;

egalitarianism in, 137 ;

elites in, 133 ;

expanded size of, 120 , 124 , 127 , 231 , 283 , 301 ;

financial support of, 124 -27, 140 , 147 , 272 -77, 285 -87, 352 n28;

Fu Liangzuo's management of, 256 -57;

garrison commands in, 181 -85, 233 -35, 255 , 283 , 287 , 293 ;

and Green Standard Army, 77 , 123 , 150 , 181 , 184 , 185 , 287 , 331 n71, 351 n7, 361 n72;

and Guard Corps, 150 -51, 180 -82, 184 -85, 219 , 233 -36, 287 , 293 , 361 n72, 368 n37;

independent forces in, 287 -88, 292 -96;

irregular units in, 124 , 232 ;

Jiao Dafeng's management of, 124 ;

military schools of, 134 , 234 , 237 , 332 n8;

and National Pacification Army, 294 ;

and National Protection Army, 220 , 222 , 223 , 224 , 228 , 231 , 232 , 294 ;

and New Army, 39 -43, 46 , 64 -66, 72 -77, 78 , 79 , 120 -21, 340 n100;

non-Hunan units in, 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 188 , 216 , 225 , 231 , 237 ;

organizational structure of, 120 , 123 -24, 132 , 133 , 150 , 222 , 228 , 231 -37, 301 ;

and participation in 1911 Revolution, 72 -77, 78 , 79 , 120 -21, 184 ;

and Patrol and Defense Forces, 42 , 43 , 72 -73, 77 , 121 , 123 , 124 , 222 , 225 , 231 , 332 n74, 340 n100, 352 n22;

pensions in, 143 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 355 n93;

and people's armies, 217 -18, 224 -25, 232 ;

political role of, 120 , 139 -41, 237 ;

revolutionary influence in, 58 , 64 -66, 128 , 133 , 184 , 216 -18, 232 ;

Tan Yankai's management of, 124 , 128 -29, 132 , 133 , 140 -41, 159 -60, 180 , 181 , 228 , 231 -37, 255 -56;

Tang Xiangming's management of, 188 , 222 ;

wages in, 124 , 140 , 147 , 188 , 257 ;

and yongying , 22 , 27 ;

Zhang Jingyao's management of, 282 -85

Hunan, relations of central government with:

and appointment of civil governors, 188 -90, 230 ;

and appointment of military governors, 230 -31, 253 -59;

and assertion of provincial autonomy, 14 , 82 , 90 , 162 , 225 -26, 229 -31, 244 ;

and challenge to provincial autonomy, 162 , 172 , 176 , 191 -93, 246 , 253 -59;

and control of military governors, 174 -75, 176 , 186 -91;

and realignment of military, 180 -86;

and restoration of provincial autonomy, 230 -31

Hunan, revolutionary activists in:

and accommodation with Tan Yankai, 95 -100, 163 ;

and anti-Qing organizations, 64 -66;

Jiao Dafeng's assassination protested by, 95 , 97 , 128 ;

and Jiao Dafeng's military governorship, 74 -78;

military units influenced by, 58 , 64 -66, 128 , 133 , 184 , 216 -18;

and struggle against constitutionalists, 95 -96, 100 ;

Tang Xiangming's mili-

tary governorship opposed by, 226 -27;

Yuan Shikai's monarchy opposed by, 214 , 215 , 216 -18, 221 -22, 223 ;

Yuan Shikai's presidency opposed by, 169 -70, 171 , 184 , 195

Huntington, Samuel, 5 , 77 -78

I

Imperialism, 7 -9, 18 , 21 , 51 , 198 , 297

Independent provincial forces:

in Hubei, 260 -62, 282 , 287 -92, 296 , 306 ;

in Hunan, 287 -88, 292 -96

J

Japan:

Army Officers' Academy in, 52 , 57 -58, 65 , 130 , 134 , 187 , 220 , 234 , 237 , 253 , 278 ;

Chinese political exiles in, 56 , 57 , 62 , 214 , 218 , 335 n39;

Chinese students in, 35 , 52 , 56 -58, 66 , 145 ;

imperialism of, 18 , 51 , 198 ;

May Fourth Movement directed against, 297 -98;

military loans from, 260 ;

New Armies' organization derived from, 35 , 37 ;

and seizure of German concessions in China, 297 ;

and Sino-Japanese War of 1894, 33 , 51 , 54 ;

Twenty-one Demands issued by, 198 , 215 ;

Western military system adopted by, 33

Ji Yulin, 128 -29, 131 -32, 168 , 289 , 367 n19, 381 n62

Jiang Yiwu, 104 , 105

Jiang Zuobin, 58

Jiangsu, 173 , 249 , 258 , 263 , 330 n59

Jiangxi, 27 , 158 , 166 , 169 , 170 , 173 , 258 , 263

Jiao Dafeng:

assassination of, 77 , 79 , 90 , 95 -96, 97 , 124 , 128 , 140 , 371 n93;

as Hunan military governor, 74 -77, 89 -90, 94 -95;

as leader of Forward Together Society, 65 , 74 ;

linked to secret societies, 65 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 96 ;

and management of postrevolutionary army, 124

K

Kou Yingjie, 279 , 282

L

Lary, Diana, 80

Law of avoidance, 20 , 87 , 90 , 191 , 194

Leninism, 62

Li Hongzhang, 31 , 34 , 329 n44;

Huai Army created by, 22 , 23 , 28 , 33 ;

as provincial governor, 24 , 25 , 26 , 28 , 35 ;

Western military system advocated by, 32 , 35

Li Kuiyuan, 281 , 284 , 285

Li Pinxian, 53

Li Tiancai, 123 , 154 , 158 , 351 -52n17, 360 n53;

as leader of independent army, 260 -62, 282 , 287 -92, 303 , 381 n62;

and loyalty to central government, 179 , 182 , 183 , 187 , 216 , 251

Li Youwen, 222 , 231 , 232 , 233 -34, 236 , 255 , 257 , 369 n56, 371 n78

Li Yuanhong:

as military governor, 71 -72, 100 -116, 139 -43, 159 , 167 , 175 -76, 195 ;

and military organizational management, 128 -29, 132 -33, 135 , 138 , 139 -43, 151 -60, 179 ;

and 1911 Revolution, 67 , 71 -72, 167 ;

as president of Republic of China,

230 -31, 238 , 247 -53, 303 -4;

and relations with Duan Qirui, 247 -53;

and relations with revolutionary activists, 71 -72, 101 -9, 128 -29, 163 , 167 -68;

and relations with Wang Zhanyuan, 238 , 239 , 250 , 303 -4;

and relations with Yuan Shikai, 108 , 111 , 157 , 158 , 167 -68, 169 , 175 -76;

and Second Revolution, 157 -58, 166 -68, 171 , 172 ;

Tan Yankai defended by, 169 -70, 174 , 176 ;

as vice president of Republic of China, 104 , 110 , 175 , 176 ;

and Zhang Xun's attempted Qing restoration, 252 , 253 , 254 , 374 n16;

and Zhang Zhenwu's execution, 108 , 142 , 143 , 349 nn

Liang Qichao, 214 , 221 , 229

Lianjun :

in Qing dynasty, 31 , 34

Liao Xiangyun, 294 -95

Lijin taxes, 23 , 27 , 127 , 285

Lin Xiumei, 232 -35, 255 , 256 , 257 , 264 , 265 , 292

Literacy standards:

for military recruitment, 49 -50, 53 , 54 , 64 , 333 n13

Literature Society, 61 , 63 , 67 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 108 , 130 -31, 141 , 337 n59

Liu Cheng'en, 304 , 384 n117

Liu Gong, 102 , 103 , 154

Liu Jianfan, 256 , 257 , 263 , 265 , 292

Liu Kwang-ching, 26 -27, 28

Liu Renxi, 228 -29, 232 , 370 n70

Liu Wenjin, 65 -66, 97 , 342 n121, 361 n66

Liu Xinyuan, 112 -16, 189

Liu Ying, 288 , 289 , 380 -81n62

Liu Zhong, 217 , 223

Liu Zuolong, 131 , 155 , 261 , 278 , 279 , 281

Loans, foreign, 165 -66, 167 , 260

Local governments:

in post-revolutionary period, 81 , 84 -87, 129

Long Zhang, 225 , 229 , 346 n61

Loyalty. See Military units, loyalty of

Lü Diaoyuan, 188 , 189 , 190 , 192

Lü Jinshan, 187 , 220 , 241 , 279

Lu Rongting, 145 , 228 , 229 , 288 , 300 , 370 n70;

in Anti-Monarchical War, 221 , 222 , 226 -27;

in North-South War, 254 , 256 , 259 , 262 ;

and struggle against Sun Yat-sen, 293 , 295 , 309

Luo Ergang, 6 , 10 , 24 -30, 34 -37

M

MacKinnon, Stephen, 36 -37, 329 n44

Manchu dynasty. See Qing dynasty

Manchu people:

conquest of China by, 19 ;

as members of Qing military, 19 , 38 , 68

Mao Zedong, 1 , 7 -9, 313

Martial law, 195 , 199

May Fourth Movement, 8 , 297 -98, 303

Mei Xing, 76 -77, 95 , 97 , 134 , 149 , 342 nn

Merchant organizations, 72 , 171 , 201 , 275 -76, 285

Michael, Franz, 6 , 10 , 25 -30, 34 -37

Militarism:

as descriptive term, 3 , 324 n7

Militarization of politics, 266 , 267 , 308 , 312 , 313 ;

in Anti-

Monarchical War, 206 , 244 ;

and crisis of political authority, 245 , 310 ;

in Second Revolution, 162 . See also Military, political role of

Military, financial support of:

in postrevolutionary provincial governments, 124 -27, 128 , 140 , 143 -44, 147 , 352 n28;

in Qing dynasty, 18 , 20 , 23 , 27 -28, 36 , 37 , 329 n44;

in Republican government, 165 -66;

in warlord period, 267 , 268 , 272 -77, 285 -87, 290 , 292

Military, modernization of:

in postrevolutionary period, 136 , 150 ;

in Qing dynasty, 18 , 31 -33, 38 , 40

Military, organizational structure of, 6 -7, 9 -10;

and Beiyang Army, 36 -37, 38 , 206 -8, 246 ;

and central government forces, 177 -86, 207 -8;

and Hubei army, 39 -43, 49 , 57 , 60 -64, 66 -72, 78 , 79 , 101 , 121 , 154 -55, 179 , 278 -79, 281 -82;

and Hunan army, 120 , 123 -24, 132 , 133 , 150 , 222 , 228 , 231 -37, 280 -81, 282 -85, 301 ;

and New Armies, 34 , 36 -37, 40 , 317 -18;

and Qing traditional military, 17 -22, 31 ;

and yongying , 22 -37. See also Command structure

Military, personal command of, 6 , 132 , 159 , 188 ;

and Beiyang Army, 36 -37, 178 , 207 -8;

in Qing dynasty, 19 , 22 -23, 25 , 26 , 35 , 36 -38

Military, political role of, 3 -5, 11 , 119 -20, 138 -43, 245 -46;

in Anti-Monarchical War, 206 -7, 211 , 213 , 244 , 248 ;

and autonomy of military commanders, 247 , 261 , 264 -66, 267 -68, 271 , 277 -78, 284 -87, 292 , 308 , 309 , 310 -11;

and demands on central government, 248 -50;

and domination of central government, 246 , 252 , 267 ;

in 1911 Revolution, 46 -48, 59 , 67 -79, 138 -39;

in North-South War, 261 , 264 -66;

in Qing dynasty, 18 -19, 24 -30, 35 -36, 45 ;

in Second Revolution, 162 , 163 , 172 . See also Civil authority, military relations with

Military, social composition of:

as factor in military coups, 47 ;

and New Armies, 11 , 46 -55, 56 , 64 , 78 , 79 ;

and 1911 Revolution, 46 -48, 56 , 64 , 78 , 79 ;

and postrevolutionary provincial armies, 135 , 138 ;

and Qing traditional forces, 19 , 49

Military units, loyalty of:

and Beiyang Army, 36 -37, 178 , 208 ;

and reorganized Hunan army, 237 ;

and yongying , 22 -23, 26 , 237

Militia, 22

Ming dynasty, 14 , 19

Minshe (People's Society), 104 -5

Modernization. See Military, modernization of

Monarchist movement, 199 -202, 204 , 206 , 210 -13

Morale, of soldiers:

in postrevolutionary provincial armies, 135 ;

in Qing armies, 21 , 23

N

Nanjing:

Beiyang Army conference at, 211 -12;

revolutionary provisional government in, 82 , 102 , 103 , 104 ;

Second Revolution in, 166

Nanwu Army, 124 , 146 -47, 149 , 150

Nathan, Andrew, 250

National Assembly, 92 -94, 142 , 175 , 245 ;

and Canton opposition government, 254 , 309 ;

dissolution of, 173 , 250 , 252 , 254 ;

Duan Qirui opposed in, 248 -52;

Nationalist Party in, 164 , 173 , 248 ;

restoration of, 247 ;

Yuan Shikai opposed in, 164 -66, 167 , 169 , 173 ;

Yuan Shikai reelected by, 172 -73

National Pacification Army, 288 , 291 , 294

National Protection Movement, 205 , 214 , 229 , 288 ;

in Hubei, 214 -17;

in Hunan, 214 , 216 -24, 235

Nationalism:

and anti-warlord movement, 298 ;

and elite political activism, 55 , 56 , 82 ;

as factor in 1911 Revolution, 55 , 56 , 58 ;

and military career choice, 51 -55, 56 , 78 , 333 n26;

provincial framework of, 82 ;

spurred by Sino-Japanese War, 53 , 55 ;

Yuan Shikai as exponent of, 36

Nationalist Party:

as adversary of Yuan Shikai, 151 , 164 -65, 173 ;

banning of, 173 , 176 , 195 ;

centralized power sought by, 164 -65;

defeated by Communist Party, 314 ;

founding of, 92 ;

in Hubei, 93 , 105 , 108 , 113 , 115 , 176 ;

in Hunan, 92 -93, 99 , 151 ;

and ideological mobilization, 313 -14;

in National Assembly, 92 , 164 , 173 , 248 ;

political platform of, 100 , 165 ;

reorganized as Revolutionary Party, 214 ;

Song Jiaoren as leader of, 99 , 164 ;

Sun Yatsen's leadership of, 312 ;

and support for Second Revolution, 169 , 173 ;

Tongmenghui as precursor of, 92 , 99 , 100 , 173

Naval forces:

in Qing dynasty, 31 , 33 ;

in Republic of China, 174 , 175

New Armies, in Qing dynasty:

compared to yongying , 35 -37;

in Hubei, 39 -43, 49 ;

in Hunan, 39 -43, 46 ;

Japanese military model adopted by, 35 , 37 ;

organizational structure of, 34 , 36 -37, 40 , 317 -18;

politicization of, 11 , 45 , 56 -67, 78 ;

recruitment of educated elite for, 48 -55, 56 , 78 ;

recruitment standards in, 33 , 48 -51, 53 , 54 ;

size of, 330 n59;

social composition of, 11 , 46 -55, 56 , 78 ;

training of, 33 , 37 , 46 , 48 -59;

wages in, 34 , 51 , 124 ;

Western military model adopted by, 33 -35, 37 , 40 , 48 ;

in Yunnan, 37 ;

in Zhili, 33 , 34 , 35

New Armies, in Revolution of 1911:

and coalition with civil elites, 47 , 59 , 70 -72, 75 -77, 78 , 119 ;

common soldiers' role in, 60 , 68 -70, 78 , 79 ;

and emergence of warlordism, 48 , 78 -79;

expanded size of, 119 , 120 -21, 124 , 127 , 128 ;

in Hubei, 60 -64, 66 -72, 78 , 79 , 101 , 121 ;

in Hunan, 64 -

66 , 72 -77, 78 , 79 , 120 -21, 340 n100;

officers' role in, 68 -70, 78 -79;

politicization of, 11 , 45 , 46 , 79 , 138 -39;

provincial governments headed by, 70 -72, 74 -77;

social composition of, 46 , 64 , 78 , 79

Newspapers, censorship of, 195 -96, 199

1911 Revolution:

and Changsha uprising, 48 , 72 -77, 78 , 85 , 120 ;

and elite politicization, 47 -48, 55 , 56 , 59 , 78 ;

and elite support for revolutionary governments, 70 -72, 75 -78, 82 , 83 , 84 -87, 117 , 119 ;

and emergence of warlordism, 10 , 48 , 78 -79, 80 , 141 ;

and fragmentation of power, 39 , 45 , 68 ;

local governments in, 81 , 84 -87;

nationalist movement in, 55 , 56 , 58 ;

peasants in, 46 , 56 , 84 ;

provincial governments in, 46 , 70 -77, 81 -87, 91 , 191 ;

secret societies in, 59 -60, 63 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 96 ;

student movement in, 56 -59, 121 ;

and Wuchang uprising, 48 , 66 -72, 73 , 78 , 85 , 121 . See also New Armies, in Revolution of 1911

North-South War:

and emergence of warlordism, 247 , 261 , 264 , 271 ;

in Hubei, 260 -64, 278 ;

in Hunan, 246 -47, 257 -59, 262 -64, 296 -97;

independent provincial forces in, 260 -62, 287 -88;

political consensus in, 259 ;

political role of military in, 261 , 264 -66

O

Officers, military:

in Beiyang Army, 240 ;

in New Armies, 18 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 60 , 65 -66, 68 -70, 78 -79;

in postrevolutionary provincial armies, 132 , 136 -37, 142 , 148 , 153 ;

in Qing traditional military, 20 , 32 , 33 ;

in yongying , 22 -24, 32

Opium War, 21

P

Party armies, 313 -14

Patrol and Defense Forces:

disbandment of, 123 ;

establishment of, 38 -39;

in Hubei, 41 , 43 , 68 , 136 , 331 n65;

in Hunan, 42 , 43 , 72 -73, 77 , 121 , 123 , 124 , 222 , 225 , 231 , 332 n74, 340 n100, 352 n22;

in 1911 Revolution, 68 , 72 -73, 77 ;

organizational structure of, 38 -39, 150 ;

reestablishment of, 222 , 225 ;

size of, 331 n65, 332 n74

Peace Planning Society, 199 -202

Peasants:

in Anti-Monarchical War, 217 ;

in 1911 Revolution, 46 , 56 , 84 ;

in postrevolutionary provincial armies, 135 ;

in Qing traditional forces, 49 ;

as victims of political terror, 365 n138

People's Liberation Army, 1 , 314 , 315

Pluralism, 312

Political consensus:

in Anti-Monarchical War, 206 ;

in North-South War, 259 ;

in Second Revolution, 167 , 171 , 194 , 206

Political dissent:

suppression of, 173 , 176 , 195 -98, 199 , 298

Politicization:

of elites, 47 -48,

55 , 56 , 59 , 78 ;

of military, 11 , 45 , 46 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 -67, 78 , 79 , 138 -39, 261

Pong, David, 27

Powell, Ralph, 26

Praetorianism, 3 , 4 , 5 , 77 , 324 n9

Provincial Defense Corps:

in Hubei, 241 , 243 , 278 , 281 , 377 -78nn

Provincial governments:

in 1911 Revolution, 46 , 70 -77, 84 -87, 91 , 191 ;

in Qing dynasty, 25 -29, 35 -36, 39 -43, 87 ;

in Second Revolution, 166 -72;

Yuan Shikai's centralized rule of, 162 , 166 , 172 -77, 186 -94, 203 . See also Assemblies; Autonomy; Governors; Hubei; Hunan

Provincialism, 44 , 82 , 90 -91, 103 , 161 -62, 191 , 194 , 227 , 230 , 237 , 242 , 244 , 254 , 257 , 269 -71, 296 , 302 -3, 307 , 308 , 312 , 343 n7. See also Autonomy, provincial; Civilian provincialism

Pye, Lucian, 56 , 80 , 266 , 312 , 342 n2

Q

Qing dynasty:

and Anglo-Chinese War, 31 ;

attempted restoration of, 252 , 275 ;

and Boxer Uprising, 34 , 51 , 53 , 57 ;

central government in, 18 , 24 -30, 36 , 38 , 39 , 55 , 90 ;

civil administration in, 20 , 24 , 90 ;

foreign imperialist challenges to, 18 , 21 , 51 , 55 , 57 ;

fragmentation of power in, 10 , 18 -19, 38 -39, 42 , 45 , 68 ;

nationalism in, 36 , 51 -55;

and Opium War, 21 ;

provincial governments in, 25 -29, 35 -36, 39 -43, 87 , 191 ;

reformism in, 55 , 56 , 127 , 161 ;

and Russo-Japanese War, 51 ;

and Sino-Japanese War of 1894, 33 , 51 , 54 , 55 , 57 ;

and Taiping Rebellion, 21 -22, 27 , 50

Qing dynasty, military of:

and Banner Army, 19 -22, 30 , 31 , 32 , 38 , 41 , 68 ;

and Beiyang Army, 34 -38, 63 ;

bureaucratic organization of, 17 -22, 36 -37;

and Commission for Army Reorganization, 34 -35, 38 , 39 , 40 ;

disbandment of, 34 , 38 , 40 -41, 123 ;

financial support of, 18 , 20 , 21 , 23 , 27 -28, 36 , 37 , 329 n44;

and Green Standard Army, 19 -22, 27 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 , 40 -41, 42 , 77 ;

and Huai (Anhui) Army, 22 , 27 -28, 33 ;

Japanese military as model for, 35 , 37 ;

and lianjun , 31 , 34 ;

loyalty of, 17 , 22 , 26 , 37 , 39 ;

modernization of, 18 , 31 -33, 38 , 40 ;

and naval forces, 31 , 33 ;

and New Armies, 33 -45, 46 -56, 58 -66, 330 n59, 317 -18;

and Patrol and Defense Forces, 38 -39, 41 , 42 , 43 , 68 , 72 -73, 77 , 150 ;

personalist organization of, 19 , 22 -23, 25 , 26 , 35 -38;

political role of, 18 -19, 24 -30, 35 -36, 45 ;

reform of, 19 , 31 -33, 34 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 42 -43, 46 , 48 ;

and relations with civil authority, 17 -20, 26 -30, 36 , 39 ;

and traditional organizational structure, 17 -22, 31 ;

training of, 21 , 31 , 32 -33, 34 -35, 37 , 38 , 40 ,

48 -55;

warlordism as outgrowth of, 17 -19, 24 -30, 35 -38, 44 -45;

Western military as model for, 18 , 19 , 31 -35, 37 , 40 ;

and Xiang (Hunan) Army, 22 , 27 , 35

and yongying , 22 -37, 40 -42, 50 , 331 n112

Qing Heng, 134 , 233 , 235 , 281 , 283

Que Long, 131 , 289

R

Railroad-protection movement, 59 , 70 , 71 , 94 , 112 , 352 n17

Rankin, Mary, 55

Rao Hanxiang, 115 -16, 188

Recruitment, military:

and conscription system, 156 ;

expansion of, 119 , 120 -21, 124 , 127 , 128 , 241 ;

literacy standards in, 49 -50, 53 , 54 , 64 ;

for New Armies, 33 , 34 , 40 -43, 46 , 47 , 48 -50, 120 -21;

for postrevolutionary provincial armies, 135 , 156 ;

for Qing traditional military, 20 , 49 ;

in Second Revolution, 169 , 170 ;

of social elites, 48 -55, 56 ;

for yongying , 22 , 23

Reforms, military:

in Qing dynasty, 19 , 31 -34, 38 -39, 41 -43, 46 , 48

Reforms, social:

elite support for, 55 , 56 , 82 , 87 , 90 , 94 , 274 ;

in postrevolutionary period, 82 , 87 , 90 , 127 ;

in Qing dynasty, 55 , 56 , 127 , 161

Republic of China:

Cao Kun as president of, 312 ;

constitution of, 164 , 166 , 173 , 245 , 247 , 252 , 254 ;

Duan Qirui as premier of, 247 -53, 254 , 256 , 257 -59, 263 -64, 265 , 282 , 296 , 297 , 374 n16;

Feng Guozhang as president of, 252 , 253 , 254 , 258 , 260 , 262 -63, 265 , 374 n16;

Feng Guozhang as vice president of, 249 -50;

foreign military aid in, 165 -66, 260 ;

increased military role in, 248 -50;

Li Yuanhong as president of, 230 -31, 247 -53, 303 -4;

Li Yuanhong as vice president of, 104 , 110 , 175 , 176 ;

May Fourth Movement in, 8 , 297 -98;

North-South War in, 257 -65;

provincial autonomy in, 82 , 161 -62, 230 -31, 245 ;

provincial subjugation in, 162 , 166 , 172 -77, 186 -94, 203 ;

revolutionary influence in, 163 -64;

Second Revolution in, 162 , 166 -72. See also Central government (Republican period); National Assembly; Yuan Shikai

Republican Party:

in Hubei, 93 , 105 , 107 -8, 140

Revolutionary movements:

and Anti-Monarchical War, 213 -18, 221 -22, 223 ;

and constitutionalism, 88 -89, 95 -96, 100 , 214 , 339 n93;

elite participation in, 47 -48, 55 , 56 , 59 , 119 , 163 ;

factionalization of, 104 , 105 ;

and independent provincial armies, 288 -89;

in military schools, 56 -59;

and nationalism, 55 , 56 , 58 ;

New Armies influenced by, 45 , 46 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 -67, 78 , 79 , 138 -39;

organizational structure of, 62 , 103 ;

postrevolutionary armies influenced by, 128 -29, 132 -33, 137 , 138 -

39 , 157 , 159 , 166 , 168 ;

and relations with central government, 163 -64, 215 ;

and Second Revolution, 166 -67, 170 , 171 , 214 ;

and secret societies, 59 -60, 63 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 217 , 223 ;

student participation in, 56 -57. See also Hubei; Hunan; 1911 Revolution

Revolutionary Party, 214 -15, 218 , 221 , 238

Russia:

occupation of Manchuria by, 57 ;

and Russo-Japanese War, 51

S

Schoppa, R. Keith, 270

Second Revolution:

elite response to, 162 , 163 , 172 , 194 -95;

in Hubei, 157 -58, 166 -68, 171 , 179 ;

in Hunan, 167 , 169 -71;

political consensus in, 167 , 171 , 194 , 206 ;

political role of military in, 162 , 163 , 172 ;

revolutionary weakness in, 166 -67, 170 , 171 , 214

Secret societies, 59 -60, 63 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 343 n11, 346 n55;

in Anti-Monarchical War, 217 , 223 ;

Jiao Dafeng's links with, 65 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 96

Self-government.

See Autonomy

Self-Strengthening Army:

in Qing dynasty, 33 -34, 40 , 43

Shandong, 263 , 283

Sheridan, James, 2 , 205 , 314 , 343 n5

Shi Xingchuan, 130 , 132 , 155 , 241 , 251 ;

as leader of independent army, 260 -62, 278 , 287 , 288 , 289 , 290 , 303 , 381 nn

Sichuan, 166 , 205 , 230 , 253 , 254 , 259 , 282 , 291 , 306 , 330 n59, 343 n11

Sino-Japanese War of 1894, 33 , 51 , 54 , 55 , 57

Song dynasty, 17

Song Jiaoren, 99 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 , 168 , 248

Students:

in anti-warlord movement, 297 -99;

in May Fourth Movement, 297 -98, 303 ;

in 1911 Revolution, 56 -59, 121 ;

in postrevolutionary provincial armies, 135

Sun Chenjia, 303 -4

Sun Chuanfang, 278 , 279 , 378 n32

Sun Wu, 104 , 105 -6, 107 , 108 , 114 , 132 , 133 , 140

Sun Yat-sen:

and Constitutional Protection Movement, 254 , 259 , 288 , 289 , 291 , 294 -95, 309 ;

and crisis of political authority, 310 ;

and exile in Japan, 56 , 57 , 214 ;

as leader of Guomindang, 312 ;

as leader of Revolutionary Party, 214 , 238 ;

as leader of Tongmenghui, 57 , 63 , 74 , 96 , 100 , 105 , 108 ;

and North-South War, 259 , 262 ;

opposition government formed by, 254 ;

and struggle against Lu Rongting, 293 , 295 , 309 ;

Yuan Shikai's removal sought by, 166 , 214 , 215 , 216

Sutton, Donald, 6 -7, 10 , 37 , 81 , 117 , 120 , 214 , 343 n2

T

Taiping Rebellion, 21 -22, 27 , 50

Tan Haoming, 257 , 259 , 262 , 293

Tan Yankai:

and anti-warlord movement, 298 -300;

as civil

administrative head, 74 , 76 , 89 ;

consensus-building skills of, 96 -100;

and constitutionalist movement, 73 , 94 , 97 , 98 , 175 ;

family background of, 94 ;

and Huang Xing, 96 -97, 99 , 145 -46, 151 , 346 n55, 370 n70;

and Jiao Dafeng's assassination, 90 , 95 -96, 97 , 128 , 140 , 371 n93;

Li Yuanhong's defense of, 169 -70, 174 , 176 ;

as military governor (first term), 77 , 86 , 93 -100, 117 , 140 , 141 , 146 , 159 , 175 ;

as military governor (second term), 207 , 227 , 229 , 230 -37, 254 -56;

as military governor (third term), 295 -96, 300 -302;

and military organizational management, 124 , 128 -29, 132 , 133 , 144 -51, 159 -60, 180 , 181 , 228 , 231 -37, 255 -56;

as Nationalist Party leader, 99 , 169 ;

and negotiations with Tang Xiangming, 221 , 224 , 235 ;

and North-South War, 246 ;

as provincial assembly leader, 73 , 74 , 75 , 77 , 91 ;

and relations with revolutionary activists, 73 , 74 , 75 -76, 96 -100, 128 , 163 ;

and Second Revolution, 167 , 169 -71, 172 , 221

Tan Zhen, 221 , 368 n42

Tang Caichang, 57 , 64

Tang Hualong, 70 -72, 88 , 89 , 91 , 103 , 175 , 192 , 221

Tang Jiyao, 254 , 288 , 291 , 294 , 309 , 310

Tang Keming, 130 , 132 , 154 -55, 289 , 291 , 381 n62

Tang Xiangming, 175 , 178 , 180

Tang Xiangming, as Hunan military governor, 183 , 184 , 185 -90, 191 -92;

and Anti-Monarchical War, 207 , 220 -23, 243 ;

appointment of, 175 ;

and civil administration, 189 -90, 191 , 193 , 225 ;

and negotiations with Tan Yankai, 221 , 224 , 235 ;

and relations with central government, 186 -87;

and reorganization of provincial military, 180 , 183 , 184 , 185 -86, 188 , 216 ;

and suppression of political dissent, 195 -96, 198 , 217

Tang Xizhi, 131 -32, 289 , 381 n62

Tao Zhongxun, 134 , 150 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 185 , 219 , 232 , 233 , 368 n37

Taxation, 82 , 92 , 140 , 165 ;

in Hubei, 126 -27, 128 , 192 , 193 , 273 -74, 377 n22;

in Hunan, 127 , 193 , 273 -74, 285 ;

imposed by central government, 193 , 198 , 273 , 363 n114;

in warlord period, 267 , 272 -74, 275 , 285 -87, 290 , 294 ;

yongying supported by, 23 , 27

Tian Yingzhao, 181 , 183 , 185 , 219 -20, 223 , 235 , 280 , 293 , 294 , 361 n64, 369 n56

Tilly, Charles, 165

Tong Meicen, 145

Tongmenghui:

and Chinese students in Japan, 57 , 58 , 66 , 145 ;

Huang Xing's leadership in, 96 , 99 , 101 -2, 103 , 105 , 107 ;

and Nanjing provisional government, 102 , 104 ;

and provincial politics, 62 , 65 , 74 , 89 , 98 , 99 , 101 , 103 , 104 -5, 107 -8, 111 -12, 113 , 140 ;

reorganized as Nationalist Party, 92 , 99 , 100 , 173 ;

Sun Yat-sen's leadership in, 57 , 63 , 74 , 96 , 100 , 105 , 108

Training, military:

Japanese system of, 35 , 37 , 52 ;

recruitment of educated elite for, 48 -55, 56 ;

and support for 1911 Revolution, 46 , 56 -59;

and traditional examination system, 32 , 48 , 50 , 52 -54;

Western system of, 18 , 19 , 31 -35, 37 , 40 , 48

W

Wages, soldiers':

in central government forces, 179 ;

in Hubei army, 156 , 305 , 380 n51;

in Hunan army, 124 , 140 , 147 , 188 , 257 ;

in Qing armies, 21 , 31 , 34 , 124

Waldron, Arthur, 312

Wang Anlan, 131 -32, 154 -55, 289 , 381 n62

Wang Ermin, 26 , 27 -28

Wang Hu, 188 , 189 , 190

Wang Jinjing, 177 , 240 , 278 , 279 , 372 n108, 378 n30

Wang Longzhong, 134 , 138

Wang Maoshang, 240 , 278 , 279 , 372 n108

Wang Ruxian, 257 , 258 , 263 , 279 , 282 , 309

Wang Yunting, 181 , 184 , 185 , 222 , 233 , 235 , 255 -56

Wang Zhanyuan, as Beiyang Army commander, 177 , 187 , 208 -11, 372 n108

Wang Zhanyuan, as Hubei governor:

and Anti-Monarchical War, 209 , 216 , 218 , 238 -39, 271 , 278 ;

anti-warlord movement against, 269 , 270 , 302 -7, 308 ;

appointment of, 208 , 211 ;

and civil administration, 241 -42, 271 -76;

civil governors named by, 303 -4;

consolidation of power by, 237 -44, 271 ;

and Duan Qirui, 249 , 250 -52;

and Feng Guozhang, 211 -13, 251 , 258 ;

and Li Yuanhong, 238 , 239 , 250 , 303 -4;

and military organizational management, 239 -41, 260 , 278 , 281 -82, 305 ;

monarchist movement questioned by, 211 -13;

and North-South War, 260 -61, 278 ;

popular support for, 238 -39, 302 -3;

warlord characteristics of, 207 , 244 , 250 ;

and Yuan Shikai, 207 , 208 -13

Wang Zhengya, 124 , 150 , 181 , 183 , 184 , 233 , 235 , 281 , 283 , 352 n22

Wang Zhixiang, 146 , 148

Warlordism, emergence of:

and Anti-Monarchical War, 207 , 244 , 271 ;

and civil administration, 268 -69, 271 -76;

and civilian provincialism, 269 -71, 302 , 307 , 308 ;

and elite interests, 276 -77;

and factionalism, 247 , 250 , 288 , 291 , 292 , 295 ;

and financial support of military, 267 , 268 , 272 -77, 285 -87, 290 , 292 ;

and "fragmented militarism," 4 , 7 ;

and garrison commander system, 182 ;

and geographical factors, 9 , 12 -14, 18 ;

and independent provincial armies, 260 -62, 282 , 287 -96;

and Luo-Michael thesis, 6 , 10 , 24 -30, 35 -37;

Mao Zedong's theory of, 7 -9;

and 1911 Revolution, 10 , 48 , 78 -79, 80 -81, 141 ;

and North-

South War, 247 , 261 , 264 , 271 ;

and political autonomy of military, 247 , 261 , 264 -66, 267 -68, 271 , 277 -78, 284 -87, 292 , 308 , 309 , 310 -11;

and "political vacuum" thesis, 9 -10, 80 -81, 83 ;

and praetorianism, 3 , 4 , 5 , 77 ;

and Qing military organization, 17 -19, 24 -30, 35 -38, 44 -45;

scholarly neglect of, 2 ;

scholarly research on, 3 -10;

uneven development of, 11 -12;

and Yuan Shikai's centralization of power, 162 , 182 , 203 . See also Anti-warlord movements

Western military systems, adoption of:

in Japan, 33 ;

in Qing dynasty, 18 , 19 , 31 -35, 37 , 40 , 48

Western political systems, adoption of, 139 , 142

White Wolf, 178

Workers:

in May Fourth Movement, 298 ;

in 1911 Revolution, 56 ;

in postrevolutionary provincial armies, 135

World War I, 260 , 297

Wou, Odoric, 8 , 329 n44, 377 n14

Wu Guangxin, 230 , 253 , 259 , 262 , 282 , 306 , 371 n78

Wu Jianxue, 233 , 235

Wu Luzhen, 57 -58

Wu Peifu, 8 , 262 -64, 280 , 284 , 285 , 286 , 287 , 297 , 299 -300, 310

Wu Xiangzhen, 177 -78, 181 , 182 , 183 , 185

Wu Zhaolin, 69 , 131

Wuchang uprising, 48 , 66 -72, 73 , 78 , 85 , 100 , 103 , 121 , 215

X

Xia Shoukang, 114 -16, 304

Xianfeng emperor, 25

Xiang (Hunan) Army, 22 , 27 , 35

Xiao Yaonan, 280 , 307

Xingzhonghui party, 57 , 63

Xiong Xiling, 189 , 370 n70

Xu Shuzheng, 260

Y

Yang Wenkai, 211 -12, 366 n11

Yongying , in Qing dynasty:

absorbed by New Armies, 40 , 41 , 42 ;

compared with New Armies, 35 -37;

compared with Qing traditional military, 22 , 30 -32, 41 ;

compared with reorganized Hunan army, 237 ;

and emergence of warlordism, 24 -30, 35 -37;

financial support of, 23 , 27 -28;

organizational structure of, 22 -37;

and provincial governors, 24 -29;

and response to Taiping Rebellion, 22 , 50 ;

size of, 331 n64

Young, Ernest, 82 , 162 , 198 , 199 , 363 n112

Yu Chengge, 72 -73

Yu Hongqi, 131 , 155

Yu Qinyi, 134 , 342 n127

Yuan Shikai:

Beiyang Army created by, 34 , 35 -36, 37 , 329 n44;

nationalism espoused by, 36 ;

Western military system advocated by, 33 , 35

Yuan Shikai, as president of Republic of China, 35 , 81 , 108 , 143 ;

centralization of power by, 161 -66, 172 -78, 186 -95, 203 ;

civil governors appointed by, 188 -90, 203 ;

and civil-military relations,

111 , 182 , 187 , 188 -91, 203 ;

and command of Beiyang Army, 166 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 207 -8, 211 -13, 221 , 240 ;

and control of military governors, 166 , 167 , 175 , 176 , 186 -91, 194 , 203 , 208 -11;

death of, 205 , 220 , 223 , 227 , 245 , 343 n5;

and dependence on military force, 162 , 163 , 166 -72, 177 -86, 205 -6, 211 ;

foreign loans sought by, 165 -66, 167 ;

and Li Yuanhong, 108 , 111 , 157 , 158 , 167 -68, 169 , 175 -76;

monarchic status assumed by, 199 -204, 205 , 206 , 275 ;

monarchic status renounced by, 205 ;

National Assembly's dissolution by, 173 ;

National Assembly's opposition to, 164 -66, 167 , 173 ;

National Assembly's reelection of, 172 -73;

Nationalist Party as adversary of, 151 , 164 -65, 169 , 173 ;

Nationalist Party banned by, 173 , 176 ;

political dissent suppressed by, 173 , 176 , 195 -98;

provincial autonomy challenged by, 162 , 166 , 172 -77, 186 -94, 203 , 253 ;

and Second Revolution, 157 , 162 , 166 -72;

and Song Jiaoren's assassination, 165 , 166 ;

Tang Xiangming's betrayal of, 220 , 223 ;

and Wang Zhanyuan, 207 , 208 -13

Yunnan:

Anti-Monarchical War in, 205 , 210 , 214 , 219 ;

and Cai E's military governorship, 167 , 229 ;

civil-military relations in, 118 , 120 ;

fragmented militarism in, 7 ;

National Protection Movement in, 205 , 214 , 229 ;

New Army in, 37 , 120 , 330 n59, 335 n39;

and North-South War, 259 ;

and Tang Jiyao's military governorship, 254 , 291 , 294 , 309 , 310 ;

in warlord period, 291

Z

Zeng Guofan, 22 -27 passim , 31

Zeng Jiwu, 134 , 138 , 224 , 227 , 228 , 231 , 235 , 236 , 256

Zhang Biao, 67 , 71

Zhang Guoquan, 123 , 129 , 154

Zhang Huaizhi, 263 , 280 , 283

Zhang Jingshun, 280 , 379 n42

Zhang Jingtang, 280 , 283 , 379 n42

Zhang Jingyao, as Hunan military governor, 263 , 267 , 310 ;

anti-warlord movement against, 269 , 270 , 296 -302, 308 ;

and civil administration, 271 -76;

and military organizational management, 282 -85

Zhang Liansheng, 261 , 279 , 282 , 375 n47, 379 n37

Zhang Qihuang, 124 , 146 -47, 150

Zhang Tingfu, 130 , 132 , 133

Zhang Xiluan, 210

Zhang Xueji, 293 , 294 , 382 n81

Zhang Xun, 252 , 253 , 254 , 275 , 374 n16

Zhang Zhenwu, 104 , 105 , 108 , 142 , 143 , 349 nn

Zhang Zhidong:

Hubei New Army developed by, 40 -41, 43 , 57 , 79 ;

military academy founded by, 32 , 33 , 35 , 49 -50, 51 , 54 ;

and Self-Strengthening Army, 33 , 40

Zhao Chunting, 133 -34, 150 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 184 -85, 281 , 283 , 285

Zhao Hengti, 144 , 154 , 224 , 231 , 232 , 233 -34, 236 , 237 , 255 , 292 , 296 , 333 n26;

and Hunan army disbandment plan, 145 , 146 , 148 , 149 ;

as Hunan military governor, 301 -2, 306 ;

and North-South War, 257 ;

and Second Revolution, 170 , 180 , 181

Zhao Ronghua, 279 , 379 n37

Zhejiang, 270

Zhili, 28 , 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 263

Zhili faction:

in Beiyang Army, 250 , 251 , 252 , 284 , 299 , 300 , 306 , 307

Zhou Shumo, 114

Zhou Wei, 233 , 235 , 294

Zhou Zefan, 219 , 232 , 233 , 235 , 293 , 294 -95, 368 n37, 369 n56

Zhou Zhenlin, 96 -97, 98 , 140

Zhu Zehuang, 232 -34, 236 , 255 , 257 , 259 , 281 , 283