Gender and Salvation "d0e11389"

Index of Names

A

Abhayadeva, xxv , 4 , 48 , 50

Adinatha, 188

Adisankaracarya, xiv

Agra, 150 , 159

Ahamindra, 89 , 187

Ajita, 168 , 188

Ajivika, viii , xxi , 24

Akalanka, 28 , 109

Amoghavarsa, 47

Amrtacandra, 139

Anahillapura, 29

Ananda, xv , 23 , 28 , 188

Andhrapradesh, 31

Anuyoga, 32

Aparajita, 46 , 47 , 100 , 103 , 104 , 180

Ardhaphalaka, 43 , 44

Asadhara, 99

Asvaghosa, xxii

Avarakamka, 27

B

Balarama, 69 , 105

Banabhatta, 28

Banarasidas, 159 , 189

Belgaum, 42

Bhadrabahu, 1 , 31 , 32 , 43 , 94

Bhadrabahu-kathanaka , 44

Bharata, 69 , 98 , 122 , 136

Bharata-ksetra, 98

Bhartrhari, xix , xxiii , 166

Bhavanavasi, 131

Bhavaprabhrta , 97

Bhavasena, xxvi , 4

Bhutavada , 188

Bihar, 105

Brahmadatta, 158

Brahman, 70 , 94 , 158

Brahmanical, viii , x , xi , xxii , 18 , 22 , 28 , 36 , 105 , 148 , 157 , 158

Brahmanism, xxi

Brahmi, 73 , 105

Brhaspati, 53 , 123

British, viii , ix

Buddha (Gautama), xiv , xv , xxii , 21 -24, 29 , 96 , 104 , 187

Buddhism, viii , xi , xii , xiv , xxii , 92 , 187

Buddhist, xiii , xv , xvi , xxiii , xxiv , 18 , 21 , 23 , 25 , 28 , 35 , 36 , 38 , 48 , 92 , 104 , 135 , 148 , 187 , 188 , 190

Burma, 25

C

Cakresvari, 18 , 28

Camara, 27

Campa, 105

Candana, 27 , 33 , 106

Candragupta, 1

― 226 ―

Chedasutra (Digambara), 99

Christianity, xxiv

D

Dasaratha, xxii

Dasasilamattava, 26 , 29

Delhi, 150

Devarddhi Ksamasramana, 31

Devasena, 4 , 42

Dhana, 173 , 189

Dharasena, 32

Dharmakirti, 21 , 22 , 48

Dharmasastra, 22 , 28

Dharmottara, 28

Dharwar, 42

Digambara, xiii , xv -xx, xxiv , xxv , 1 -22, 24 , 26 , 27 , 29 -34, 36 -48, 65 , 92 -98, 100 -115, 117 -20, 122 , 124 -27, 130 , 133 -39, 144 -56, 158 -63, 165 -67, 170 -93

Draupadi, xxiv , 145 , 167 , 187

Dravidasangha, 150

Drdhapraharin, 156 , 158

Drstivada , 168 , 181 , 188

E

Ekayana, 24

Europe, viii , ix

G

Gandhi, M. K., xxii

Ganges, 78

Gargi Vacaknavi, 18

Gautami Mahaprajapati, 23 , 187

Girnanar, 105

Gopucchika, 150

Gopya, 43 , 44 , 149

Gopyasangha, 149

Gotami, xiv

Govindaraja, xxiv

Guha (Nisada), xxii

Gujarat, xxii , 25 , 29 , 31 , 48 , 105

Gulburga, 42

Gunaratna, xxv -xxvii, 4 , 42 , 43 , 148 -50, 157 , 158 , 159 -62, 191

H

Hari, 106

Haribhadra, xxv , 4 , 45 , 46 , 48 , 111 , 148

Harisena, 43 , 97

Harivamsa, 27

Hemacandra, xxv , 4 , 48 , 103 , 105 , 150 , 158 , 180 , 190

Hinayana, 24

Hindu, ix -xiv, xvi , xviii , xxi -xxiv, 105

Hinduism, xiii -xiv

I

India, vii -xii, xvi , xviii -xix, xxiii , 25 , 34 , 104

Indra, 21 , 53 , 54 , 123 , 187

Indrabhuti Gautama, 32 , 98 , 168

Islamic, ix , x , xxiii

J

Jaiminiya, 148

Jaina, viii , xii -xvi, xviii -xxiv, xxvi , xxviii , 11 , 13 -15, 18 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 25 , 26 -29, 32 -39, 41 -44, 47 , 48 , 67 , 75 , 80 , 92 -98, 102 , 104 -8, 121 , 135 -37, 141 , 146 -50, 152 , 157 , 158 , 160 -61, 167 -68, 180 , 183 , 187 -88, 190 -91

Jainabhasa, xx , 43 , 150

Jainamata, 149

Jainism, xi , xii , xv -xvii, xxi , xxii , 26

Jambu/Jambu, 54 , 96 , 98 , 102 , 134

Jambudvipa, 10

Jambuvijaya, Muni, xxv , 48 , 92 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 105 , 107

Japaniya, 42

Jarasandha, 105

Javaligeya, 42

Javiliya, 42

Jayasena, xvii , xxvii , 4 , 94 , 139 -41, 146 , 160 , 187 , 192

Jinabhadra, 41 , 98

Jinadharmabhupa, 185

Jinaprabhasuri, 105

Jinavijaya, Muni, 48 , 100

Judaism, xxiv

Jyotiska, 132

K

Kaikeyi, xxii

Kailasa (Mount), 105

Kakandipura, 97

Kalhana, xxii

Kalidasa, 187

Kanha, 27

― 227 ―

Kapila, 21 , 28

Karmapriya, 97

Karnataka, 29 , 42 , 47 , 101

Kashmir, xxii

Kastha, 150

Kasthasangha, 149 -50

Kathiavad, 25

Krsna, xxii , xxiv , 69 , 73 , 105 -6, 158

Krttika, 10 , 121

Ksatriya, x , xxii , 70

Kubera, 173 , 189

Kumudacandra, 29

Kundakunda, xix , xxiv , xxvii , 3 , 4 , 13 , 31 -34, 36 , 37 , 39 -41, 45 , 94 , 97 , 99 , 100 , 102 , 104 , 109 , 110 , 112 , 138 -40, 146 , 147 , 150 , 158 -62, 166

Kunti, 145 , 187

Kusana, 44

Kutch, 29

L

Laghiyastraya-Vivrti , 109

Laksmana, 105

Laos, 25

Lokayatika, 71

Lucknow (museum), 191

M

Madhava, 148

Magadha, 105 , 182

Mahabala, 14 -15, 28

Mahadeviyakka, 191

Mahamatsya, 97

Mahapadma, 26

Mahapajapati, xiv

Maharashtra, 101

Mahatamahprabha, 7

Mahavira, 1 , 2 , 14 , 21 , 23 , 25 , 29 , 31 -33, 35 -38, 40 , 45 , 92 -94, 97 , 98 , 101 , 102 , 104 -6, 137 , 188 , 191

Mahayana, xv , 24

Maitreya, 26 , 30

Malayagiri, xxv , 4 , 48 , 150

Malli, 14 , 15 , 27 , 28 , 40 , 106 , 137 , 141 , 145 , 147 , 162 , 172 , 187 , 191

Mallinatha, 15

Mandapadurga, 101

Manusottara, 54

Marudevi, 167 , 182 , 187

Marwad, 25 , 26

Masatusa, 158 , 181 , 182 , 192

Mathura, 44 , 137 , 150 , 191

Mathurasanga, 137 , 149

Mauryan, 1 , 3

Mayanalladevi, 29

Meghavijaya, xviii , xxiii , xxiv , xxvi , xxvii , 4 , 13 , 113 , 140 , 141 , 147 , 159 -62, 186 , 187 , 189 , 190 , 192 -93

Merutunga, 29

Mimamsaka, 71

Mleccha, 101

Mrgadhvaja, 63 , 103

Mulasangha, 149 , 150

Municandra, 45 , 48

Muslims, 101

Myanma (Union of), 25 , 187

N

Naiyayika, 121 , 135 -36, 148

Narada, 156 , 158

Narayana, 73

Nayapravesa , 109

Nemi, 29 , 105 , 106

Nemicandra, 4 , 147 , 160

Nemicaritra , 180

Neo-Digambara, xxvii , 172 , 183 , 189

Nigantha Nataputta, 38

Nirgrantha, 31

Nispiccha, 150

O

Oswal, 25 , 26

P

Padmanandi, 31

Pandava, 187

Panini, 41 , 180

Pankaprabha, 70

Parasnath Hills, 105

Parsva, 29 , 168

Parsvanatha, 36

Partha, 28 , 182

Patna, 105

Pava, 105

Prabhacandra, xvii -xxvii, 4 , 9 , 10 , 48 , 107 , 109 , 111 -13, 134 -39, 150 , 157 , 160 , 161 , 173 , 185 -87, 189 , 192 -93, 195

― 228 ―

Prabhasa, 104

Prabhendu, 160

Pramanapravesa , 109

Pravacanapravesa , 109

Prthivicandracaritra , 181

Punnata Jinasena, 158

Punyavijaya, Muni, 48

Purva , 32 , 50 , 54 , 94 , 95 , 104 , 158 , 168 , 169 , 181 , 188 , 192

Puspadanta, 32

R

Raivata, 182

Rajagrha, 71 , 105

Rajasthan, xxii , xxiv , 25 , 101

Rajimati, 73 , 105 , 106

Rajimati, 182 , 187

Rama, xxii , xxiv , 105 , 106

Ramaka(u?)lya, 71 , 105

Ramakunda, 105

Rastrakuta, 47

Ratnaprabha, xxv , 4 , 48 , 150 , 160

Ratnaprabha, 70

Ravana, 105

Rohini, 10 , 121

Rsabha, 21 , 22 , 28 , 45 , 105 , 136 , 145 , 187

Rukmini, 106 , 145

S

Sabari, xxiii

Sagara-Nagaraja-duhita, 24 , 29

Sahasrara, 53 , 97 , 116 , 117 , 155

Saivite, 97 , 191

Sakata, 121

Sakatayana, xvii , xxv , xxvi , xxvii , 12 , 41 , 44 -47, 92 , 94 , 100 , 102 , 107 , 111 -13, 138 , 140 , 150 , 157 , 160 -62, 186 , 187 , 191

Sakra, 21

Salisiktha, 97

Salisikthakathanaka , 97

Sambuka, xxii

Samkhya, 21 , 48

Samkicca, 104 , 148

Sammeta (Mount), 71 , 105

Sangraha-arya , 99 , 135

Sankha, 180

Santinatha, 48

Santisuri, xxv , 4 , 48 , 150

Sarvarthasiddhi, 7 , 8 , 123 , 170 , 181 , 188

Satrunjaya 182 , 192

Satyabhama, 73 , 106

Saurasena, 97

Savitri, xxii

Sayanacarya, xxiii

Siddharaja, 29

Siddhiviniscaya , 58

Sita, xxii , 73 , 106 , 131 , 145

Sitakunda, 105

Sitambara, 112 , 121 , 134 , 135

Siva, 75

Sivabhuti, 158 , 192

Sivakoti, 99 , 100

Sivarya, 46

Sivasvamin, 46 , 47 , 58 , 99

Sramana, ix , 24 , 47

Sri Lanka, 25 , 187

Srimali, 25

Srivijaya, 46

Srutakevalidesiyacarya, 47

Srutasagara, 34 , 39 , 97 , 101 , 102 , 150 , 158

Sthanakavasi, xv , 25 , 26

Sthulabhadra, 31 , 32

Subhacandra, 43 , 44 , 187

Subhadra, 145 , 187

Subhauma, 158

Sudharman, 98

Sudra, xxii , 22 , 28 , 192

Sundari, 75 , 105

Svati, 71

Svayambhuramana, 97

Svayamprabha, xxiii

Svetambara, xiii -xviii, xx , xxiv -xxvii, 1 -23, 25 -27, 29 -37, 39 -48, 92 -94, 98 , 100 -106, 111 , 112 , 121 , 122 , 132 , 135 -40, 144 , 145 , 147 -57, 159 -62, 165 , 167 -69, 172 -85, 187 -93

Svetavasa, 150

T

Tantra, 45

Tantric, 19

Tapagaccha, 159

― 229 ―

Tara, 18 , 28

Tattvadipika , 139

Terapanthi, 25

Thailand, 25 , 187

Theravada, xiv , xxi , xxiii , 25 , 29 , 35 , 94 , 187

Tulsi Das, xvi

U

Ujjain, 43

Ujjayanta, 71 , 105

Umasvati, 10 , 11

Upanishads, 18

V

Vada, 71

Vaddhamana, 45

Vadideva, 4 , 29

Vadivetala-Santisuri, xxv , 48

Vahika, 78 , 79

Vaisesika, 148

Vaisya, 22 , 28 , 70 , 192

Valabhi, 31

Valmiki, xxii , 106

Vardhamana (Mahavira), 2

Vasaha, 45

Vasantakirti, 101 , 106

Vasupujya, 105

Vatagrama, 182

Vatsyayana, xxiv , 190 , 191

Vattakera, 46

Veda, viii , x , xiv , xxi , 71

Vedic, x , xvi , 22

Videha-ksetra, 98

Vijayacandracaritra , 181

Vira, 32

Virasaiva, 191

Virasena, 4 , 98 , 99 , 110 , 111 , 113

Visakha, 32

Visnukumara, 136

Vyantara, 132

Y

Yaksa, 187

Yapana-sangha, 44

Yapaniya, xiii , xx , xxv -xxvii, 4 , 12 , 15 , 27 , 41 -49, 51 , 55 -69, 71 , 72 , 74 , 76 , 77 , 79 , 81 , 83 -86, 88 , 89 , 91 , 92 , 94 , 96 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 106 , 107 , 111 -14, 117 -20, 123 -27, 129 , 130 , 132 , 134 -38, 140 , 149 -50, 157 , 160 , 162 , 186 -89, 191

Yapaniyaka, 150

Yapaniya-tantra , 11 , 45 , 46 , 110 -14

Yapuliya, 42

Yasodhara, 191

Yasomati, 180

Yasovijaya, xxv , 4 , 160

Yoga (darsana), 38 , 220

― 231 ―

Compositor: Thomson Press (India) Limited, New Delhi
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1. For concise introductions to the three heterodoxies in ancient India see, for Jainism, Jaini (1979); for Buddhism no adequate single volume exists, but an excellent understanding of the legends, doctrines, and monastic rules of early Indian Theravada Buddhism can be gotten from Warren (1896, pp. 60-61); for Ajivikism see Basham (1951). In the areas with which they were chiefly concerned—metaphysics, the existence, nature, and destiny of the human soul, the usefulness of bhakti , the efficacy of Vedic ritual, and the authority of the Vedas themselves—these schools were well positioned to make a powerful critique of Brahmanism and Hinduism. For, as Ranajit Guha puts it (1989, p. 215), "no criticism can be fully activated unless its object is distanced from its agency." Nonetheless, as will be shown below, this distance in the case of the heterodox systems was only partial. In critical areas, such as the understanding of gender and the role of women both in temporal society and in the religious communities whose very raison d'être is the renunciation of temporal society, these schools shared and even bolstered the ideological presuppositions of Brahmanism.

2. Thus, for example, it has often been argued that Gandhi derived his concerns with vegetarianism and especially the technique of nonviolence as a political instrument from his formative years in Gujarat, an area whose culture is thought to have been heavily influenced by the Jainas, who have been concentrated there in the modern period. See, for example, Erikson (1969, pp. 162-163).

3. Guha, for example, applies his analysis of historiographical materials to premodern Indian texts. Thus he turns his attention to the Rajatarangini ;, a well-known history of Kashmir by the twelfth-century poet-historian Kalhana. The problem here, however, is that texts even as "historical" as Kalhana's are a great rarity in premodern India and Guha's analysis even of this text, although provocative, is filled with anachronisms. See Guha (1989, pp. 217-219).

4. Typical figures of this type would be Sita and Savitri, examples of perfectly devoted wives in the epic and popular literatures, and Guha (the Nisada chief, not the historian), who, although of low, even despised, class, ennobles himself through service and devotion to the Ksatriya god-man, Rama.

5. Examples of this type would be Kaikeyi, the insufficiently subordinated queen of King Dasaratha, whose name is still used in India as a pejorative term for a shrewish wife or one who puts her own interests before those of her husband, or Sambuka, the lowly sudra ;, or peasant, who dares to appropriate a function of the upper classes, religious penance, and is summarily executed for this offense by the king in the last book of the Ramayana ;. See Valmiki Ramayana , VII, 65-67.

6. A degree of egalitarianism, which includes women only insofar as it extends to them the possibility of spiritual liberation, becomes characteristic not only of the heterodox groups but of the various traditions of devotional Hinduism that, collectively, become the dominant religious tradition in South Asia with the waning of Buddhism and Jainism. Even as early as the Bhagavad-Gita ; (ix, 32), the authors find it prudent, in making the case for bhakti, to have Krsna observe that women, along with members of the lower social orders, may through this method attain salvation. For a detailed discussion of the Brahmanical position on liberation for women and the significance of the Gita ; passage, which is even cited by one Jaina author, see the Introduction (#40) and Chapter VI (#82 and n. 43).

7. The Hindu literature, rooted as it is mainly in the social life of the community and containing a considerable body of texts on erotics, both poetic and technical, is thus only partially concerned with overt attacks on women as a class. As for Buddhism, it should be remembered that although it is his encounter with the four visions that arouses in the Bodhisattva his desire to leave the world, it is the sight of the partially clothed bodies of the beautiful dancing girls sent to divert him that provides the immediate impetus for him to leave his family and become a mendicant. See Warren (1896, pp. 56-61). Compare the elaborate treatment of this episode in Asvaghosa's poetic rendering of the Buddha's career, the Buddhacarita (v, 47-65), in Johnston (1936). The Jaina attitude toward women and the female body is discussed at length below.

8. For examples of this approach see Masson (1974, 1975), Ramanujan (1972), Goldman (1978, 1985), and Sutherland (1989, Forthcoming). Aside from these and a few other studies, mostly by the same authors, most scholarship on the role of women in ancient Indian literature and society has consisted of catalogs of references in specific texts or the literature as a whole (e.g., Meyer, 1930),

traditionalist apologia attempting to demonstrate that negative attitudes toward women in contemporary India are the result of a post-Islamic degeneration of a very different situation in ancient times, or religious-historical studies of "the Goddess" (e.g., Kinsley, 1986). This last type is of little use in reconstructing the sociology of gender in premodern India.

9. For Theravada Buddhism the most useful work is Horner (1930). For the Mahayana schools see Paul (1979). For a study of the treatment of homosexuality in Buddhism, see Zwilling (1989).

10. Goldman (1984, p. 55, n. 107).

11. Brhadaranyaka-upanisad ;, Ill, 8, 1-12; IV, 5, 1-15. Passages such as these have, however, been frequently used as the basis for claiming that there was complete social equality for women in vedic India. This is highly unlikely.

12. See, for example, the stories of Sabari at Ramayana ;, iii, 70, and of Svayamprabha (iv, 49-51).

13. This famous passage is discussed in the Introduction (#41). A lengthy treatment is given in Horner (1930, pp. 95-117).

14. See Horner (1930, pp. 103-104).

15. See Horner (1930, pp. 110-112).

16. Paul (1979, p. 169).

17. For a discussion of the tradition concerning these numbers in ancient times see Jaini (1979, p. 37) and Horner (1930, pp. 101-102). For an indication of the relative numbers of monks and nuns in modern times see Jaini (1979, p. 246, n. 8).

18. According to the Jainas a layman, however pious, cannot, since he or she does not practice the necessary vows of the monastic orders in their most rigorous form, attain nirvana ;. See Jaini (1979, p. 160). Of course it should be noted that so restricted is the Jaina view in the matter of the attainment of true spiritual release that it is held that in the current degenerate period of the Jaina cycle of time, no one, not even the most pious monk, can attain nirvana ;. See the Introduction (#44).

19. At Rgveda ;, X, 95, 15, for example, it is stated that there can be no friendship with women as they have the hearts of wolves or jackals ("na vai strainani sakhyani santi salavrkanam hrdayany eta"). The great commentator Sayanacarya explains that such friendships are like those fatal ones formed by trusting creatures such as calves.

20. Mahabharata ;, XIII, 12, 11-15.

21. Manusmrti , v, 148.

22. Ramcaritmanas ;, V, 58, 6 (p. 736).

23. As mentioned above, Buddhist texts often refer unpleasantly to the female genitalia as a way of cultivating aversion to the life of the senses. Although this attitude runs counter to the fetishistic focus on the female anatomy and its constituent parts in the courtly erotic and romantic literature as well as the textbooks on erotics, some of the Hindu literature shares this phobic attitude toward the female body. One well-known verse from the collection attributed to the courtier-turned-ascetic Bhartrhari is quoted by Meghavijaya. See Chapter VI (#10 and n. 10).

24. See, for example, the extensive linguistic argumentation on this point in Chapter II (#95-141).

25. Compare, for example, the logical argumentation in Chapter III (#8-11).

26. See Chapters VI (#18) and II (#64-72).

27. Compare the sketchy and uncertain references to homosexuality in Meyer (1930). The phenomenon is all but ignored in the copious epic and dharmasastra ; literature, which otherwise tends to be filled with prescriptions and prohibitions on virtually every aspect of human behavior. Even the texts on sexual behavior, the kamasastra , which delight in detailed cataloging of the varieties of human sexual response, have little to say on this subject beyond some discussion of the sexual activities of "napumsakas " without making it quite clear whether these are true hermaphrodites, eunuchs, or biologically normal males whose sexual desires are aroused by other males. See, for example, Vatsyayana's Kamasutra ;. Other than this, homoeroticism is mentioned in Hindu texts mainly in the context of powerful devotion, as in passages where Krsna's lovers, in the grief and madness of separation from him, make love with one another. In one interesting passage, the Ramayana ; commentator Govindaraja, attempting to explain the sense in which Rama is said to be "pumsam drsticittapaharinam ," or "one who ravishes the sight and hearts of men," quotes a verse in which women, watching the princess Draupadi at her bath, "mentally become men," that is, conceive a (male) sexual passion for her. See Govindaraja on Ramayana ; 2.3.29 (Gujarati Printing Press edition, p. 429). In the rules of conduct for Buddhist monks the question of male homosexuality is discussed and the practice condemned, but so far as I can determine no theory is put forth to explain it. See Zwilling (1989).

28. Chapter VI (#10).

29. See, for example, Chapter VI (#11).

30. In response to the Svetambara objection that the male body too must support such life-forms, the Digambaras reply that it does but in such relatively small numbers as not to present an insuperable obstacle to the full adoption of the mendicant vows and practice. See, for example, Chapter IV (#7).

31. Interestingly, the intimate association the Jainas make between sexuality and violence is rendered still more explicit by their objection to sexual intercourse not merely in the usual terms of morality and control of the senses but in terms of their preoccupation with ahimsa. For if, as they argue, the vaginal canal is infested with vast swarms of minute beings, then it follows that the powerful friction of the sexual act must slaughter them in huge numbers. Indeed the Jaina authors frequently cite verses to the effect that with each "blow" hundreds of thousands perish. This, coupled with the loss of equally large numbers of beings in the discharge of semen, makes, in the Jaina view, each act of sexual intercourse a kind of massive holocaust of living beings. For an illustration of these views see Chapter VI (#69).

32. See, for example, Chapter III (#49-52).

33. See, for example, Chapter VI (#11).

34. There are a number of such studies now available. See, for example, Boucher (1988); for Christianity see Weber (1987). A study of the feminist challenge to patriarchal religious authority and the resistance that it meets is to be found in Weaver (1985). Similar works exist for Judaism and so on.

1. On the canonical literature of the two Jaina sects, see JPP , chap. 2.

2. The word used for the Jaina monks in ancient times is nirgrantha and not "Digambara" or "Svetambara"; see Chapter II (n. 12). For a discussion on the nature of the jinakalpa in the two traditions, see Chapter II (n. 35).

3. See Chapter I (#1-8) and a commentary on these verses in Chapter IV (#6-8).

4. For various traditions concerning the origin of the Yapaniyas, see Chapter II (#3).

5. Selections from the Sanskrit texts on strimoksa from some of these Svetambara works appear in the Strinirvana-Kevalibhuktiprakarane (app. II).

6. For this argument and its counterargument at #9, see Chapters III (#1) and V (#1 and n. 1).

7. For a longer list of arguments against strimoksa, Chapter VI (#25-41).

8. For a diagrammatic representation of the Jaina universe and a description of the abode of the liberated souls, see JPP , pp. 128 and 270.

9. On the sukladhyanas that are gained only toward the very end of the Jaina spiritual path, see JPP , pp. 257-270.

10. See Chapter III (#34).

11. See Chapter III (#36-45).

12. "The perfected souls can be differentiated with reference to the region, the time, the basis of birth, the gender, the mendicant conduct, and so forth" (ksetrakalagatilingatirthacaritrapratyekabuddhabodhitajnanavagahana'ntarasamkhya'lpabahutvena sadhyah; Tattvarthasutra , x, 7).

13. For details on these vedas or "libidos," see Chapter VI (#1-6).

14. See Chapter III (#84).

15. See Chapter V (#1 and n. 1).

16. See Chapter II (#89).

17. See Chapters II (n. 57) and IV (#13).

18. See Chapter VI (#89).

19. Birth of a female Tirthankara (itthitittham ) is listed among the ten extraordinary events that take place once in an "infinite" time cycle: uvasaggagabbhaharanam itthitittham abhaviya parisa, Kanhassa Avarakamka uttaranam camdasuriyanam. [1] Harivamsakuluppatti Camaruppao ya atthasayasiddha, asamjayesu pua dasavi anamtena kalena. [2] Sthananga-sutra , #1074 (Suttagame , p. 314).

20. For the Svetambara account of Malli, see Nayadhammakahao , chap. viii; Roth (1983); Trisastisalakapurusacaritra , vol. IV, chap. 6. For the Digambara version, see Uttarapurana , chap. 46.

21. The Svetambara account of Malli ends with an exhortation that cunning, even if employed in matters of piety, leads to the calamity of rebirth as a woman: uggatavasamjamavao pagitthaphalasahagassavi jiyassa, dhammavisaye vi suhuma

vi hoi maya anatthaya. [1] jaha Mallissa Mahabalabhavammi titthayaranamabamdhe 'vi, tavavisayathevamaya jaya juvaittahetutti. [2] Nayadhammakahao , I, viii, 85.

22. See Chapter III (#60).

23. See Chapter III (#57).

24. See Chapter III (#70).

25. For the story of the Jaina logician Akalanka being helped by the goddess Cakresvari against the Buddhists who were being helped by their goddess Tara in a debate, see Nyayakumudacandra , pt. 1, intro., p. 36.

26. See Chapter VI (#18).

27. See Chapter VI (#34).

28. sandigdhobhayavyatirekah, yatha—avitaragah Kapiladayah, parigrahagrahayogad iti. atra vaidharmyodaharanam . . . yo vitarago na tasya parigrahagrahah, yatha Rsabhader iti. Rsabhader avitaragatvaparigrahagrahayogayoh sadhyasadhanadharmayoh sandigdho vyatirekah. Nyayabindu-tika , #132.

29. Commenting on the above, Dharmottara says: yatha Rsabhader iti drstantah. etasmad Rsabhader drstantad avitaragasya parigrahagrahayogasya ca sadhanasya nivrttih sandigdha. Rsabhadinam hi parigrahagrahayogo 'pi sandigdho vitaragatvam ca. yadi nama tatsiddhante vitaragas ca pathante tathapi sandeha eva. Nyayabindu-tika , #132. "Now, it is doubtful whether really in the case of this Rsabha both the predicate and the reason, both the fact of being subject to passions and having the instinct of property are absent. Indeed, it is not certain whether Rsabha and consorts are really free from the instinct of propery and from passions. Although in their own school they are declared to be such, but this is nevertheless, very doubtful"; Stcherbatsky's translation of the Nyayabindu in Buddhist Logic , II, p. 246.

30. nasti strinam prthag yajño na vratam napy uposanam, patim susrusate yena tena svarge mahiyate; Manusmrti , v, 155. pita raksati kaumare bharta raksati yauvane, raksanti sthavire putra na stri svatantryam arhati; ibid., ix, 3. nasti strinam kriya mantrair iti dharmavyavasthitih, nirindriya hy amantras ca striyo 'nrtam iti sthitih; ibid., ix, 18. The theme of strimoksa is conspicuous by its absence in P. V. Kane's voluminous History of Dharmasastra with the exception of a single reference to the possibility of women securing knowledge of moksa (in the absence of their access to the Vedic scripture) on p. 921, n. 1468a (vol. V, p. II). Several ancient literary works (e.g., the Kadambari of Banabhatta, p. 80) refer to parivrajikas (female wandering religious mendicants of the Brahmanical tradition). These seem to be individuals who practiced asceticism without forming a community, unlike the Jaina or Buddhist nuns who invariably were members of a sangha (community of mendicant orders).

31. mam hi Partha vyapasritya ye 'pi syuh papayonayah, striyo vaisyas tatha sudras te 'pi yanti param gatim; Bhagavad-Gita , ix, 32. See Chapter VI (#82, n. 43).

32. alam Ananda, ma te rucci matugamassa tathagatappavedite dhammavinaye agarasma anagariyam pabbajja. . . . bhabbo, Ananda, matugamo arahattaphalam pi sacchikatum . . .; Vinaya Pitakam, Cullavagga , x, 1.

33. For these rules in the Pali Vinaya Pitakam and the Sanskrit Bhiksuni-vinaya , see Chapter VI (n. 17).

34. manussattam limgasampatti hetu sattharadassanam, pabbajja gunasampatti

adhikaro ca chandata; atthadhammasamodhana abhiniharo samijjhati. [1] manussattabhavasmim yeva hi thatva Buddhattam patthentassa patthana samijjhati, . . . manussattabhave pi purisalimge thitass' eva patthana samijjhati, itthiya va pandakanapumsaka-ubhato byanjanakanam va no samijjhati . . .; Jataka , I, p. 14.

35. For an apocryphal story (called the Padipadanajataka ) of Gautama's last female incarnation, see Jaini (1989).

36. pancasthanani stri adyapi na prapnoti. katamani pañca? prathamam brahmasthanam, dvitiyam sakrasthanam, trtiyam maharajasthanam, caturtham cakravartisthanam, pañcamam avaivartikabodhisattvasthanam. . . . atha tasyam velayam Sagara-Nagarajaduhita sarvalokapratyaksam . . . tat strindriyam antarhitam, purusendriyam ca pradurbhutam, bodhisattvabhutam catmanam samdarsayati; Saddharmapundarika-sutra , chap. xi.

Loss of a female rebirth is also considered to be one of the fruits of reading the Saddharmapundarika-sutra : sacet matrgrama imam dharmaparyayam srutva . . . dharayisyati, tasya sa eva pascimah stribhavo bhavisyati; ibid., chap. xxii.

35. For an apocryphal story (called the Padipadanajataka ) of Gautama's last female incarnation, see Jaini (1989).

37. Translated by Thurman, chap. 7. For a discussion on the significance of the sex change as described in the seventh chapter (The Goddess) of the Vimalakirti-sutra , see Paul (1979, chap. 6).

38. Saddharmapundarika-sutra , chap. v, verses 59-83.

39. For the number of monks and nuns in the mendicant community of Mahavira and that of the two earlier Jinas, namely Parsva and Nemi, see Kalpasutra (Jacobi's trans. 1884, pp. 267-285). For a detailed survey of the mendicants of the Svetambara sect, see John Cort's forthcoming article "The Svetambar Murtipujak Sadhu."

40. Of the thirty-four nuns interviewed in the area of Kutch, for example, fifteen (with ages varying from 16 to 45) were widows, three (ages 23, 32, and 36) were married but had been permitted by their husbands to become nuns, and the remaining sixteen (between the ages of 9 and 23) were unmarried at the time of their ordination (diksa ). For a brief account of the lives of a few leading Jaina nuns, see Shanta (1985, pp. 437-518).

41. sace, Ananda, nalabhissa matugamo . . . pabbajjam, ciratthitikam, Ananda, brahmacariyam abhavissa, vassasahassam saddhammo tittheyya, . . . . pañc'eva dani, Ananda, vassasatani saddhammo thassati; Vinaya Pitakam, Cullavagga , X, ii, 2.

42. On the state of nuns in the Theravada tradition, see Falk and Gross (1980). For a history of the Dasasilamattawas seeking the status of a nun, see Bloss (1987).

43. See Shanta (1985, pp. 358-361).

44. It may be useful in this connection to draw attention to the legend of a sectarian debate on strimoksa reported by the Svetambara author Merutunga in his Prabandhacintamani , pp. 66-69. According to this narrative, during the reign of Siddharaja (twelfth century) in Gujarat, a great Digambara mendicant named Kumudacandra from the Deccan arrived in his capital city Anahillapura and challenged the Svetambara monks to engage in a debate on this question. The Svetambara acarya Deva (later to be known as Vadideva) accepted his challenge and defeated him in a public debate held at the court of Siddharaja. The Digambara Kumudacandra died of humiliation and shock, and the Digambaras in the city were made to leave the country in disgrace. It is said that Siddharaja's chief queen

Mayanalladevi (probably because she also hailed from Karnataka) initially favored the Digambara monk and even openly urged him on to victory. When she was told that the Digambaras opposed liberation for women while the Svetambaras upheld it, however, she shifted her allegiance to the latter. This debate is not attested in the Digambara tradition, but it is not unlikely that it is based on historical fact. This is probably the only extant literary evidence that openly declares a prominent woman's conversion to the side which upheld the spiritual liberation of women in preference to the one which had denied this privilege to her. This supports my assumption that the great disparity in the number of nuns in the two sects is a reflection of women's response to the more supportive attitude taken by the Svetambara tradition toward them.

45. On Maitreya and the future Jina, see Jaini (1988).

1. Jinavarendra, literally the supreme Lord of the Jinas. The word "Jina" is derived from the root ji to conquer and means a spiritual victor. This is the designation of a monk who has attained omniscience (called kevalajnana , knowledge isolated from karmic bonds) but who is still alive and leads the normal life of a mendicant. In Jaina terminology such a person is also called a Kevalin (one who is endowed with kevalajnana) or an Arhat (one who is worthy of worship). Unlike the Theravada Buddhist Arhat, however, a Jaina Arhat must be an Omniscient Being. But not all Arhats engage in teaching; rather it is considered to be the prerogative of a few souls (comparable to the Bodhisattvas in Buddhism) like Mahavira who acquire, by practicing various perfections, those faculties that confer upon them the status of a Tirthankara (lit., one who builds a ford to cross the river of transmigration, samsara ). They are therefore called the Lords of the Arhats or Jinendra. In practice, however, the word "Jina" has been applied to the Tirthankaras as well, the followers of whom are called the Jainas. (For a discussion on the role of Tirthankaras, see JPP , pp. 29-35. For a comparison between a Bodhisattva and a Tirthankara, see Jaini, 1981.)

2. The word "moksa" is derived from the root muc , to release, and means emancipation of the soul from the state of embodiment. The initial stage of this state is reached when the soul becomes a Kevalin as described in note 1. The state of embodiment will, however, continue for the duration of the Kevalin's life. At his death the Kevalin's soul becomes totally free from all bonds of corporeality, and thus released it instantly rises like a flame to the summit of the universe (loka ) and abides

there forever endowed with perfect purity and omniscience. Henceforth this soul will be called a Siddha, the Perfected Being. This is the final goal of a Jaina and is called moksa.

3. Niscela , (lit., "without clothes"). The terms Digambara and Svetambara discussed in note 1 are conspicuously absent both in the extant Svetambara canon and in the most ancient Digambara texts including those by Kundakunda. The canonical word that comes closest in meaning to the term Digambara is acelaka , "without clothes." Both sects agree that Mahavira after renouncing his household had adopted total nudity, but they do not agree on whether this practice was required of all those who followed his path. The Svetambara texts explicitly state that the mendicant followers of the Tirthankara Parsvanatha (c. tenth century B.C. ), the predecessor of Mahavira, wore clothes as did the majority of Mahavira's own disciples including his ganadharas (see JPP , p. 14). Thus while the Svetambaras do not dispute the fact of Mahavira's nudity they assert that the conduct of the clothed monks is in full accordance with his teachings and leads to the same goal of moksa. The Digambaras, however, as noted above, do not accept the authenticity of the Svetambara scripture and insist that the vow of nudity is a necessary, although certainly not the only, condition of Jaina mendicancy. They therefore do not recognize the claim of the Svetambara monks to the status of mendicancy and view them as heretics, apostates from the true mendicant path of Mahavira. The Svetambaras for their part maintain that although nudity was allowed during the time of Mahavira, its practice was proscribed for our degenerate times (see Chapter II, #23) and hence those who still adhere to nudity are in violation of the scriptural injunctions and cannot be considered the true mendicant followers of Mahavira.

4. Panipatra . A Digambara mendicant carries no begging bowl but instead uses his joined palms to receive morsels of food and hence is called a panipatra (lit., "one who uses his hands as a bowl"). He is allowed to eat or drink only once and only during the daytime, for which he visits a Jaina household and eats, while standing, the food that has been placed in his palms. In contrast a Svetambara monk must not eat or drink after sunset but may partake of food more than once during the day. Like his Buddhist counterpart, he must keep a set of wooden bowls for collecting food and water from different, and if necessary even from non-Jaina, households. He must bring the food gathered to his residence and consume it seated in the company of his fellow mendicants. The Digambaras have claimed that the habit of eating in one's palms greatly reduces the dependence on the householder and is a mark of true renunciation of all attachments to such worldly possessions as bowls and the like. A Digambara monk is, however, required to carry a gourd (kamandalu ) for keeping water that may not be used for drinking but only for toilet purposes.

5. Amarga . Kundakunda does not specify the paths that he calls "the wrong paths"; but it is evident that he is referring here to those who wore clothes and carried begging bowls, a description that characterizes perfectly the Svetambara monks, in addition of course to the mendicants of the Brahmanical and Buddhist orders.

6. Linga . The word "linga" means an outward sign by which the identity of a mendicant's order is indicated. A staff (danda ), for example, is the sign of a certain group of Brahmanical wanderers (parivrajakas ), while the Buddhist monks (bhiksus ) are recognized by their orange-colored robes (raktapata ). In the case of

the Svetambara monks their white clothes (svetapata ) and the whisk broom made of woollen tufts (called rajoharana ) would be considered the outward signs of their sect. By contrast a Digambara monk is totally naked and is not allowed anything whatsoever that could be designated as his distinctive mark. Kundakunda is suggesting here that those who carry such marks are not free from attachments to these possessions and hence are not true mendicants. It should be remembered, however, that even a Digambara monk carrries (in addition to the kamandalu) a small whisk broom made of molted peacock feathers (called pinchi ) by which he can gently remove insects from his seat. This can certainly be called a linga, but the Digambaras have contended that it is not indispensable and hence only his nudity would distinguish his renunciation from that of the other ascetics. For a discussion on the use of the word "linga" to indicate the emblem of a renouncer, see Olivelle (1986, pp. 26-29).

7. Parigraha . The literal meaning of parigraha is physical property, anything one possesses by right of ownership. A layman is said to possess his property, which includes his relatives and his wealth. When he renounces the household he is said to have renounced this parigraha. Aparigraha , the absence of such possession, is thus considered by all Jainas as a prerequisite of a Jaina monk and constitutes one of his most important mendicant vows. The term "parigraha," however, is not restricted only to the external possessions. In the scriptures it is applied also to passions such as anger, greed, and pride, and hence it is defined as murccha , delusion (of ownership), the true cause of attachment. Whether everything other than one's body (e.g., the clothes one wears or the bowls in which one collects the alms) is also a parigraha is a matter that will figure prominently in these debates (see Chapter II, #33-39).

8. Niragara . The word agara means a household; hence niragara is one without a home, namely, a renouncer. The context suggests that Kundakunda is using this term to demonstrate that the sacelaka monks have not truly renounced the household life and hence can only be called householders (sagara).

9. Mahavrata (lit., the great vows). These constitute the basic vows of both the Digambara and the Svetambara mendicants and are believed to have been laid down by Mahavira himself and appear in the first canonical text called the Acaranga-sutra . An aspirant seeking initiation (diksa ) into the mendicant order utters the following vows (Kalpasutra , Jacobi's trans. 1884, pp. 202-210) in front of his acarya:

10. These refer to the guarding (gupti) of the three doors of action: mind, speech, and body.

11. The word "samyata " (lit., restrained) is a synonym for a mendicant who is restrained by the five mahavratas. A layman who assumes the anuvratas is therefore called desasamyata (partly restrained).

12. Nirgrantha (lit., free from bonds). This is the designation by which originally the followers of Mahavira were known in ancient times, and it is attested to in the Buddhist scripture where Mahavira himself is referred to as Nigantha Nataputta (his clan name; see Malalasekera, 1960). The word "grantha " (derived from grath , to bind) refers to the internal and external parigrahas by which the soul is bound. Since for the Digambaras both the attachments as well as the objects of attachments are parigraha, even the clothes are binding (grantha). This is because freedom from clothes implies for him freedom from the residual sexual feelings, expressed by such words as shame or bashfulness, that one seeks to overcome by wearing clothes. In the opinion of the Digambaras a naked person need not necessarily be free from sexual desires, but anyone who wears clothes must be considered subject to such desires and hence not a true nirgrantha.

13. Sravaka (lit., the "hearer," i.e., one who listens to the sermons, a layman). Unlike the Buddhists who apply this term only to their Arhats, the Jainas use this term for a layman who has assumed the five anuvratas. A laywoman is similarly called a sravika . In the case of the mendicant his vows are total and hence there is no progression toward a higher set of vows but only the task of perfecting those that have been assumed at the beginning of his career. Since the layman's vows are only partial, the Jaina teachers have drawn a progressive path of widening the scope of his initial vows. This path is called pratima (lit., a statue in meditational posture) and consists of eleven stages through which a layman cultivates those spiritual observances that will bring him to the point of renouncing household life. These are

called (1) the stage of right views (darsana ), (2) the stage of taking the vows (vrata ), (3) the stage of practicing meditation (samayika ), (4) the stage of keeping four fasts in a month (posadha ), (5) the stage of continence by day (ratribhakta ), (6) the stage of absolute continence (brahmacarya ), (7) the stage of renouncing uncooked food (sacitta-tyaga ), (8) the stage of abandonment of all professional activity (arambha-tyaga ), (9) the stage of transferring publicly one's property to a son or other relative (parigraha-tyaga ), (10) the stage of leaving the household and refraining from counseling in household matters (anumati-tyaga ), and (11) the stage of not eating food especially prepared for oneself, that is, the stage of seeking alms through begging like a monk (uddista-tyaga ). (For full details and variations in stages in the Digambara and the Svetambara texts, see Williams, 1963, pp. 172-181.) Very few sravakas or sravikas reach as far as the sixth stage of celibacy. But those who do so are encouraged to lead the life of a renunciant and give up their property and take their residence in a public place (called upasraya ) especially maintained for such purposes by the community. Among the Digambaras the person at the tenth stage is called a ksullaka , a novice. He wears three pieces of clothing and either collects his food in a bowl or may eat by invitation at a Jaina household. He is called here the avara or the "lower layman." At the eleventh stage he wears only a loincloth and does not use even the begging bowl. Instead he visits, only once a day, a Jaina household in the manner of a monk but takes the food he is offered in his joined palms, seated on a wooden plank. Traditionally he has been called an ailaka (probably an Apabhramsa form of the Skt. alpacelaka (one with little cloth), see JSK I, p. 499). He is not a monk yet, as he is still wearing a loincloth and thus cannot qualify to be called a nirgrantha or a Digambara. As stated by Kundakunda, his status is that of the highest (utkrsta ) sravaka, the most advanced layman, fully qualified to renounce the world and assume the mahavratas of a monk.

14. Aryika (lit., a noble lady). An advanced laywoman (sravika) of the Digambara tradition on the eleventh pratima is called an arya or an aryika and also occasionally sramani and sadhvi words that indicate her exalted status as a nun. She wears a single article of clothing, namely a white cotton sari Despite this apparent "parigraha," at her initiation as an aryika she assumes the mahavratas of a monk, albeit in a conventional sense (upacara ), since technically her status is still that of an "advanced laywoman" (uttama-sravika ). In this respect her status is that of an ailaka, or probably a little better, since the latter's vows cannot even conventionally be called mahavratas but must bear the designation of anuvrata until he renounces his loincloth. Nudity is forbidden to women, and the Digambaras contend that since this is the highest stage of renunciation she may aspire to reach in the body of a woman her vows may be called mahavratas by courtesy (upacara; see Chapter IV, #11). Nudity for women is forbidden among the Svetambaras also; but since they do not require nudity even for men, their nuns are administered the same mahavratas as their monks and thus their status is technically speaking one of equality, as far as the vows are concerned.

15. Ksullika , a female novice. Kundakunda does not use this word, but the commentator Srutasagara supplies it in his gloss on the second line. She is the female counterpart of the ksullaka described above. In addition to her sari, she covers the upper part of her body with a long shawl that she removes while taking her meal (and thus conducts herself like an aryika for the duration of the meal).

16. A Tirthankara, as noted above, is a person who in addition to being an Omniscient Being is also a teacher and becomes the founder of a new community of mendicants. He is thus distinguished from the Arhats by certain extraordinary events that attend his conception, birth, and renunciation—such as the appearance of gods, the shower of wealth, and so forth. Since for the Digambaras there is no mendicancy without total nudity, all Tirthankaras must traverse the same mendicant path without exception. The Svetambara texts have claimed, however, that of the twenty-four Tirthankaras of our time, only the first and the last, namely Rsabha and Mahavira, had assumed the vow of nudity whereas the other twenty-two were clothed (see JPP , p. 14, n. 28). Kundakunda seems to be rejecting here such a heresy; or alternatively he may be alluding here to the case of Malli, the nineteenth Tirthankara, who is claimed by the Svetambaras as a female (see Chapter IV, #13, and Chapter VI, #77), an anathema to the Digambaras according to whom a woman does not even qualify to assume the total vows of a monk for the reasons so graphically described by Kundakunda in verses #7 and #8.

17. Pravrajya , lit. going forth from home (to become a mendicant). It should be noted that Kundakunda denies the mendicant ordination (pravrajya) to a woman, technically a sravika, not only on the grounds of her wearing clothes as in the case of the Svetambara monks but also and more fundamentally on the grounds of her biological gender. According to him a woman can never be totally free from harm (himsa) to the subtle forms of life that her body inevitably produces. Thus in Kundakunda's view it is not the possession of clothes as much as the himsa. inherent to her body that is the primary reason for a woman's inability to pursue the highest path of renunciation that alone can lead to moksa. It should be noted that although the Svetambaras also share the notion that a woman's body engenders subtle life-forms (see Chapter VI, #69), they do not thereby conclude that the unintentional destruction of these beings constitutes an obstacle to her assuming the mahavratas. As for the clothing, the Svetambaras do not regard it as a parigraha, whether for a monk or a nun, and hence it should not prevent her from attaining the same goal available to a monk.

1. Arhat (one who is worthy of worship, i.e., holy) is a synonym for a Kevalin or a Jina as described in Chapter I (n. 1).

2. The terms "nirvana," "moksa," and "mukti" are employed synonymously in all Jaina texts, and all have the meaning of total liberation or emancipation of the soul from all forms of karmic bondage leading immediately to the status of the Siddha as described in Chatper I (n. 3). The term "nirvana" is additionally employed by the Jainas to indicate the death of a Jina-comparable to the use of the term "parinirvana " among the Buddhists-an event regarded as a kalyanaka (an auspicious occasion, together with his conception, birth, renunciation, and the attainment of kevalajnana), and the places associated with this event are called nirvana-bhumis (see n. 51), common pilgrimage sites for both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras.

3. Kevalibhukti is the title of the second treatise (in thirty-seven Sanskrit verses) composed by the Yapaniya acarya Sakatayana together with an autocommentary (svopajnavrtti ) edited by Muni Jambuvijayaji in his volume entitled the Strinirvana-Kevalibhuktiprakarane (pp. 39-52). Whether a person may continue to eat (bhukti ) after attaining to the status of a Kevalin, that is, an Omniscient Being, is a major controversy between the Yapaniyas (who shared this view with the Svetambaras) and the Digambaras. The latter have held that desirelessness (vitaragata ) and the accompanying omniscience (sarvajnata ) that characterize an Arhat are not compatible with the mundane practices of eating and drinking that can proceed only from some form of residual desire. Accordingly they have maintained that the Jina Mahavira ceased to partake of food and water (and consequently ceased also to perform such bodily functions as sweating, answering the calls of nature, and even sleeping) the moment he attained kevalajnana at the age of forty-two and yet lived the normal life of a teacher for thirty more years, for the duration of his life, without becoming weak or subject to any disease. The same rule applied to all other Arhats whose bodies underwent a similar miraculous change at the attainment of kevalajnana. The Yapaniyas and the Svetambaras have refuted the Digambara position by the counterargument that hunger and thirst exist independent of desire and cannot be abated merely by removing desire for food and water-unlike anger, for example, which can be overcome by cultivating its opposite, friendship. They have therefore argued that even a Kevalin must be considered subject to the laws of nature and hence his partaking of food could not detract from his desirelessness or his omniscience. No Yapaniya biography of Mahavira is extant; but the Svetambara

accounts of Mahavira (as preserved in the canonical Bhagavatisutra and the postcanonical Kalpasutra ) show that although no one saw him eating or answering the calls of nature he did eat food procured for him and also that he suffered from diseases and partook of medicine to cure himself. (See JPP , p. 23, n. 56.) The Digambaras have rejected these accounts as blasphemous and have maintained that, simultaneously with the attainment of kevalajnana, the body of a Kevalin (whether he be a Tirthankara or an ordinary Arhat) undergoes a miraculous change. His ordinary body (audarika-sarira , lit., the gross body) that had hitherto depended upon morsels of food (kavalahara ) is automatically transformed into a supremely pure gross body (parama-audarika-sarira ; see Chapter VI, n. 28), and the impure bodily fluids such as blood, urine, and semen change into a milklike substance. This body of the Kevalin neither decays nor needs replenishment and is not subject to the normal laws of nature including digestion and evacuation. Instead, it is sustained for the duration of the remainder of his life by the influx of the most auspicious kind of karmic matter alone, called the nokarma-vargana , which ordinarily accounts for the involuntary biological functions suitable to the nature of each species. The Svetambaras, while they assert that the Arhat's body is purer than that of the ordinary human being, emphatically reject the notion of such a miraculous body and contend that it runs counter to the doctrine of karma. For a Digambara rebuttal, see Nyayakumudacandra , II, pp. 852-865. For a critical discussion on the nature of the Kevalin with particular reference to this controversy, see Dundas (1985).

4. The Three Jewels together constitute the path to moksa as stated in the Tattvarthasutra (i, 1): samyagdarsanajnanacaritrani moksamargah. Of these the first, namely the samyagdarsana , is defined as tattvarthasraddhana , faith (sradhhanam ) in the existents (tattva ), which in fact amounts to holding the Jaina worldview and hence is translated here as the "right view." The Tattvarthasutra (i, 2) speaks of seven existents:jivajivasravabandhasamvaranirjaramoksas tattvam: (1) jiva (infinite number of souls); (2) ajiva (nonsouls), which comprise the following five dravyas (substances):pudgala (the infinite number of physical matter), dharma (the principle of motion), adharma (the principle of rest), akasa (infinite space), kala (infinite time); (3) asrava (influx of subtle karmic matter into the space occupied by the soul within a given body); (4) bandha (bondage of the soul by that karmic matter); (5) samvara (stopping of the new influx by the soul); (6) nirjara (dissociation of the soul from the accumulated karmic matter); and (7) moksa (total emancipation of the soul from all karmic matter and thus freedom from all forms of embodiment). A person who believes in the manner in which these seven tattvas are described by the Jina is said to be a true Jaina endowed with the right view. Conversely, lack of faith in them or faith contrary to the teachings of the Jina is called mithyadarsana , the wrong view. The second Jewel, the right knowledge (samyagjnana ), is not a new variety of knowledge but merely the knowledge of these seven knowables accompanied by the right view. Worldly knowledge, even if correct from the conventional point of view, is therefore considered mithyajnana or wrong knowledge if it is not accompanied by the right view. The third Jewel, the right conduct (samyakcaritra ), is the holy conduct of a person with the right view. The partial holy conduct begins with the five minor vows (anuvratas) prescribed for the laity. These lead to the five great vows (mahavratas) of the mendicants, which are gradually developed through meditational practices and culminate in the perfect

holy conduct of the Arhat. Conduct that is devoid of the right view, even if it is apparently in keeping with the Jaina lay and mendicant practices, is considered wrong conduct, mithyacaritra , as it is not conducive to moksa.

5. For details on the Jaina doctrine of samsara, a beginningless transmigration of souls in such abodes as the heavens, hells, and human and animal existences, including the most subtle vegetable forms of life, see JPP , chap. 4.

6. Sakatayana does not identify the sect against which this treatise is written. One cannot discount the possibility that the Yapaniya author may be disputing with a faction within his own sect, but in the absence of any supporting evidence one can fairly assume that his real opponents are the Digambaras who, as we know from the words of Kundakunda, rejected a woman's ability to assume the five great vows of a mendicant. Although no pre-Sakatayana Digambara work devoted to the topic of strimoksa that might have served as the source for Sakatayana's prima facie view (purvapaksa ) is extant, his presentation corresponds in many ways with the authoritative Digambara position as found in the subsequent works of Prabhacandra and Jayasena, as will be seen in Chapters III and IV.

7. All Jaina sects agree that moksa can be attained only by human beings and only from the regions called the karmabhumis ("the regions of action") as opposed to the bhogabhumis ("the realms of enjoyment"). The bhogabhumis are parts of the human abodes in the Jaina cosmology (see JPP , chap. 4) where conditions like paradise prevail. The beings there are believed to be free from all strife and subsist on wish-fulfilling trees without any control or competition. Because of the ease that they enjoy without interruption, they (like devas , the beings in the heavenly abode) are said to be incapable of assuming any vows and hence unable to attain moksa in that life. The karmabhumis (which incidentally include our planet earth) undergo great fluctuations in the climatic and other conditions and hence are suitable for the pursuit of moksa. Even in the karmabhumis the attainment of moksa is possible only during certain specified times when the Jinas may appear and establish the Jaina mendicant order. For details on the appropriate times for these events, see JPP , chap. 1.

8. Ganadhara (lit., a leader of the gana , i.e., a group [of mendicants]) refers to the immediate mendicant disciples of a Jina, responsible for compiling his sermons into organized scripture (agama ). For details on the eleven ganadharas (all Of whom were Brahmans by birth) of the twenty-fourth Jina, Mahavira, see JPP , chap. 2.

9. Pratyekabuddha is a mendicant who attains omniscience without the direct aid of a teacher. He is comparable to the recluse known by the same designation in the Theravada canon because he was able to achieve nirvana during the period when a Buddha was not around.

10. Srutakevalin is a mendicant who has mastered the entire Jaina canon comprising both the Purva and the Anga . He is not an Omniscient Being, but ranks just below the ganadhara in the Jaina hierarchy. Bhadrabahu, the great acarya of the Jaina mendicant community prior to the sectarian division described in Chapter I (i), is regarded by the Digambaras as the last Srutakevalin of our era.

11. The Purvas constitute an ancient, now nonextant, part of the Jaina canon. See JPP , pp. 49-51. The tenth book of this collection is said to have contained instructions on controlling various occult powers and their presiding deities (vidya-devatas ) that an advanced mendicant might encounter in his yogic pursuit. A

dasapurvin (one who mastered the tenth Purva ) was therefore considered a most holy mendicant, next in authority to the Srutakevalin in all matters of doctrine. See JSK IV, p. 55.

12. The Jaina texts speak of gunasthanas (lit., stages of spiritual quality) as a ladder of fourteen rungs that an aspirant must climb in order to reach the status of a Siddha, the Perfected Being. The following fourteen stages mark the progress of the soul as it gradually overcomes the various causes of bondage: (1) mithyadrsti : the lowest stage, the stage of wrong views. (2) sasvadana : the stage of "mixed taste," reached only when the soul falls from the fourth stage. (3) samyak-mithyadrsti : a mixed state of the right and wrong views, a transitional stage from the first to the fourth. (4) samyagdrsti : the stage of the right view, the first step in the direction of moksa. (5) desavirata (lit., the stage where one refrains partially from evils): the state attained by a samyagdrsti when the partial vows (anuvrata and so forth) prescribed for the laity are assumed. (6) sarvavirata (lit., the stage where one renounces all evils): the state attained when a layperson assumes the great vows (mahavratas) of a mendicant. This stage indicates that such a person has fully overcome the wrong views as well as all gross forms of passions (kasaya ) such as anger (krodha ), pride (mana ), crookedness (maya ), and greed (lobha ). (7) apramattavirata (lit., the stage of refraining from carelessness, pramada ): the stage of complete mindfulness, a prerequisite for engaging in meditational activities. (8) apurvakarana . (lit., the stage of unprecedented meditational activity; (9) anivrttikarana (lit., the stage of irreversible meditational activity); (10) suksma-samparaya (lit., the stage where only the most subtle passions remain): three meditational stages called the "ladder" (sreni ), in which the aspirant may progressively suppress (upasama ) even the subtle passions (including the sexual desires called the vedas) or destroy (ksaya ) them completely. (11) upasantamoha (lit., the stage where passions, moha , are suppressed): this stage is reached only if one climbs the ladder of suppression, a fall from which is inevitable. (12) ksinamoha (lit., the stage where all passions are destroyed): this stage is possible only to those who have climbed the ladder of destruction and thus succeeded in totally eliminating all forms of passion. This is an irreversible stage, and the aspirant now proceeds immediately to the next stage called (13) sayoga-kevalin (lit., Kevalin with activities). This is the state of enlightenment, where the aspirant will become an Arhat or a Kevalin, endowed with infinite knowledge (kevalajnana ), infinite perception (kevala-darsana ), infinite bliss (ananta-sukha ), and infinite energy (ananta-virya ). Yoga is a Jaina technical term that means activities of mind, speech, and body. The Kevalin because of his omniscience has no use of the senses or the mind that coordinates their functions; but he still is not free from the vocal and physical activities such as preaching and moving from place to place. Even this last vestige of embodiment is removed during the few final instants immediately preceding his death. When these activities are also brought to cessation, the aspirant reaches the last stage called (14) ayoga-kevalin (lit., Kevalin without activities). Freed from the totality of the bonds of karma the Arhat's soul rises automatically and instantaneously to the summit of the Jaina universe and resides there eternally in the state of the Siddha, the Perfected Being.

This is a brief outline of the gunasthana scheme common to all Jaina sects. For further details and a chart, see JPP , p. 273.

13. The second line of this verse reads: manuyagadiye vi taha. caudasa gunanamadheyani. The purport of this passage (found in the Digambara text Pancasangraha ) is that of the four possible births according to the Jaina doctrine, the beings in hell and beings in heaven can have no more than the first four gunasthanas. Animals can have one more, namely the fifth gunasthana, as certain samjni animals (those possessing the mind and the five sense faculties, e.g., elephants and lions) may even assume certain minor vows of the laity. (For a discussion on this spirituality of animals, see Jaini, 1987.) The animals may not go beyond the fifth stage, but all fourteen gunasthanas are possible for human beings. The Yapaniya argues that if women, as the Digambaras allege, could not rise to the sixth stage then this scripture would have said so explicitly as it does in the case of animals. Therefore women must be considered capable of possessing all the fourteen gunasthanas that the text says are available to "human beings." See notes 69 and 71.

14. The "last moment of inactivity" is the fourteenth gunasthana, called ayogakevalin, described above in note 12.

15. On the jinakalpa, see note 35.

16. The manahparyayajnana is not to be confused with ordinary telepathy. It is rather a special type of supernatural knowledge that is gained only by the Jaina mendicants of the highest purity, and it is believed that its acquisition also carne to an end with the death of the venerable Jambu (see #23). It must be noted, however, that one can achieve moksa even without attaining such knowledge. For details, see Sarvarthasiddhi , i, 23-25.

17. For the corresponding Digambara scripture, see Chapter III (#11). In the Jaina cosmology the hellish region (called naraka ) occupies the lower part of the universe (adholoka ), immediately below the terrestrial level (madhyaloka ) inhabited by animals and human beings, and consists of seven tiers each darker than the one above. (For a chart of the Jaina universe, see JPP , pp. 128-129.) Rebirth into the hells is not available to a heavenly being (deva ) or to one who is already an infernal being (naraki ). The scripture quoted above therefore gives rules only with regard to the species in the animal and human existences who alone may be reborn in the hellish abodes. The text does not provide any rationale for the differences in the destinies available to the species mentioned. It is generally agreed that rebirth in a particular abode is determined by the soul's intensity of volition, which to a great extent is determined by the amount of physical strength and mental vigor (virya or sattva) innate to a given state of embodiment. Thus it is explained that quadrupeds may go to a lower hell than the birds and that snakes-presumably thought to be more cruel because of their venom-may go to a still lower level. By the same token it is believed by all Jaina sects that women because of their lack of strength, and the consequent weakness of their volition, may not fall into the seventh, the lowest hell. That is the prerogative of men alone, a proof of their physical and volitional strength-and, for the Digambaras, a sure indication that men alone may reach the other extreme of the cosmos, the Siddhaloka, the abode of the Perfected Beings.

One can understand the disparity between snakes and humans (because of which the former were denied rebirth in hells lower than the fifth) and even grant that women may be constitutionally weaker than men and thus incapable of committing the most evil deeds deserving retribution in the lowest hell. What is truly baffling, however, is the singular exception the Jainas make of fish by admitting the

possibility of their rebirth in the seventh hell, a fate denied even to women because of their alleged lack of mental vigor.

The belief that fish can be extremely wicked is quite old and is attested to in the Bhavaprabhrta of the acarya Kundakunda, where the author illustrates the importance of volition by the story of a fish called Salisiktha: maccho vi salisittho asuddhabhavo gao mahanarayam (86a). ("The fish called Salisiktha [lit., 'Rice Grain'] of impure intensions went to the great hell." (Kundakunda does not give the story, but it appears in the tenth-century Brhatkathakosa (no. 147, Salisikthakathanakam) of the Digambara Harisena and was probably the source of the sixteenth-century Srutasagara's narrative in his commentary on the Bhavaprabhrta , which may be briefly summarized here. In the city of Kakandipura there was a king named Saurasena born in the family of a Jaina layman (sravakakula ). According to the tradition of his religion he took the vow of not eating meat. But implored by his Saivite physician he conceived a desire to consume meat. Fearful of people knowing his weakness, he called his favorite cook named Karmapriya ("Work Lover") and secretly informed him of his desire. Although the cook procured meats of animals on land as well as in the water, the king did not get an opportunity to eat those dishes. Karmapriya, the cook, died and was reborn as the Great Fish (Mahamatsya) in the great ocean called the Svayambhuramana (which circles the middle region of the Jaina universe). King Saurasena died craving for meat dishes and was born in the same ocean as a fish called Salisiktha (Rice Grain) because of its tiny size. Sa1isiktha took his residence in the ear of the Great Fish living on the dirt that accumulated there. One day Salisiktha saw the Great Fish sleeping and the multitude of small and large schools of fish moving in and out of its wide-open mouth and thought: "Alas! How unfortunate of this Great Fish! It cannot eat them even when they fall into his mouth! If fate had given me as large a body as his, I would have rendered this entire ocean empty of all life!" Thinking thus he died and by the force of his mental agitation was reborn in the seventh hell. The great Fish also died and was also reborn in the same hell as a consequence of his devouring the multitude of beings in the ocean (Satprabhrtadisangrahah , pp. 235-237). It seems possible that Kundakunda was referring to the story of the fish only to illustrate the primacy of volition (bhava ) over action, but his words "gao mahanarayam" were understood by the later storytellers literally to mean the seventh hell.

18. The eight siddhagunas : (1-3) perfection of the Three Jewels; (4) infinite energy (ananta-virya ); (5) invisibility (suksmatva ); (6) ability to occupy the same space (at the summit of the Jaina universe) with other Siddhas (avagahanatva ); (7) freedom from expansion and contraction of the soul's space points (agurulaghutva ); and (8) freedom from both pleasure and pain (avyabadhatva ). The former four are attained when one becomes an Arhat; the latter four are attained when the Arhat dies and is forever released from the bondage of embodiment and thus becomes a Siddha. For details on the last four qualities, see JPP , pp. 124-127.

19. Sahasrara is the twelfth heavenly abode in the Jaina cosmology. See Sarvarthasiddhi , iv, 19.

20. For a discussion on the definition of a samjni, see Sarvarthasiddhi , ii, 24.

21. The samayika here probably refers to the single mendicant restraint assumed by Mahavira himself when he renounced the world saying, "No evil actions are to be committed by me." See JPP , p. 17.

22. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 17, n. 1) that this is a very old verse and is quoted by the Svetambara acarya Jinabhadra in his Svopajnavrtti on the Visesavasyakabhasya . The complete verse reads as follows:

mana-paramodhi-pulae aharaga-khavaga-uvasame kappe,
samjamatiya-kevala-sijjhana ya Jambummi vocchinna. [verse 3076]

The Jaina tradition unanimously believes that the mendicant Jambu was the last person to attain moksa in the current time called the avasarpini-pancama-kala (the fifth period of the descending half of the time cycle) in the Jaina cosmology. He was the disciple of Sudharman, one of the two ganadharas (the other being Gautama) who survived Mahavaira. The Svetambara tradition believes that Sudharman relayed the twelvefold Jaina canon (as received from Mahavira) orally to the mendicant Jambu, who thus became the chief preserver of the holy scripture. Jambu is believed to have died in 463 B.C. , sixty-four years after the nirvana of Mahavira. According to the fifth-century acarya Jinabhadra's Visesavasyakabhasya , referred to above, with the death of Jambu the jinakalpa (see note 35)-suggested by the term "kappa " in the verse quoted above-ceased to exist, as also the attainment of moksa by anyone, whether a monk or a nun. Jainas are unanimous in their belief that moksa cannot be attained by either a monk or a nun until the present time cycle is completed and a new era begins and a new Jina appears here (after a lapse of several thousand years). In view of this belief the controversy over women's ability to attain moksa would appear to be irrelevant, aimed rather at asserting the validity of the sectarian position on the true definition of a mendicant. It should be remembered, however, that the path of moksa is not altogether closed, since it is open for human beings who are reborn in an area called Videha-ksetra. Tirthankaras are believed to exist at all times in this blessed region inhabited by human beings but lying far outside our known earth and inaccessible to humans except through transmigration. The earth we inhabit forms part of the area known as the Bharata-ksetra (the Land of Bharata, named after the first Jaina universal monarch or cakravartin of our time cycle) in the Jaina cosmology. See JPP , chap. 1. For further details on Jambu, see Mehta (1970-1972).

23. The verses quoted are to be found in the Nisithabhasya , a Svetambara text. No Digambara text corresponding to this is to be found, and the Svetambara texts are not authoritative to them. One wonders, therefore, if the Yapaniya author may be confronting a faction within his own mendicant community or if the \ had once accepted the scriptures quoted by him.

24. It is doubtful whether the "opponent" here also is a Digambara, since the scripture quoted is found in the Svetambara Brhatkalpa only. To the best of my knowledge there is no extant Digambara scripture that specifically forbids the vow of mendicant nudity to a woman. But such a prohibition must have obtained in their tradition, as can be deduced from the following statement of the Digambara acarya Virasena (c. 817) in his commentary called the Dhavala on the Satkhandagama (quoted in JSK Ill, p. 597, from the Dhavala , xi, 4, 2.6-xii, 114, 11): na ca davvatthinam niggamtham atthi, celadipariccaena vina tasim bhavaniggamthabhavado. na ca davvatthinavumsayavedenam celadiccago atthi, Chedasuttena saha virohado. ("There is no state of total mendicancy [the state of a nirgrantha] for a person who is biologically female, since there is absence of internal freedom from all

bonds without the abandonment of such external properties as clothes and so forth. Nor is the abandonment of clothes and so forth [allowed] for those who are biologically female or hermaphrodite, as this [nudity] is contrary to the Chedasutra [the Digambara book of mendicant discipline, which is no longer extant].")

It may be mentioned in this connection that the twelfth-century Digambara layman Asadhara, in his manual for the laity called the Sagaradharmamrta , states that a nun (whom he also considers only to be an advanced laywoman and not a "mendicant") may, if she so wishes, be allowed to assume the vow of nudity, like a man, at the last moments of her life, as part of her sallekhana ritual (voluntary fasting to death, see JPP , p. 227-233): yad autsargikam anyad va lingam uktam jinaih, striyah pumvat tad isyate, mrtyukale svalpikrtopadheh (viii, 38). Asadhara is undoubtedly following here a very old tradition preserved in the ancient Bhagavati-aradhana : itthivi ya jam limgam dittham ussaggiyam va idaram va, tam taha hodi hu limgam parittam uvadhim karemtie (verse 81). I am informed by Digambara scholars that this verse should not be construed as a sanction for nudity as the dying nun must remain in strict privacy and, moreover, that her vows do not thereby become the mahavratas of a Digambara monk for the biological disabilities associated with the female body cannot be removed. Furthermore, acarya Sivakoti, the author of the Bhagavati-aradhana , is, as seen above in section (v), probably a Yapaniya mendicant and hence does not necessarily represent the traditional Digambara position as expressed in the Sutraprabhrta (see Chapter I above) of Kundakunda and the Dhavala of Virasena.

25. In modern times, this whisk broom is made of tufts of wool (called rajoharana ) or peacock feathers (called pinchi ); these are used by mendicants of the Svetambara and Digambara sects, respectively.

26. This work is not extant, but the title Siddhiviniscaya ("Determination of Siddhahood," i.e., the attainment of moksa) indicates that it too dealt with the topic of strimoksa. For a discussion on the identity of this acarya Sivasvamin with the acarya Sivakoti, the author of the Bhagavati-aradhana , see Premi (1956, pp. 67-73).

27. This quotation is also found only in the Svetambara Brhatkalpa . The tala-palamba , however, is mentioned in the (Yapaniya?) Bhagavati-aradhana (verse 1124) as an illustration to show that the word "tala " stands not only for the palm tree but also for all trees (shoots of which are also forbidden for monks). Similarly, it is said, the word "cela " (clothes) in the compound "acelaka" (lit., free from clothes) stands for other possessions as well that must be given up by a mendicant. See JSK I, p. 39.

28. The following four verses as well as the verse beginning with the words "ye yan na bhuktibhajah" (see #69) are called sangraha-aryas (collected verses) in the Svopajnavrtti and yet are counted as original verses (nos. 13-16 and 30, respectively) in Muni Jambuvijayaji's edition. In explaining this he notes (p. 1, n. 1) that in the manuscripts of the Strinirvanaprakarana the verses were not numbered at all, except in one incomplete manuscript where only the last three verses were numbered respectively 52, 53, and 54. Assuming therefore that the text originally might have consisted of fifty-four verses he decided to count these five sangraha-aryas (numbering them as 13-16 and 30) also as the original verses of the Strinirvanaprakarana . I have treated these five verses as quotations only, and hence the total number of the Strinirvanaprakarana verses here is forty-nine instead of the fifty-four

in his edition. In this regard I am following the earlier edition of the Strinirvanaprakarana (published by Muni Jinavijayaji as reprinted in the Sakatayana-Vyakarana , intro. app. II, pp. 121-124), which does not contain these five verses.

29. For a Digambara reply to this point, see Chapter III (#58).

30. See the Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, iii, 17.

31. Compare this with the following passage from the Svetambara Acaranga-sutra , II, 5, 1: je niggamthe tarune jugavam balavam appayamke thirasamghayane se egam vattham dharejja, no bitiyam. ("If a monk be youthful, young, strong, healthy, and well set, he may wear one robe, not two"; Kalpasutra , Jacobi's trans. 1884, p. 157.) Because of the difference between the two passages Muni Jambuvijayaji (p. 103, n. 4) has suggested that the present passage is not taken from the extant Acaranga-sutra but can be traced to a non-Svetambara source. This is the famous Vijayodaya commentary by the Yapaniya Aparajita on the Bhagavati-aradhana of Sivakoti (who as noted above could have been a member of the Yapaniya sect). In this commentary on verse 421 dealing with the rule of nudity a questioner asks: Acara syapi dvitiyadhyayo Lokavicayo nama, tasya . . . vatthesanae vuttam: tattha je(?) se hirimane segam vattham va dharejja (Bhagavati-aradhana , p. 611). This shows that the Yapaniyas had a different recension of this canonical text and had interpreted the rules pertaining to clothes in a manner quite different from that of the Svetambaras who advocated the use of clothes not as a concession to weakness but as a requirement for all Jaina mendicants.

32. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 21, n. 2) that this verse is missing from two manuscripts and suggests that as there is no commentary on it by Sakatayana it is probably a quotation from some unknown text. He gives the following parallel passages from the Svetambara Sthananga-sutra : tihim thanehim vattham dharejja, tam jaha, hiripattiyam dugumchapattiyam parisahavattiyam (iii, 3, 171).

In this connection the explanation given by the Yapaniya acarya Aparajita in his commentary on the Bhagavati-aradhana on the requirement of nudity for a mendicant is worth noting. Commenting on the verse (no. 421) that dealt with nudity (acelakatva ), Aparajita gives a long discourse (in some forty lines) on the virtues of nudity and the defects inherent to wearing robes. A questioner, who could be a proto-Svetambara, raises at this point a pertinent question as to why the scripture directs a monk to seek robes and so forth (as quoted above in note 31) and how this command can be reconciled with the vow of nudity (evam sutranirdiste cele acelata katham). In reply to this question Aparajita says: atrocyate, aryikanam agame 'nujnatam vastram, karanapeksaya bhiksunam-hriman ayogyasariravayavo duscarmabhilambamanabijo va parisahasahane va 'ksamah sa grhnati. ("The scripture enjoins clothes for nuns and for monks for the following reasons: a monk who is full of shame, or whose body and limbs are not suitable because of genital deformities, or one who is unable to bear the afflictions [such as cold], takes clothes"; Bhagavati-aradhana , p. 612.) It is noteworthy that Aparajita does not give any reason for enjoining clothes to nuns, an omission that leaves room for the Digambaras to question women's ability to assume the great vows of the monks. As for the concessions made to certain males, it must be noted that they run counter to the Digambara rules of mendicancy and hence are not admissible to them. I am informed that a person suffering from genital or other defects is not eligible to receive initiation into the Digambara mendicant order, and should he develop them

subsequently he will be enjoined to return to the lower status of a layman. This Digambara position thus appears to be consistent with the position taken by the opponent in #46.

It should be noted, however, that the Digambara tradition has occasionally shown the ability to make concessions (subject to expiations, etc.) under difficult political conditions. In late medieval times, public nudity was proscribed in areas ruled by Muslims, making it difficult for Digambara monks to move freely. The sixteenth-century commentator Srutasagara has left one record of a situation where the Digambara monk Vasantakirti (of unknown date) of Mandapadurga (in modern Rajasthan?) allowed his monks an exceptional garb or appearance (apavadavesa ), namely, to cover themselves with a mat or a piece of cloth for the duration of their outings for meals and the like: kalau kila Mlecchadayo nagnam drstva upadravam yatinam kurvanti, tena Mandapadurge sri Vasantakirtina svamina caryadivelayam tattisadaradikena sariram acchadya punas tan muncatity upadesah krtah samyaminam ity apavadavesah; Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 21. Srutasagara, while reporting this incident, does not fail to comment that such an apavadavesa is nevertheless heretical (mithyavesa eva; ibid.). Pandit Premi (1956, p. 66) has suggested that this was the beginning of the Bhattaraka tradition among the Digambaras, a new group of resident (and clothed) "monks" who in medieval times presided over a large number of temples and libraries, remnants of whose seats (called mathas and administered by the laymen of the ksullaka rank) can still be found in parts of Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.

subsequently he will be enjoined to return to the lower status of a layman. This Digambara position thus appears to be consistent with the position taken by the opponent in #46.

33. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 103, n. 1) a countertext in the Svetambara scripture: kappai niggamthana va niggamthina va celacilimiliyam dharittae va pariharittae va; Brhatkalpa , i. 18.

34. Compare: mithyadarsanaviratipramadakasayayogah bandhahetavah; Tattvarthasutra , viii, 1. For a discussion on the nature of these five causes of bondage, see JPP , pp. 157-159.

35. The words "sapeksa " (qualified) and "nirapeksa " (unqualified or total) samyama (mendicant restraint, i.e., vows), purportedly used here to describe the sthavirakalpa (lit., Course of the Elders) and the jinakalpa (lit., Course of the Victors), respectively, do not adequately express the precise distinctions between the two courses of mendicancy as understood by the Yapaniyas. Both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras accept these different courses, but they disagree on the meaning of the terms.

According to the Svetambaras, jinakalpa is the course of a monk who leads a life in the manner of the Jina Mahavira, including the adoption of the practice of nudity; he is not bound by the rules of the ecclesiastical community. He is not obligated to abide by the rules of congregation or engage in such activities as preaching. Leading an isolated life (probably because of his nudity) is thus the major characteristic of a jinakalpa monk. The sthavirakalpa, by contrast, is a course which requires that the mendicant wear the prescribed number of clothes (no more than three) and keep begging bowls, the whisk broom, and other such signs of mendicancy. He is subject to the ecclesiastical laws and must remain loyal and obedient to his spiritual masters, the acaryas. Propagation of the Teaching is one of his duties, and he is encouraged to initiate his own disciples and to impart the law among the laity as well. While the Svetambaras thus uphold the jinakalpa as a legitimate and even a superior mode of

mendicancy (since it was practiced by Mahavira himself), they nevertheless believe that it is totally unsuitable and hence forbidden to women and also to the majority of men, for whom only the sthavirakalpa is recommended. Nudity is not an essential characteristic of mendicancy for them, and hence they believe that both courses are equally capable of achieving the goal of moksa. They have furthermore maintained that the jinakalpa came to an end with the death of the Venerable Jambu (see #23 and n. 22), the last Jaina monk to have attained nirvana in the mendicant lineage of Mahavira, and that what survives now is only the sthavirakalpa. For them the option of the jinakalpa, or most important the practice of nudity associated with it, is no longer available, and hence they question the legitimacy of the current Digambara order of monks.

The Digambara definitions of these two terms, as can be expected, are strikingly different. For the Digambaras, nudity is the essential characteristic of mendicancy, without which a monk's vow of total nonpossession (aparigraha) is not complete. Therefore, in their tradition, monks of both jinakalpa and sthavirakalpa courses must adopt nudity. The true distinction between the two is that a monk of the jinakalpa order leads a solitary life without belonging even formally to an ecclesiastical community; he could thus be described as an anchorite, engaged in his own austerities and meditation. Mendicants of the sthavirakalpa order are distinguished by the fact that they live in a group directly under the supervision of their acaryas and engage in such activities as the study of the scripture or preaching the law to the laity; they are cenobites. They also believe that as a consequence of the declining morality associated with the pancamakala, the jinakalpa ended with the death of the Venerable Jambu, but they declare that it did not spell the end of monkhood, which of course cannot be separated from the practice of total nudity. The Digambaras thus claim that they are the true followers of the sthavirakalpa tradition, which has continued uninterrupted since the days of Mahavira, and also that it may be expected to last until the very end of the pancamakala, an event that will not take place for some seventeen thousand years. Since there can be no mendicancy without total nudity, and since the latter is forbidden to a woman, a "nun" in the Digambara tradition belongs neither to the jinakalpa nor to the shavirakalpa. Her status in their tradition is that of an advanced laywoman (uttamasravika), as pointed out by Kundakunda (see Chapter I, #7-#8). But she is honored by the term "aryika" (noble lady), as she has reached the highest status available to a woman, equivalent to that of a Digambara monk among men, and may therefore be conventionally said to belong to the sthavirakalpa.

As for the Yapaniyas, it is evident from the text under study that they, like the Svetambaras, identified the practice of nudity with the jinakalpa only and approved of the status of the sthavirakalpa to clothed mendicants, whether nuns or monks. Probably they too considered the jinakalpa to be superior to the other mode, since the jinakalpa monks did not even return the greetings of the sthavirakalpa monks as shown in #67. The major difference between the Svetambara and the Yapaniya seems to lie in the Yapaniya rule that clothes may be allowed to men not as a regular practice (as was claimed by the Svetambaras, for which see Chapter V, #9) but as an exception, applicable only to those who suffered from the three defects pointed out in Sakatayana's verse 15. But if the Yapaniyas, as indicated above (in #23), also believed that the jinakalpa came to an end after the time of the Venerable Jambu, then they will have no option but to declare all men desirous of becoming

mendicants as "exceptional cases" and consider their use of clothes not as a concession to weakness but as the only legitimate practice. This could result in removing any essential difference that might have existed between the monks and nuns, as claimed by the Digambaras, and render them equal—a position that they currently enjoy, at least in theory, in the Svetambara tradition.

For further details on the jinakalpa and the sthavirakalpa in the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions, see, respectively, Tatia and Kumar (1981, pp. 41-69) and Jnanamati (1982, pp. 186-189).

36. For different varieties of these fasts, see JSK III, p. 405.

37. I understand from Digambara scholars that such a person will cease to be a monk if he accepts the bandages and will revert to the position of a layman. His case will be somewhat similar to the one described by Srutasagara as quoted above in note 32.

38. This story of the monk Mrgadhvaja cannot be traced in extant Jaina literature. For a Digambara response to this argument, see Chapter III (#58).

39. Compare: murccha parigrahah; Tattvarthasutra , vii, 17. "What is murccha? Murccha is activity relating to the acquisition or safeguarding of possessions such as the cow, the buffalo, jewels, pearls, and so on, and also inward thoughts like desire and so on. . .. Infatuation or attachment is at the root of all evils. If a person has the idea 'this is mine,' he has to safeguard it. In safeguarding it, violence is bound to result. For its sake he utters falsehood. He also commits theft and attempts copulation. And this results in various kinds of pain and suffering in the infernal regions"; Sarvarthasiddhi , vii, 17, translated by S. A. Jain, p. 199.

40. On the Jaina practice of voluntary death by fasting called sallekhana, see JPP , pp. 227-233.

41. For a discussion on these two courses, which are differently described in the Svetambara scriptures and in the Vijayodaya commentary of the Yapaniya author Aparajita (Bhagavati-aradhana , pp. 352-367), as Tatia and Kumar (1981, pp. 69-78); see also Caillat (1965, pp. 52-55).

42. If by the term "jinakalpa" in this passage the Yapaniya understands the practice of nudity (in addition to other requirements), then it would follow that the vow of nudity could not be administered to a boy of eight and, as the following quotation states explicitly, to anyone under the age of thirty. I am unaware of a Digambara text that stipulates the minimum age requirement of a person eligible to assume the vow of nudity. I understand from my informants that it is customary to give this initiation only to men in their advanced age and only to those who have spent years practicing the anuvratas and other vows of a layman. As a rule, only a ksullaka or an ailaka would be allowed to become a Digambara monk, and therefore the custom of child initiation (baladiksa ) that openly prevailed among the Svetambaras in medieval times was totally unknown among them. For details on this practice, see The Life of Hemacandra (Bühler, 1899).

43. This verse, the source of which cannot be traced and the meaning of which is obscure, merits comparison with the following verse in the Gommatasara (and its Hindi commentary), which seems to preserve certain ancient rules applicable to a mendicant of the jinakalpa in the Digambara tradition:

tisam vaso jamme, vasapudhattam khu titthayaramule,
paccakkhanam padhido, samjhunadugauyaviharo.

("Commentary: A person who is thirty years old and has after his initiation as a monk spent eight years in the study of the ninth book of the Purva under a Tirthankara comes to possess the conduct called pariharavisuddhi . Such a person travels every day, that is, he is not subject to the rules of mendicant retreat during the rainy season and yet remains pure in his conduct"; Gommatasara (Jivakanda ), verse 473).

44. I have been unable to find a scriptural authority to support the Yapaniya statement that an eight-year-old person may attain moksa. It is, however, agreed by the Digambara that only a person over the age of eight may become eligible to receive the anuvratas of the laity. (gabbhado nikkhamtapadhamasamayappahudi atthavassesu gadesu samjamaggahanappaogo hodi, hettha na hodi tti eso bhavattho; quoted in JSK (from the Dhavala ), IV, p. 141.) Compare in this context the Buddhist belief that a boy must be at least eight years of age to attain Arhatship. The Dhammapada-Atthakatha (II, p. 248; Burlingame, 1921) contains the story of an eight-year-old boy named Samkicca who attained Arhatship during his ordination as a novice (samanera ). Although I am unaware of a similar story among the Jainas, the tradition is unanimous that Prabhasa (whom the Digambaras claim to be a naked monk), the youngest of Mahavira's eleven ganadharas, was only twenty-four when he attained Arhatship. (See JPP , p. 44.) Accordingly, the "thirty-year-old" age requirement for becoming a naked monk as stated above in note 43 was not recognized in ancient times—or, more probably, the age requirement applied only for undertaking additional austerities allowed to a (naked) monk who had chosen the mode of jinakalpa.

45. In the Digambara community the question of monks returning the greetings of the nuns does not arise, as the latter, being only advanced laywomen, will not be treated as equals of the monks. In the Yapaniya and the Svetambara communities they should be treated as equals, yet the monks there do not return the greetings of their nuns. The Yapaniya Aparajita in his Vijayodaya commentary gives the following reasons for the inferiority of the nuns and the superiority of monks over them: pancamahavratadharinyas cirapravrajitaya 'pi jyestho bhavaty adhuna pravrajitah puman. ity esa saptamah sthitikalpah purusajyesthatvam. purusatvam namopakaram raksam ca kartum samarthah. purusapranitas ca dharma iti tasya jyesthata. tatah sarvabhih samyatabhih vinayah kartavyo viratasya. yena ca striyo laghvyah, paraprarthaniyah, pararakso(a)peksinyah, na tatha pumamsa iti ca purusajyesthatvam. ("A man who renounces the household life only today is senior to a nun who keeps the five mahavratas and has renounced the household life a long time ago. . .. Manhood means the ability to protect. Moreover the dharma is taught by a man [i.e., the Tirthankaras are men only] and thus his superiority. Therefore it is the duty of all nuns to respect a monk. Women are inferior because they are objects of men's lust and require protection from others, but not so a man; this is the reason for his superiority"; Bhagavati-aradhana , p. 614.) It will be noticed that the reasons provided are primarily of a social nature and reflect the social attitudes prevalent in India in ancient times. Aparajita makes no reference to the physiological disabilities stressed by the Digambara Kundakunda in his Sutraprabhrta . For this reson the Yapaniya (and the Svetambara) Jaina rule about greetings of monks by the nuns bears comparison with the rules laid down by the Buddha for the initiation of women into his community of nuns (bhiksuni-sangha), for which see the Introduction (#41-42, n. 33).

46. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 25, n. 5) that a complete folio is missing at this point and that he has reconstructed these two verses (24 and 25abc) from the Svopajnavrtti .

47. This verse appears as no. 30 of the Strinirvanaprakarana in Muni Jambuvijayaji's edition. See note 28 above. I have also reordered the sequence of the text by placing this verse ahead of verse 25d to maintain the continuity of argument pertaining to the rules of greeting.

48. This quotation also appears in the Nyayakumudacandra ; see Chapter III (#76).

49. Baladeva (or balabhadra ), narayana (or vasudeva ), and pratinarayana (or prativasudeva ) are three Jaina literary types together with cakravartins (universal monarchs) and Tirthankaras and are called the great illustrious beings (salakapurusas ). A baladeva is the elder brother and companion of a narayana. The narayana is a hero, the chief destroyer of the villain called pratinarayana. The Jaina Puranas narrate the exploits of these great Jaina laymen who periodically appear when a cakravartin is not ruling the earth. These three categories are modeled on the Brahmanical epic and Puranic heroes, namely, Rama (of the Ramayana ) and Balarama (of the Mahabharata-Harivamsaparva ), Laksmana, the brother of Rama, and Krsna, the brother of Balarama, and Ravana and Jarasandha, the chief villains of the two epics, respectively. For details on these illustrious Jaina heroes, see Helen Johnson's translation (1962) of the Trisastisalakapurusacaritra of Hemacandra.

50. The Jaina Puranas have maintained that Krsna and Laksmana as well as Ravana and Jarasandha were reborn, as a result of the violence they perpetrated, in the fourth hell. They are all destined to be reborn as human beings in their next life and, having renounced the world in the manner of the Jaina monks, will attain moksa in that very life. See Trisastisalakapurusacaritra , vol. v.

51. All Jainas believe that of the twenty-four Jinas of our time, the first (Rsabha), the twelfth (Vasupujya), the twenty-second (Nemi), and the twenty-fourth (Mahavira) attained nirvana respectively at Mount Kailasa, Campa (in Bihar), Ujjayanta (also called Giranar in Gujarat), and Pava (in Bihar). The remaining twenty attained the nirvana from the holy Mount Sammeta (called Parasnath Hills) near the city of Patna in Bihar. Rajagrha was the ancient capital of Magadha where Mahavira preached his first sermon after becoming the Jina. For details on these pilgrimage sites sacred to both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras, see the Vividhatirthakalpa by the fourteenth-century Jinaprabhasuri and also Jain (1974).

52. The identity of Ramaka(u?)lya is not known. Probably the author has in mind some holy springs, called Sitakunda, or Ramakunda, which are located at various Hindu pilgrimage spots.

53. Six configurations (samsthanas) refer to the physical conditions or structures of the human body: (1) perfectly symmetrical body (samacaturasra-samsthana ), meaning symmetry of both the upper and lower parts of the body; (2) upper body symmetry (nyagrodhaparimandala-samsthana ); (3) lower body symmetry (svatisamsthana ); (4) hunchback (kubja ); (5) dwarf (vamana ); (6) deformed (hunda ). The heavenly beings have only the first and the hell beings only the last samsthana, whereas humans and animals can have any of the six. See also Chapter VI (#85 and n. 48).

54. Brahmi and Sundari were two daughters of the first Tirthankara Rsabha, who became nuns without entering the household life. Rajimati was the fiancée of

the twenty-second Tirthankara, Nemi; on the eve of their wedding, her fiancé renounced the world, and Rajimati followed him into mendicancy. Candana was the head of an order of thirty-six thousand nuns in the mendicant order of Mahavira (see Mehta, 1970-1972, I, p. 246). It is to be noted that the Yapaniyas, while mentioning the names of several women appearing in the Puranic literature, have omitted the name of Tirthankara Malli, considered the only female Jina by the Svetambaras. Her story appears in the Svetambara canonical text Nayadhammakahao , which is rejected by the Digambaras, who declare Malli to be a male Jina (see Introduction, #24). The omission here could signify that her story in the extant Svetambara canon was not accepted as authentic in the Yapaniya tradition. See also Chapters IV (#13) and VI (#77, n. 38).

55. Unlike her ultimate suicide in the Ramayana (of Valmiki), in the Jaina version of the epic, Sita, the wife of the Rama, eventually becomes a Jaina nun. See Trisastisalakapurusacaritra , iv, 10.

56. Satyabhama, the wife of Krsna, also became a Jaina nun according to the Jaina Harivamsa-purana : Rukmini Satyabhamadya mahadevyo 'sta sasnusah, labdhanujna Hareh stribhih sapatnibhih pravavrajuh (chap. 61, verse 40).

57. Both traditions agree that a person who is in possession of samyagdarsana (the right view) will not be reborn into a female body, whether in the human or the deva realms. While it is admitted that such rebirth might be possible for the upasama-samyagdrsti , whose wrong view (mithyadarsana) is only temporarily suppressed, it is declared absolutely impossible for the ksayika-samyagdrsti , whose wrong view has been permanently obliterated. In either case, however, if a person dies while still endowed with samyagdarsana, he or she will not be reborn as a female.

According to this rule, therefore, at the time of their birth, all women would have to be considered as having wrong views, although this would not preclude them from developing the samyagdarsana during their lifetimes. The tradition is unanimous in declaring that the surest way to avoid rebirth as a female is to be in possession of samyagdarsana at the time of death. By this same rule, even women who are destined to become the mothers of the Tirthankaras would have to be considered mithyadrstis at the time of their conception as a female embryo.

58. The debate here focuses on the question of whether a person on the second gunasthana, the sasvada-samyagdrsti—who has left behind the fourth stage of samyagdrsti and is hurtling inexorably toward the lower stage, the mithyadrsti—or the person on the third stage, the samyagmithyadrsti—who has left the mithyadrsti stage and is on the transition stage to samyagdrsti—would be reborn as a woman. The discussant declares that the second gunasthana is, in fact, a state of wrong view, and a person on that level should be treated identically to the one on the first gunasthana, the mithyadrsti. The third gunasthana is, however, a state where the right view is not yet firm; even so such a person can be regarded as if he were a samyagdrsti. Hence, a person on the second gunasthana would be reborn as a female, while a person on the third would not.

59. This compares well with the following Digambara text: samyagdarsanasuddha narakatiryannapumsakastritvani, duskulavikrtaipayurdaridratam. ca vrajanti napy avratikah. ("Those who are pure on account of the right view, even if they are without the vows of a layman, will not be reborn in the hells, in animal existences, or

as hermaphrodites, or as females; nor will they be born with deformed bodies, nor in families that are poor or low"; Ratnakarandasravakacara , verse 30.)

60. For these Jaina designations for various units of time, see JSK I, p. 217.

61. This verse is also quoted in the Nyayakumudacandra ; see Chapter III (#27).

62. This is one more occasion where one doubts that the opponent here is a Digambara. As will be seen below, the Digambara author Prabhacandra rejects this evidence as unauthentic. See Chapter III (#81).

63. Both Jaina sects agree that there is no necessary correlation between the biological gender (called linga or dravyaveda ) of a person and that person's sexual desires, or libido (called bhavaveda or only veda ). The Jainas have classified sexual desire into three types, which are not physical but mental states: (1) striveda , the desire of a female to mate with a male; (2) pumveda , the desire of a male to mate with a female; and (3) napumsakaveda , the desire of a hermaphrodite to mate with another hermaphrodite. At one extreme, according to the Jaina doctrine of karma, the heavenly beings, who are distinguished only as male or female, have only the libido appropriate to their gender. At the other extreme, all denizens of hell are only hermaphrodites and may have the hermaphroditic libido only. Humans and animals, however, can be born with any one of the three biological genders, which they will retain for the duration of their lifetime, but their libidos are not fixed. They may experience, at different times, any of the three libidos, irrespective of their physical gender. Because of this doctrine, the opponent claims that the word "stri" (woman) in this passage refers to a man (purusa) at the moment of his experiencing the female libido (striveda), who can therefore be called, psychologically, a "woman" although biologically he is a man. As will be seen below, the Yapaniya, or at least Sakatayana, the author of this text, seems to hold a view that is not shared by the mainstream Jaina tradition—that one's libido cannot be contrary to one's biological gender. For further discussion on this problem, see Chapter VI (#2-7).

64. Citta-vikara: citta is a synonym for manas (mind). The physical basis of manas consists of subtle atoms of matter and is therefore called dravya-manas . The nonphysical basis of manas, however, through which the soul experiences happiness or unhappiness, is a faculty of the soul itself and is called the internal mind (bhava-manas ). The citta-vikara in this passage would therefore indicate the modification of the soul that induces sexual desire.

65. Palya : According to the Jaina doctrine of karma, a woman can continue to be reborn as a female for from three to nine hundred palyas—an immense length of time stretching into millions of years. The Digambara is attempting to show here that because no physical body can possibly last this long, the word "female" in this passage cannot refer to a woman's body but to the internal sexual feeling.

66. Although Siddhahood is a state achieved after the final death of an Arhat, the word here refers to the thirteenth gunasthana, where that Arhat is still alive.

67. The ninth gunasthana can be characterized by either suppression (upasama) or destruction (ksaya). The destruction of all three types of sexual desire—namely, striveda, pumveda, and napumsakaveda—along with the other subtle passions takes place only when the aspirant enters the path leading to destruction. Hence, attainment of this path, where gross passions are destroyed, engenders a state of nonretrogression.

68. Muni Jambuvijayaji notes (p. 36, n. 4) that an entire folio is missing at this

point and that he has reconstructed the portion which appears here in angle brackets (i.e., verses 42 and 43).

69. Margana refers to a Jaina method of examination of the states of the soul by focusing on the following fourteen aspects during its state of embodiment: destiny, that is, birth (gati ), senses (indriya ), body (kaya ), activity (yoga), sexual desire (veda), passions (kasaya), cognition (jnana ), restraint (samyama ), perception (darsana ), mental colorings (lesya ), the capacity to attain moksa (bhavyatva ), right view (samyaktva ), mental faculties (samjna ), and intake of food (ahara ). In examining these aspects, the texts ask such questions as, which gunasthanas are possible for a being in a particular birth? The answer here, for example, is that the beings born in hell and heaven can have only the first four gunasthanas, as they are unable to assume any of the restraints. In the animal births, it is possible to attain even the fifth gunasthana. All fourteen gunasthanas are possible, however, for human beings. This same analytical method is employed in examining the remaining thirteen marganas.

70. This refers to the jnanavaraniya (the knowledge-obscuring) and the darsanavaraniya (the perception-obscuring) karmas. See JPP , p. 115.

71. These texts can be compared with the following sutras of the Digambara Satkhandagama : manussa coddassu gunatthanesu atti micchaitthi . . . ajogikevalitti (i, 1, sutra 27); manusinisu micchaitthi-sasanasammaitthitthane siya pajjattiyao siya apajjattiyao (sutra 92); sammamicchaitthi-asamjadasammaitthisamja-dasamjadatthane niyama pajjattiyao (sutra 93); quoted in JSK III, p. 285.

1. Prabhacandra commences the topic of strimoksa at the end of his refutation of kevali-kavalahara (see Chapter II, n. 3) on the ground that it is inconsistent with the Arhat's possession of the Four Perfections—namely, infinite knowledge (ananta-jnana ), infinite perception (ananta-darsana ), infinite bliss (ananta-sukha ), and infinite energy (ananta-virya ). He now makes the further claim that the state of moksa, characterized by these four infinite qualities, is possible only to men and not to women. Technically speaking, moksa is achieved only at the end of the Arhat's life at the time of attaining Siddhahood; but the term can be applied to the earlier stage of the Kevalin also when these four qualities are perfected. See also Chapters I (n. 2) and II (n. 19).

2. Prabhacandra does not mention the Yapaniya by name, but as was seen above (section iii) he certainly draws very heavily upon the Strinirvanaprakarana and its Svopajnavrtti in writing this section of the Nyayakumudacandra . The word "Sitambara" does appear once in the text (see #39), but Prabhacandra probably uses that designation as a genetic term that would include the Yapaniya also, the chief proponent of strinirvana. Hence it is possible to identify the opponent in this section as the Yapaniya.

3. See Chapter II (#2).

4. On the Three Jewels, see Chapter II (n. 4).

5. See Chapter II (#7).

6. See Chapter II (#5-6).

7. See Chapter II (#10).

8. See Chapter II (#11).

9. See Chapter II (#12).

10. See Chapter II (#19).

11. See Chapter II (#15).

12. See Chapter II (#18).

13. See Chapter II (#20).

14. See Chapter II (#20).

15. See Chapter II (#21).

16. See Chapter II (#26). It should be noted that Prabhacandra here ignores both the reference to the jinakalpa mode of mendicancy, which came to an end after the time of Jambu (Chapter II, #23), and the Nisitha-bhasya scripture (Chapter II, #26), which lists twenty cases unfit for mendicancy including "a pregnant woman" and "a woman with a young child."

17. See Chapter II (#27).

18. See Chapter II (#28). On the Digambara rule allowing nudity for a nun on her deathbed, see Chaper II (n. 25).

19. See Chapter II (#29). The rule quoted here is from a Svetambara scripture, yet Prabhacandra allows it to be placed in the mouth of the Digambara, suggesting the possibility that this sutra was once common to both sects. In the Prameyakamalamarttanda , however, he merely states that the naked mendicancy for women is neither enjoined in the scripture nor witnessed in the world (na hi strinam nirvastrah samyamo drstah pravacanapratipadito va), p. 329.

20. See Chapter II (#31).

21. See Chapter II (#35 and #38).

22. See Chapter II (#43).

23. See Chapter II (#44). Prabhacandra ignores here the Yapaniya argument that a nun's case is similar to that of the monk who is allowed clothes because he is subject to one of the three defects recognized as valid grounds for not going naked (see Chapter II, #45-47). He also passes in silence the entire argument (Chapter II, #50-60) that the jinakalpa is not suitable for all—for an eight-year-old boy, for example—and that the sthavirakalpa (i.e., mendicancy with clothes, as understood by the Svetambaras) is an equally valid mode available to women.

24. Compare Chapter II (#39); see the sangraha-arya quoted.

25. See Chapter II (#40).

26. See Chapter II (#35).

27. See Chapter II (#41).

28. See Chapter II (#42).

29. See Chapter II (#66).

30. See Chapter II (#79).

31. See Chapter II (#85).

32. See Chapter II (#95).

33. See Chapter II (#96). Prabhacandra ignores the entire discussion (Chapter II, #97-113) on the relationship between word and meaning in determining the true meaning of the word "stri," as well as the Yapaniya doctrine that the sexual desire (veda) must correspond to the biological gender (linga); see Chapter II (#108-113).

34. See Chapter II (#114).

35. See Chapter II (#115).

36. See Chapter II (#117).

37. See Chapter II (#118).

38. See Chapter II (#119-126).

39. Prabhacandra appears to be the first to present the argument of the invariable relationship derived from the gamya-gamaka relationship in the context of strimoksa; it is not found in the works of Sakatayana.

40. This examination of the Buddhist theory on concomitance is found on pp. 446-448 of the Nyayakumudacandra .

41. See Chapter II (#16).

42. In the Naiyayika view, independent parts are related to a whole by the separate element known as inherence (samavaya ). The Jainas reject samavaya as being a separate entity, for in their view there is merely a "qualified identity" between the part and the whole.

43. The word "Sitambara" is not found in the earlier work, the Prameyakama-

lamarttanda , and this is the only time it is mentioned in the Nyayakumudacandra . I have been unable to identify the particular Svetambara writer who might have raised this so-called Naiyayika argument. Most probably Prabhacandra himself anticipates such an objection and puts it in the mouth of the opponent.

44. Bharata, the eldest son of Rsabha, the first Tirthankara, is the first of the twelve cakravartins who ruled the earth during the current half of the time cycle according to the Jaina cosmology. See Chapter V (n. 18). Bharata is said to have attained moksa in that very life. For the legend of Bharata, see JPP , p. 204.

45. The word "subha" (auspicious) must be understood here as suddha (pure). Both sects have maintained that auspicious (i.e., meritorious) deeds take one to heaven but do not lead to moksa. Spiritual liberation is possible only through pure actions—that is, actions which do not generate new karmas. In the popular literature the word "subha" has often been used to represent both the subha and the suddha categories of action. For a discussion on these two categories, see Jaini (1985).

46. See Chapter II (#20).

47. A passage in the text (#45, lines 3-8) that correlates in detail which beings are reborn in which hellish or heavenly abodes is omitted in the translation.

48. See Chapter II (#13).

49. See Chapter II (#21-22).

50. See Chapter II (#21).

51. A Jaina monk may exercise such supernatural powers in order to protect other Jaina mendicants from calamities wrought by cruel kings or demigods. See, for example, the story of the Digambara monk Visnukumara in the Brhatkathakosa (no. 11).

52. This is presumed to be the result of such good deeds as giving alms to monks who have performed great austerities. It is said that such a person's alms vessel will never run out of food, even if a cakravartin's army were to feed from it for an entire day. For details on this and other yogic powers attained by Jaina monks, see JSK I, pp. 475-487.

53. See Chapter II (#21).

54. The Jainas believe that animals possessed of reasoning power and the five senses (samjni) are capable of realizing the right view (samyagdarsana) as well as assuming specific types of minor restraints (anuvrata), such as refraining from killing. Animals are thus considered to be able to attain the fifth gunasthana, a status identical to that of the Jaina laity. See Chapter II (n. 13).

55. See Chapter II (#31).

56. See Chapter II (#33).

57. See Chapter II (#33, last line).

58. See Chapter II (#35).

59. Most Indian religious schools agree that the acts of charity only lead to rebirth in auspicious existences. Meritorious actions themselves are never the direct cause of moksa; cumulatively, however, they may enhance one's opportunities to assume the mendicant restraints, thus indirectly helping the achievement of moksa.

60. See Chapter II (#35-36).

61. The Digambara tradition maintains that the whisk broom is given up by Kevalins, as well as by monks in meditation. There was also a (heretic) Digambara

sect based in the city of Mathura (Mathurasangha) called nispicchika (see Chapter V, ii) that gave up the use of the whisk broom in the belief that it was not essential for leading the life of a mendicant. See JSK I, p. 346.

62. This argument of a Digambara monk not lifting the fallen piece of cloth (thrown over him) is new. Compare in this connection the Svetambara story of Mahavira that after his renunciation he had carried a single piece of cloth on his shoulders for a year but did not care to pick it up when it fell on thorns and thus he happened to become a naked (acelaka) monk. See JPP , p. 13.

63. See Chapter II (#52).

64. See Chapter II (#34).

65. See Chapter II (#34, last line).

66. See Chapter II (#44).

67. See Chapter II (#41).

68. The four types of idle talk include conversation about family and so forth. The four passions are anger, pride, deceitfulness, and covetousness. See Gommatasara-Jivakanda , verse 34.

69. See Chapter II (#34). In the Strinirvanaprakarana , it is the Digambara and not the Yapaniya who argues that women are required to wear clothes in order to dispel shame and hence the Jina is not to be faulted for forbidding nudity to them.

70. In the corresponding section of the Prameyakamalamarttanda (pp. 331-332) Prabhacandra quotes eight verses that ridicule the claim of the clothed monks that they are free from desire (virakta ) despite the wearing of clothes. The eighth verse sums up the Digambara position: only those who are broken by the afflictions arising from women and those who are bound by attachment to the body accept clothes. It is proved thereby that they are not free from either the internal or external bonds. (striparisahabhagnais ca baddharagais ca vigrahe, vastram adiyate yasmat siddham granthadvayam tatah.)

71. The Digambaras maintain that shame (lajja) is a virtue for lay people (being, in their case, the basis for appropriate modesty) but a hindrance for those following the higher path of mendicancy. They do not consider nakedness to be invariably associated with freedom from desire, but assert only that the wearing of clothes always indicates the presence of desire. Those made uncomfortable by public nudity might argue, therefore, that the mendicant should retain his clothes until he is free from all desire (i.e., until he actually becomes vitaraga at the twelfth gunasthana), since the external act of going naked does not itself make one free from internal desire. The Digambaras would answer that while discarding one's clothes is not equivalent to abandoning one's shame (the latter involves eradication of the libido itself), taking the vow of nudity at the initial stages of mendicancy is nevertheless important as it amounts to a total renunciation of the household life and its worldly possessions.

72. See Chapter II (#48).

73. See Chapter II (#64-66).

74. See Chapter II (#73).

75. See Chapter II (#69).

76. All Jainas have traditionally believed that only a man can become a Tirthankara. An exception to this rule is to be found in the Svetambara belief that the nineteenth Tirthankara, Malli, was a female. See Chapter II (n. 54).

77. See Chapter II (#71). It should be noted that Prabhacandra is using this Svetambara text (quoted also by the Yapaniya author) to make the point that nuns are equal to monks.

78. See Chapter II (#87).

79. See Chapter II (#89). Both sects believe that the process of the destruction of karmas begins at the eighth gunasthana, which is not accessible to anyone but a mendicant. (For exceptions to this rule in the Svetambara tradition, see Chapter VI, n. 13.) From this doctrine flows the Digambara claim that a woman who is barred from taking the mendicant vows—that is, from reaching the sixth gunasthana—cannot rise to the eighth gunasthana. Thus in their view a woman's anatomy itself is obstructive in initiating the process of the destruction of karmas.

80. Compare the verse quoted in Chapter II (#89).

81. See #27 and Chapter II (#95).

82. The reason for rejecting the authenticity of this verse is evidently the word "linga," which can only mean the physical sign of gender (as opposed to the word "veda" in #82, which can mean both the gender as well as the internal sexual feeling) and hence is not acceptable to the Digambaras. For an alternative text, see Chapter VI (#8 and n. 8).

83. The Prakrit Siddhabhakti is attributed to Kundakunda (see Pravacanasara , intro., p. 25) and is daily recited by the Digambara monks. It should be noted that this verse was not quoted by Sakatayana, but Prabhacandra offers it as an alternative text to support the Digambara theory that only men can attain moksa.

84. See Chapter II (#115). For an additional argument that women do not have the necessary samhanana (joints of the bones) to achieve the higher states of meditation, see Chapter IV (#10).

85. Both sides agree that animals—who can also experience any of the three kinds of sexuality regardless of their biological gender—are incapable of attaining moksa, since they do not possess the necessary human body.

86. According to the Digambaras, one cannot attain sukladhyana, a necessary antecedent to moksa, in a female body. For additional qualifications, see Chapter VI (#79 and n. 21). For details on the sukladhyana, see JPP , pp. 255-259.

87. See Chapter II (#117).

88. The former and the latter moksas refer to the attainment of Arhatship and Siddhahood, respectively. See note 1.

1. The editor of the Pravacanasara uses an asterisk to indicate that these verses are later accretions (praksipta ) to the original text. See section (i).

2. Verses 11, 12, and 13 are probably taken from the Sutraprabhrta of Kundakunda. See Chapter I (#6-8).

3. The Jaina karma texts speak of six types of bone joints (samhanana). The first is the perfect joint (called vajra-vrsabha-naraca-samhanana), noted for its adamantine quality of great sturdiness and strength. The remaining five are progressively weaker. Each human being is born with one of these six samhananas, which remain the same for the duration of one's life. Human beings born with one of the first three samhananas are said to be capable of joining the mendicant order. But moksa is possible only for those who are born with the first samhanana. This is because only persons endowed with such adamantine joints are said to be capable of withstanding the rigors of austerities that lead to the highest form of meditation called the sukladhyana (see Chapter Ill, n. 86) without which moksa cannot be achieved. It should be noted, however, that birth in the seventh hell is also possible only to those beings (namely, men and fish; see Chapter II n. 18) who are endowed with the first samhanana. For details see JSK II, p. 321, and Tatia and Kumar (1981, p. 83).

4. The question of the opponent here is that if women too can have the first three samhananas, then the Digambara prohibition against their assuming the mendicant vows or even attaining moksa is not supported by their own scripture. Jayasena therefore cites this verse as the authority in support of the Digambara view. The verse declares that the first three samhananas are available only to the women born in the bhogabhumi (see Chapter II, n. 7) and not to those who are born in the karmabhumi. Both sects have believed that beings born in the bhogabhumi cannot be reborn in hells or practice mendicancy or attain moksa; these are possible only from a birth in the karmabhumi. Thus according to this verse women are barred from entering mendicancy and from attaining moksa, and hence it serves as

scriptural evidence for the Digambara view. Jayasena is here quoting from the eleventh-century Nemicandra's Gommatasara-Karmakanda (verse 32). As will be seen, the Svetambara writer Meghavijaya (see Chapter VI, #85) rejects this quotation as unauthentic and hence unacceptable to his sect. For further discussion on this passage see Vakil (1965), who has argued that this verse could be an interpolation to justify the Digambara position on strimoksa.

5. See Chapter I (nn. 9 and 14).

6. See Chapter II (#64).

7. For the legend of Malli, see the Introduction (#24).

8. For a list of the sixteen observances leading to rebirth as a Tirthankara, see Tattvarthasutra , vi, 24. For a comparison with the Buddhist doctrine of the practice of paramitas (perfections), see Jaini (1981).

9. See Chapter II (n. 57).

10. For a discussion on the iconography of Malli, see Chapter VI (#77).

11. Since the possibility of a woman's going to heaven is not disputed, this objection is probably spurious.

12. Verse [*15] deals with ordination of men and hence is omitted here.

13. This is Kundakunda's original verse and serves as the scriptural authority for the Digambara claim that nudity is a prerequisite for a true member of the Jaina mendicant order. It may be noted that Kundakunda does not even mention the whisk broom (pinchi) or the water gourd (kamandalu) as the requisites, although in practice these serve to identify a Digambara monk and distinguish him from the Svetambara mendicants who in addition wear clothes and keep bowls for collecting food as well as carry a wooden staff.

1. This syllogistic argument, as well as the counterargument that appears at the end (#44), can be traced to the Nyayakumudacandra (Chapter III, #2 and #75) and hence it is conceivable that Gunaratna had access to Prabhacandra's work.

2. The Yapaniya is no longer the defender of strimoksa as he was in Chapter II. By the time of Gunaratna the Svetambaras have become the champions of this doctrine and are using the Yapaniya arguments almost verbatim as they were presented by Sakatayana in the Strinirvanaprakarana and the Svopajnavrtti . Compare the items listed here with Chapter II (#12).

3. Compare Chapter II (#28).

4. This seems to be a Svetambara attempt to claim that there is no basic difference between men and women in their reason for wearing clothes. Sakatayana, however, restricts clothes only to those men who are subject to the three defects elaborated in Chapter II (#15).

5. See Chapter 11 (#33).

6. See Chapter II (#35). Once again Gunaratna ignores the Yapaniya restrictions that applied to the use of clothes by men.

7. See Chapter II (#39).

8. The only method of voluntary death approved by the Jaina scriptures is by fasting called sallekhana (see Chapter II, #55). The Jainas have condemned all other forms of death, including those practiced by Brahmanical yogins such as entering fire, or drowning in water, or jumping from a hill. See JPP , p. 154.

9. See Chapter II (#39). Gunaratna ignores Prabhacandra's response to this argument as in Chapter III (#58).

10. See Chapter II (#41). For a counterargument with the use of this metaphor, see Chapter VI (n. 16).

11. See Chapter II (#85-88).

12. The yathakhyata-caritra , the highest form of mendicant conduct, is achieved only by those who have reached perfect purity with the destruction of all forms of mohaniya-karma. Hence it is possible only for those beings who have attained the twelfth and the thirteenth gunasthanas. The Sarvarthasiddhi (ix, 18) explains it as that conduct the description of which conforms to the true nature of the self (yathatmasvabhavo 'vasthitas tathaivakhyatatvat).

13. See Chapter II (#12).

14. This seems to be in response to Prabhacandra's argument in Chapter III (#34).

15. See Chapter II (#18). Gunaratna ignores Prabhacandra's response to this argument in Chapter III (#44).

16. For the story of the fish that went to the seventh hell, see Chapter II, n. 17.

17. Compare Chapter II (#20).

18. Gunaratna is probably referring here to the story of a Digambara monk named Sivabhuti mentioned in Kundakunda's Bhavaprabhrta : tusamasam ghosamto bhavavisuddho mahanubhavo ya, namena ya Sivabhui kevalanani phudam jao [53]. Srutasagara, commenting on this verse, narrates the following story. There was a certain monk called Sivabhuti of pure heart. Due to weak memory he could not remember the technical terms used for soul and body (namely, jiva and sarira ) that were necessary for distinguishing them according to the Jaina teaching. One day he saw a woman washing lentils and asked her what she was doing. Her answer that she was separating lentils (masa ) from the chaff (tusa ) made him repeat the formula "pulses are separate from chaff," which led him to the realization, even without using the technical terms, of the separation of his soul from the body and he instantly achieved kevalajnana; Satprabhrtadisangrahah , p. 201. Gunaratna is using this Digambara story of the "Masatusa" monk to prove the point that the lack of formal learning of the sacred texts need not prevent women from attaining moksa. For a discussion on the relevance of the study of the Purva texts (forbidden to women) in attaining moksa, see Chapter VI (n. 41).

19. Of the twelve cakravartins who ruled during the current half of the Jaina time cycle, ten attained moksa at their death while two (Subhauma, no. 8, and Brahmadatta, no. 12) were reborn in the seventh hell. See JSK IV, p. 12.

20. This is probably a reference to Narada (a contemporary of Krsna the "narayana"; see Chaper II, n. 49) who is said to have attained moksa in the Harivamsapurana of the eighth-century Digambara acarya Punnata Jinasena: Narado 'pi narasresthah pravarajya tapaso balat, krtva bhavaksayam moksam aksayam samupeyivan; sarga 65, verse 24. It should be noted, however, that the term "narada " appears in the Jaina Puranas as a designation of a literary type, an imitation of the Brahmanical sage Narada, who with his cunning nature brings about the conflict between the narayana and the pratinarayana (see Chapter II, n. 49). The Digambara tradition describes the naradas as contemporaries of the vasudevas, fond of quarreling but also occasionally leading righteous lives; they are worthy of attaining moksa, but due to the defect of violence (which they help to perpetrate) they are reborn in hell: kalahappiya kadaim dhammaraha vasudevasamakala, bhavva nirayagadim te himsadosena gacchamti; Trilokasara , verse 835, quoted in the Harivamsapurana , p. 800, n. 1. In view of this text, Pandit Pannalal Jain, the editor of the Harivamsapurana , has questioned the accuracy of the statement that Narada attained moksa (ibid.). For various entries under this name in the Svetambara canon, see Mehta (1970-1972, 1, 321).

21. Hemacandra in his Yogasastra-svopajnavrtti narrates at length the story of Drdhapraharin (lit., One Who Hits Hard). He was a chieftain of the thieves and had killed a cow, a Brahman, and his pregnant wife and thus deserved to be reborn in the seventh hell. However, he repented his evil deeds, became a Jaina monk, practiced severe penances, and attained moksa in that very life: brahma-stri-bhruna-go-ghata-patakan narakatitheh, Drdhaprahariprabhrter yogo hastavalambanam; i, verse 12. For other references, see Mehta (1970-1972, I, p. 355). His story is not found in the extant Digambara literature.

1. An asterisk followed by the number of the pages and lines indicates the portion omitted here from the original edition of the text of the Yuktiprabodha-Svopajnavrtti (1928).

2. The text at this stage (p. 76, line 6, to p. 78, line 5) cites verbatim a long passage from the Gommatasara-vrtti (verses 694-701) dealing with the gunasthanas attained by a soul in a given state of existence. (See Chapter II, nn. 12 and 13, for a summary.) Human beings born in the realm of action (karmabhumi) alone may attain all fourteen gunasthanas (i.e., may attain moksa in that very life). The author here draws attention to the scripture in which all human beings, and not only males, are said to be able to attain the fourteen gunasthanas (an argument first put forth by the Yapaniya author Sakatayana in Chapter II, #137) and hence, even according to the Digambara scripture (see Chapter II, n. 70), women can attain moksa.

3. Meghavijaya is consistent in referring to this text as Gomattasara instead of Gommatasara , its traditional title. This error has been corrected throughout.

4. For this variety of the mohaniya-karma, see JPP , pp. 117-121.

5. On the concepts of the realms of pleasure and action, see Chapter II (n. 7).

6. The ladder of destruction of karmas (ksapaka-sreni, for which see Chapter II, #118 and n. 67), which can be commenced with any libido by an aspirant, begins at the eighth gunasthana. In the ninth stage all three libidos are totally destroyed. Only a subtle variety of the passion called lobha (desire for life) remains, which is also destroyed at the twelfth gunasthana. This is an irreversible course and the soul must proceed immediately to the stage of Arhatship (the thirteenth gunasthana) and must attain moksa at the end (fourteenth gunasthana) of that life. For details, see JPP , chap. 8.

7. Manusyini is the Sanskritized form of the Prakrit manusini employed in the oldest (C. A.D. 150) Digambara text Satkhandagama (sutras 92 and 93) for a female (as opposed to Pkt. manussa , Skt. manusya , i.e., male). In describing which human being may have which gunasthanas, this text mentions both manusya and manusyini separately and states that both can attain all fourteen gunasthanas. (See the text quoted at Chapter II, n. 71.) Since the thirteenth and fourteenth gunasthanas are attained only by a Kevalin (who must attain moksa at the end of that life), this Digambara text allowing the attainment of these gunasthanas by manusyini goes against the professed Digambara doctrine that women cannot attain moksa in that life. The Digambara commentators as seen above (Chapter III, ii) have concluded that the term "manusyini" refers not to a biological female but to a biological male who is psychologically female. Prabhacandra, as we saw earlier, ignores this whole discussion, but Meghavijaya is persistent in his examination of the Digambara interpretation of this term, which has evaded resolution even to this day.

8. Both sects believe that at one instant (samaya ) a minimum of one and a maximum of one hundred and eight souls attain moksa (samkhya-jaghanyena ekasamaye ekah siddhyati, utkarsenastottarasatasamkhyah; Sarvarthasiddhi , x, 9; see JSK Ill, p. 339). Since the Digambaras do not believe in the moksa of anyone but a male, the number of one hundred and eight is not further divided to show the physical gender as is clone in the verse quoted by Meghavijaya. This verse is therefore not authoritative for the Digambaras; nor is the one quoted by the Yapaniya author

Sakatayana (at Chapter II, #95), which was expressly rejected by Prabhacandra (see Chapter III, #81 and n. 82).

9. That women have excessive crookedness (maya or kautilya) is not necessarily an exclusive Digambara argument based on any significant karma theory applying only to women; rather, it reflects a general attitude of Indian men shared by the Svetambaras and the Yapaniyas alike.

10. There is perhaps an allusion here to the great poet Kalidasa, whose hero, the Yaksa, makes a haunting reference to the jaghana of a beloved woman in Meghaduta , verse 45.

11. It may be noted that in the Jaina order only monks can administer the mahavratas to a woman, after which she is handed over to a nun (who had sponsored her) for supervision. For a detailed account of the initiation (diksa ) of a nun in the Svetambara sect, see Shanta (1985, pp. 343-364). In Buddhism the Buddha is said to have allowed the first nun, Mahaprajapati Gautami, the privilege of ordaining a nun, a custom that is said to prevent the monks of such Theravada countries as Sri Lanka, the Union of Myanma, and Thailand from ordaining women to revive the extinct order of nuns in present times. Since women may not initiate themselves, they must apparently await the arrival of the new Buddha to reestablish the bhiksuni-sangha. See the Introduction (#45).

12. It is universally believed by the Jainas that, during those times when moksa is not possible (such as the present age), both monks and nuns who keep their vows properly and attain peaceful death through the holy practice of sallekhana (see Chapter II, #55) are first born in heaven and then reborn as humans to resume their holy career. Although nuns may thus be reborn in heavens, both sects believe that they may not be able to achieve the status of the king of gods (Indra or Ahamindra), a position reserved for monks only.

13. Marudevi was the mother of the first Tirthankara Rsabha. The Svetambaras believe that she attained kevalajnana and died immediately (i.e., achieved Siddhahood), while still a laywoman, at the sight of the omniscient glory of her son. Of course, the Digambaras reject this belief since in their doctrine neither a woman nor a householder can attain moksa. For further discussion on this controversy, see JPP , p. 204.

14. Draupadi, the heroine of the Mahabharata and wife of the five Pandava brothers, also appears in the Jaina Puranas (e.g., Trisastisalakapurusacaritra , V, p. 198) as the wife of the five Pandavas and becomes a Jaina nun when her husbands are initiated as Jaina monks. The Digambaras reject the claim that Draupadi (as well as Marudevi and other women) attained moksa, believing that they were born in heaven and will eventually attain moksa later in a future life when reborn as men. Subhacandra (c. 1600) in his Pandavapurana (sarga xxv) stresses this point in the following Digambara account of Draupadi and other nuns: Rajimati tatha Kunti Subhadra Draupadi punah, samyaktvena samam vrttam vavrire ta vrsodyatah. [140] svayurante ca samnyasya svaradhanacatustayam, muktasavah samaradhya jagmus tah sodasam divam. [143] suratvasamsritah sarvah pumvedodayabhajinah, samanikasura bhutva tatratyam bhunjate sukham. [144] te nrloke nrtam etya tapas taptva sudustaram, dhyanayogena setsyanti krtva karmaksayam narah. [147]

15. For the Svetambara story of Malli, see the Introduction (#24), Jayasena's arguments (Chapter IV, #14), and Meghavijaya's rejoinder at #77 and note 38 below.

16. The specific mention of the white-clad monks (svetavaso bhiksunam, i.e., the Svetambaras) in this context is significant. The opponents of the Digambaras here are not the Yapaniya monks, who adhered to the rules of nudity but sought to make an exception of their nuns so that they could continue to wear clothes but still attain moksa in that very life; as a rule, however, they did not claim this concession for male mendicants (other than for those who were subject to three defects; see Chapter II, #45). The Svetambara monks did not observe the rules regarding nudity, which were incumbent, according to the Digambaras, on all mendicants. In the opinion of the Digambaras, they were worse than nuns, because while nuns wore clothing in accordance with the rules of the discipline, monks had no such dispensation. Hence the Digambaras remind their Svetambara opponents here that by using this (false) argument to claim moksa for women despite the use of clothes, they run the risk of denying the true status of their own monks and their mahavratas. For the earlier use of this metaphor (a popular one among the mercantile communities to which the Jainas have traditionally belonged) of the loss of capital in search of profit, see Chapter V (#21).

17. Compare this Jaina rule with the first of the eight gurudharmas of the Buddhist law pertaining to the nuns: (a) vassasatupasampannaya bhikkhuniya tadah' upasampannassa bhikkhuno abhivadanam paccutthanam anjalikammam samicikammam katabbam. ayam pi dhammo sakkatva garukatva manetva pujetva yavajivam anatikkamaniyo. Vinaya, Cullavagga , x, 2. (b) varsasatopasampannaye Ananda bhiksuniye tadahopa [sam] pannassa bhiksusya sirasa pada vanditavya. ayam Ananda bhiksuninam prathamo garudharmo yo bhiksunihi yavajjivam satkartavyo yava anatikramaniyo vela-m-iva mahasamudrena. Bhiksuni-Vinaya , p. 17.

18. For this Svetambara tradition, see Devendra (Kalpasutra , app. I, nn. 7-10), who quotes the following in support of these beliefs: "acelatvam sri Adinatha-Mahavira-sadhunam manapramanasahitam jirnaprayam dhavalam ca kalpate. sri Ajitadivimsatitirthakarasadhunam tu pancavarnam (Kalpa-sutrakalpalata ); acelukko dhammo purimassa ya pacchimassa ya jinassa; majjhimagana jinanam hoi sacelo acelo ya (Kalpasamarthana )."

19. For a discussion on the variation of the mendicant rules under different Tirthankaras, see JPP , pp. 12-20.

20. For the verse "acelakkuddesiya " see Chapter II (#46).

21. This verse should be read with the verse 548: jati vi ya Bhutavade savvassa vayogatassa otaro, nijjuhana tadha vi hu dummedhe pappa itthi ya. [548] jati gaha. yady api Drstivade samastavanmayavataras tathapi durmedhasam ayogyanam strinam canugrahartham anyasrutavisesopadesah, sravakanam ca. Visesavasyakabhasya , verse 548. It should be noted in this connection that the first two sukladhyanas, attained immediately prior to attaining the kevalajnana, are possible only to those who know the Purvas (according to the rule: sukle cadye purvavidah, Tattvarthasutra , ix, 39). The Svetambaras nevertheless claim that a nun who is forbidden the study of the Purvas may yet attain kevalajnana. For further discussion on this problem, see #79.

22. On narayana and baladeva, see Chapter II (n. 49).

23. The Jaina cosmology locates the abode of the Siddhas at the summit of the universe, immediately above the Sarvarthasiddhi heaven. See Chapter II (n. 18) and JPP , p. 127.

24. See Chapter II (n. 51).

25. This syllogism was first put forth by Prabhacandra (Chapter III, #57) in response to the Yapaniya argument at Chapter II (#39).

26. These neo-Digambaras are the followers of Banarasidas mentioned in my introduction (i).

27. For the concept of the space (pradesa) occupied by material atoms and immaterial substances (including souls), see JPP , pp. 98-100.

28. In the discussion on the audarika and the parama-audarika-sarira (Chapter II, n. 3) it was seen that the Svetambaras, together with the Yapaniyas, reject the Digambara theory of the ordinary body turning into the parama-audarika-sarira at the moment of attaining Arhatship. They believe that the Arhat must continue to take food and water as before, subject to the same physical needs (such as the necessity to eat and drink and respond to calls of nature) as any other human being. As for women, the Digambaras do not admit that they may attain kevalajnana, and hence in their doctrine women are automatically excluded from having a parama-audarika body. Since the Svetambaras do admit that women may attain kevalajnana, they must account for the way in which female Kevalins would cope with their menstrual periods, which, in the absence of the theory of a parama-audarika-sarira, must occur in all mature females. For the Svetambara reply to this question, see #89 and note 49 below.

29. Meghavijaya is obviously referring here to Prabhacandra (see #92), the exponent of the Digambara doctrine. The last line, which says that Dhana (i.e., Kubera) would continue to look upon women with loving eyes, is a figurative way of saying that a woman must remain content with a rebirth in heaven rather than attaining moksa in that very life.

30. The text at this stage (from pp. 88, line 12, to p. 91 line 13) cites large passages from the Gommatasara-vrtti and the Pancasangraha regarding the various kinds of gunasthanas attained by different souls through the process of gradually eliminating various types of karmas. This is an attempt to show that the Digambaras are wrong in taking the word "manusyini" to mean a biological male who has temporarily become psychologically female by experiencing the female libido.

31. Whether a woman who desires a man is more or less perverted than a man who desires a man is a crucial question in this debate but is never addressed by the Digambaras. The Svetambara line of questioning implies that they feel such a man (i.e., a homosexual) would be inferior to a woman or, at very least, should not fare better than a woman in following the spiritual path. The Digambara answer would appear to be that the presence of female libido in a monk at the eighth gunasthana is not of any significance, since all three libidos must be destroyed at the ninth gunasthana, before that monk's progress toward the state of a Kevalin. See the verse from the Prakrta-Siddhabhakti quoted by the Digambara in #8 above.

32. The Digambara applies the same method, namely the recourse to the past state (bhutapurvanyaya), in describing the twelve kinds of Siddhas mentioned in the Tattvarthasutra , x, 9. For example, a question is asked: With what gender (linga) can a person attain Siddhahood? Answer: Physically, only with male gender. Or one can take the word "linga" in the sutra to mean the mendicant emblem. One attains Siddhahood by the emblem of a nirgrantha. By the emblem of one with property (sagrantha) also, if one were to answer by taking into account only the past state of that person. (lingena kena siddhih? . . . dravyatah pullingenaiva. athava nirgrantha-

lingena. sagranthalingena va siddhir bhutapurvanayapeksaya. Sarvarthasiddhi , x, 10; quoted in JSK III, p. 338.)

33. This first grade of the passions (kasaya) is called anantanubandhi , which is overcome when the fourth gunasthana of the right view has been attained. The second grade is called apratyakhyanavarana (that which prevents the assumption of the vows of the laity); it is overcome in the fifth gunasthana. The third grade is called pratyakhyanavarana (that which prevents the assumption of the vows of the mendicant); it is overcome on the sixth gunasthana when the mendicant vows are accepted. The final grade, samjvalana , includes the three kinds of libido (pumveda, striveda, and napumsakaveda) as well as the most subtle kind of attachment for life. The libido is eliminated in the ninth stage, and the remaining passion is totally overcome in the tenth through twelfth gunasthanas. The Digambaras claim that a woman is incapable of ascending any farther than the fifth gunasthana-that is, she is unable to assume the mendicant vows. In technical terms, this would mean that a woman is unable to overcome the third grade of passions, a claim that is evident to the Digambaras on account of her continued bashfulness and so forth. The Svetambaras reject this claim. For details see JPP , chap. 4.

34. Souls who lack all possibility of ever attaining moksa and are thus destined forever to remain in samsara are called abhavya; those who may attain receive the designation of bhavya. For a discussion on this Jaina theory of "predestination," see Jaini (1977).

35. Krtrimakliba (lit., one who has been rendered a hermaphrodite). Since the word is employed in distinction to a congenital hermaphrodite (jatinapumsaka ), it appears that the word is used to refer to a person who is born male but was rendered a "hermaphrodite" by such means as castration, as in the case of a eunuch. The Svetambaras, as maintained by Meghavijaya, will have no difficulty in admitting such a person (essentially a male) to their mendicant ranks as he will be clothed according to their rules. Although the Digambara response to this Svetambara statement is not clearly set forth, it is well known that a noncongenital hermaphrodite, on account of his genital deformity, would not be allowed to become a Digambara monk, who must go nude. This position clearly emphasizes the aspect of biological gender in the assumption of the mahavratas and the attainment of moksa, regardless of what libido might be entertained. In this respect, the status of a noncongenital hermaphrodite in the Digambara tradition would be similar to that of a woman. For a discussion on the krtrimakliba in the Buddhist texts, see Zwilling (1989).

36. According to another passage it is not a bamboo tube alone but one filled with sesame seeds that is compared to the vagina filled with minute beings. Compare: yad vedaragayogan maithunam abhidhiyate tad abrahma, avatarati tatra himsa vadhasya sarvatra sadbhavat. [1] himsyante tilanalyam taptayasi vinihite tila yadvat, bahavo jiva yonau himsyante maithune tadvat. [2] Purusarthasiddhyupaya , verses 107-108. Compare: yoniyantrasamutpannah susuksma janturasayah, pidyamana vipadyante yatra tan maithunam tyajet. Yogasastra-Svopajnavrtti , I, ii, 79. Hemacandra quotes a passage from the Kamasastra in support of the Jaina belief: yonau jantusadbhavam samvadena dradhayati-jantusadbhavam Vatsyayano 'py aha. Vatsyayanah Kamasastra karah anena ca Vatsyayanasamvadadhinam asya pramanyam iti nocyate, na hi Jainam sasanam anyasamvadadhina-

pramanyam, kintu ye 'pi kamapradhanas tair api jantusadbhavo napahnuta ity ucyate. Vatsyayanasloko yatha—raktajah. krmayah suksma mrdumadhyadhisa-ktayah, janmavartmasu kandutim janayanti tathavidham. Ibid., I, ii, 80. This verse with a slight variation appears not in the extant Kamasutra but in the Jayamangalatika on it by Yasodhara. See the Kamasutram of Vatsyayana, p. 78.

37. By naked female yogins our author probably has in mind certain Saivite female ascetics who are known to have practiced nudity. One such example is the Virasaiva saint Mahadeviyakka; for details see Nandimath (1965, vol. I, pp. 7, 8, 13, 215).

38. On the Svetambara legend of the female Tirthankara Malli, see the Introduction (#24). As was seen earlier (Chapter II, n. 54), Sakatayana refrains from any allusion to Malli, a curious omission which indicates the possibility that the Yapaniyas, like the Digambaras, did not consider Malli to be a woman. For further discussion on this legend see Shah (1987, pp. 159-160). Plate LVII in that work illustrates a headless stone image (from the Lucknow museum) of a woman seated in the yogic posture similar to that of a male Tirthankara and presumed to be the only extant image of the female Malli. The image bears no inscription, but the front side shows prominent breasts without the trace of a halter while the reverse side shows the braided hair reaching the bare hips. No Jaina sect, however, allows a nun to be naked or permits her to retain braided hair. While there is no doubt that this is a Jaina image, further evidence is required for establishing the true identity of the person it depicts.

39. Pleasing countenance (subhagatva ) is a characteristic resulting from the meritorious kind of body-producing, that is, the nama-karma. Both sects believe that with the attainment of the kevalajnana, the hair on the head and other parts of the body as well as nails of an Arhat stop growing forever, because of this subhaganamakarma. For this reason the Jina images of both sects are depicted without mustache and beard and with only small curly hair (except that of the first Jina, who is depicted with long hair falling on his shoulders). The Svetambara images, even of Mahavira, who according to their own texts went totally naked, still depict him with a loincloth in order to preserve the decency of the image. The Digambara images, as is well known, are always made to show the nude figure complete with the male member, since according to them holy nudity is not opposed to decency and reflects the true state of the Jina's perfected mendicancy. The oldest standing Jina images invariably depict the state of nudity. In the case of the seated images (such as found in Mathura) the male members were naturally covered by the folding of the legs in the lotus posture; these images were probably worshipped by adherents of both the Digambara and the Svetambara sects. It is only when the sectarian dispute reached a point of total separation of the two mendicant communities that the Svetambaras, sometime in the early Gupta era (c. fifth century) appear to have begun carving exclusively Svetambara images draped in stylized loincloths. For further discussion on the development of the Svetambara iconography, see Shah (1987, intro.).

40. Paryusanakalpa would appear to be the text known as Samayari (Rules for Ascetics), which forms part of the Kalpasutra and contains rules for monks and nuns for the period of the retreat during the rainy season. See Jacobi's translation of the Kalpasutra (1884, pp. 296-311).

41. Gunaratna first introduced this argument and referred to the story of the

monk who had realized moksa through the metaphor of the lentils and chaff (Chapter V, #36). In the Digambara version of this story (Chapter V, n. 17) of the "Masatusa" monk Sivabhuti, he was not said to be unintelligent, as maintained by Meghavijaya, but only lacking memory. Whether he had received any instruction in the Purvas is not clear from the Digambara text. Since the first two sukladhyanas are not possible without the knowledge of the Purvas (see n. 21 above), one would have to assume that the Digambaras would not agree with Meghavijaya's contention that such monks could have attained moksa without study of the Purvas .

42. For the temples on Mount Satrunjaya, see Burgess (1869).

43. The verse quoted from the Bhagavad-Gita tells only that women (together with men of such low castes as the Vaisyas and Sudras) can attain moksa but it does not assert, as Meghavijaya seems to claim, that they attain it in that same life. It should be noted further that the Svetambara is not quoting this heretical text in support of his thesis but rather to ridicule the Digambara claim that just because something is believed by somebody or is well known to some people (e.g., the places of nirvana of certain monks), it should be accepted by all as authoritative. Neither the Digambaras nor the Svetambaras believe that the highest goal (para gati ) spoken of in the Gita is identical with the Jaina concept of moksa.

44. [^* p. 113, line 7-p. 123, line 6] Meghavijaya's refutations of the Digambara arguments (which were given above from #25 to #39) are omitted here as they are almost identical, albeit presented in a more detailed form, with those found in the Strinirvanaprakarana (Chapter II) and the Tarkarahasyadipikavrtti (Chapter V) discussed above. Only new arguments or significantly new formulations of the old arguments are reproduced in sections #84 through #92.

45. Here Meghavijaya seems to be responding to Prabhacandra's argument in Chapter III (#68), which drew a contrast between the sacelasamyama of a nun and the acelasamyama of a monk. It should be noted that Prabhacandra does not use the terms "sthavirakalpa" and "jinakalpa" to describe these two practices. For the variation in the meaning attached to these two modes in the Svetambara and the Digambara sects, see Chapter II (n. 35).

46. On samhanana, see Chapter IV (n. 3).

47. Meghavijaya is rejecting here the scripture quoted by Jayasena at Chapter IV (#10).

48. On the six kinds of samsthanas or structures of a human body see Chapter II (n. 53). It is believed that the entirely unsymmetrical or deformed body (hundasamsthana) is the result of extremely evil karmas. However, having a deformed body of this kind is not considered by the Svetambaras to be an impediment to attaining moksa in that very life. It should be noted that the Digambaras do not agree with this view. They have maintained that a man with a deformed body may not be initiated into mendicancy and hence may not attain moksa in the same life. See Pravacanasara , iii, 25 [^* 15] for the physical qualifications of an aspirant seeking initiation as a Digambara monk.

49. As described in note 28 above, the Digambara believes that the Arhat's body, being pure (parama-audarika) and able to sustain itself without food or water, is totally free from such impure substances as blood, semen, or urine. Since in their doctrine a woman may not attain Arhatship, she cannot escape the impurities that must result from the ingestion of food and water. The Svetambaras reject the theory

of the "pure body" claimed by the Digambaras for the Arhat and maintain that the latter's body continues to function as before. The presence of semen in a male Arhat's body and its discharge, however, present a problem for the Svetambaras. They cannot deny the existence of semen in a young male body, but they must deny the possibility of its discharge in an Arhat because it is believed that seminal discharge cannot occur without experiencing the veda or libido. Since libido, which is the result of the mohaniya (i.e., the passion-generating) karma, is eliminated prior to the attainment of Arhatship, the Svetambaras believe that no discharge of semen is possible for an Arhat. By the same token, it is argued by the Svetambaras that the menstrual flow of a female Arhat, even if she is young, will cease to exist because, like the male Arhat, she will also have eradicated the libido that is said to be the primary cause for the existence of the menstrual flow. Whereas the invariable connection between the seminal discharge and libido is evident to all, only the Svetambaras seem to connect the menstrual flow with libido.

50. Meghavijaya discusses this point at great length in his treatment of the controversy over the kevali-kavalahara (from p. 157, line 6, to p. 159, line 10).

51. Since the word "prabhendu " undoubtedly refers to the Digambara author Prabhacandra, the adjective "dvijihvabharana ," in addition to signifying a villainous or double-tongued person, probably refers to the two famous works of Prabhacandra, namely, the Prameyakamalamarttanda and the Nyayakumudacandra , which contain the most forceful defense of the Digambara position on strimoksa.

52. Visnu and prativisnu are synonyms for narayana and pratinarayana, the personifications of a hero and a villain respectively. They are born enemies and both are destined to be reborn in hell at the end of that life as a consequence of their warfare. Both sects agree that visnu and prativisnu must be males. See Chapter II (n. 49).