INDEX

A

Aarsleff, Hans, 36 n

Acedia (spiritual apathy, sloth), 56 , 292

Adair, James, 229

Adaptation:

biological, 23 , 24 , 45 , 52 , 53 ;

linguistic, 47 , 49 ;

physical, 267 ;

religious, 129 -30;

social, 94 -95, 99 , 131 .

See also Innovation, creativity

Adriani, N., 146 , 147 n

Africa, cultures and religions of. See Akamba; Alur; Aruba; Ancestor worship and worship of the dead; Ashanti; Azande; Banyoro; Bori cult; Cwezi complex; Dahomey; Dinka; Dogon; Ehanzu; Gã; Hausa; Jok ; Kaguru; Konso; !Kung; Lugbara; Mandari; Ndembu; Nsukka Igbo; Nuer; Pygmies; Sacrifice; Spirit possession; Shona; Swazi; Tallensi; Tonga; Yoruba; Zar cult; Zinza; Zulu

Afterworld, conceptions of, 146 (Singapore), 161 (Siberia), 165 (Finns), 167 (Manchu), 181 -82 (Northwest Coast), 236 -39 and 241 (northeastern North America), 251 and 251 n.14 (Blackfoot).

See also Milky Way; Myths, of ascent to heavens; Myths, of descent to and return from world of dead; Shaman, ascent of, to heavens; Shaman, descent of, to underworld; Shaman, recovery of souls of sick or dead by

Agriculturalists:

connected with hunters through shaman-priest (Huichol), 207 ;

portrayed as aggressive, 71 ;

sacrifice and slaying of deity by, 71 -72;

settled routines of, suited to priestly ritual, 196 , 204 (Mesoamerica), 207 (Huichol), 210 (Inca), 214 (Mapuche), 229 -30 (southeastern North America), 262 .

See also Hunters; Ritual, agricultural

Ainu (of Hokkaido, Japan), 159 , 159 n, 165 -66

Akamba (of Kenya, East Africa), 79

Alabama (of southeastern North America), 231

Alexander, Hartley Burr, 87 , 246 n, 247

Algonquian peoples of North America, 185 n, 233 , 234 , 238 -42, 244 , 245 , 250 , 202 n, 252 , 252 n, 263 .

See also Arapaho; Blackfoot; Cheyenne; Chippewa; Delaware; Fox; Menomini; Micmac; Montagnais; Ojibwa; Ottawa; Potomac; Powhatan; Saulteaux; Shawnee

Altai (Turkic people of Central Asia), 160 , 161 , 215

Alur (of Nilotic Sudan, Africa), 121 , 130

Amahuaca (of Amazonian Peru and Brazil), 225

Amazonian and other tropical cultures and religions of South America, 219 -27, 263 .

See also Amahuaca; Apapocuva; Bakaïrí; Barasana; Bororo; Carib; Cashinahua; Desana; Gê; Gran Chaco; Guaraní; Jívaro; Macusi; Mehinaku; Namoeteri; Shamatari; Sharanahua;

Shavante; Sherente; Tapirapé; Taulipáng; Tukanoans; Tupí-Guaraní; Tupinamba

Amba (of Uganda, East Africa), 74 , 75

Amoss, Pamela, 179

Ancestor worship and worship of the dead, 63 ;

absence of, in Amazon, 219 ;

absence of, among Apache, 64 ;

in Africa, 63 -65, 63 n, 64 n, 72 -73, 110 -11;

in Australia, 67 -68;

conception of time in, 65 ;

connection of, with blood and fertility, 72 -73;

"future orientation" of, 70 , 95 ;

by Inca, 211 , 211 n.5;

by Mapuche, 214 ;

in Melanesia and Polynesia, 66 -67;

Ndembu association of, with the wild, 77 ;

and witchcraft, 75 ;

in Zuñi, 63

Andaman Islanders (of eastern Indian Ocean), 67 , 145

Andean cultures and religions of South America, 210 -18.

See also Araucanians; Aymara; Inca; Mapuche; Moche; Quechua; Selk'nam; Yamana

Andrews, Lynn V., 252 n

Animal quaerens ("the questing animal"), 3 , 18 , 45 , 53 , 56 , 265

Animals:

as ancestors, 67 (Andaman Islanders);

as divinities, 166 (Ainu), 190 -91 (Pueblos), 224 (Amazon), 235 -36 (Seneca);

in Ice Age cave paintings, 139 , 151 , 262 , 262 n;

languages of, 155 , 168 , 245 -46;

propitiation of, 155 , 166 (Ainu), 177 (Eskimo), 178 (Northwest Coast), 207 (Huichol), 236 (northeastern North America), 262 ;

reincarnation of soul in, 161 ;

rituals of, in relation to human ritual, 6 , 8 ;

representation of, in shamanic costume, drum, and language, 155 -56, 160 , 168 ;

tiger-spirit of Malaysia, 107 , 145 , 146 ;

transformative interchange of, with shamans and others, 156 , 168 , 172 (Eskimo), 178 (Northwest Coast), 188 (California), 191 (Zuñi), 193 (Mohave), 198 (Aztec), 207 (Huichol), 219 -21 and 223 (Amazon), 236 (northeastern North America).

See also Bear; Birds; Guardian spirit; Hunters; Nagual ; Shaman, as "master of animals"; Vision quest; White Buffalo Woman

Anisimov, A. F., 162 -63

Anomaly, assimilation of, in ritual, 11 -12

Ao Nagas (of northeast India), 108

Apache (Athapascan people of southwestern North America), 62 ;

fear of dead among, 64 ;

myth of ascent to heavens, 92 , 92 n;

myth of emergence, 91 ;

shamanism and ceremonialism of, 192 -93.

See also Chiricahua Apache; Cibecue Apache; Mescalero Apache; White Mountain Apache

Apapocuva (Tukanoan tribe of southern Brazil), 226

Aporia (resourcelessness, perplexity, impasse), xv , 56 -57, 56 n, 292 -94, 293 n

Aranda, or Arunta (of central Australia), 67 -68, 141 -43, 178

Arapaho (Algonquian people of Great Plains), 249 , 252

Araucanians (of southern Andes), 214 -17.

See also Mapuche

Arias, Manuel (Tzotzil Maya curer), 209 -10

Arikara (Caddoan people of Great Plains), 244

Aristotle:

on the aporia of the question of being, 56 n;

on form as actualization of the potentiality of matter, xii , 54 , 271 n.4, 279 , 285 ;

on poetic mimesis and plot (mythos ), 285 , 286 , 290 ;

teleology of, 18 n, 19 , 29 , 48

Arriaga, Father Pablo Joseph de, 211 n.5, 212

Ashanti (of Ghana, West Africa), 64 -65, 104 , 110 -11, 126 , 157

Atkinson, Jane Monnig, 147

Atsugewi (of northern California), 185

Auden, W. H., 54

Augustine, St., 33 , 66

Austin, J. L., 39 n.4

Australia, cultures and religions of, 5 ;

mythological "Dream Time" in, 67 -68, 141 ;

shamanism in, 140 -44.

See also Aranda; Bandjelang; Kurnai; Murinbata; Wiradjuri

Avá-Chiripá, or Avá-Katú-Eté (Guaraní tribe of Paraguay), 226 n

Awolalu, J. Omosade, 64 , 64 n

Ayahuasca. See Narcotics and hallucinogens, yagé

Ayala, Francisco J., 18 , 18 n

Aymara (of highland Bolivia), 213

Azande (of central Africa), 73 , 82

Aztec (of ancient Mesoamerica), 197 -202

B

Bachofen, J. J., 218 n

Bacon, Francis, 30 , 274

Baiga (of central India), 108

Bakaïrí (of central Brazil), 221

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 287 -88

Baktaman (of New Guinea), 78 -79, 79 n

Bali (Indonesia), 106 , 119 , 121

Balikci, Asen, 172 , 175

BaMbuti (Pygmies of Congo region), 71 .

See also Pygmies

Bandjelang (of northern New South Wales, Australia), 143

Banyoro (of Uganda, East Africa), 111 , 126 , 130

Barasana (Tukanoan people of northwest Amazonia), 219

Barbeau, Marius, 178 , 181

Barber, Karin, 64 n

Barbour, Philip L., 229

Barnett, Homer, 179 , 181

Barnouw, Victor, 243

Barth, Fredrik, 79 , 79 n

Bartolomé, Miguel Alberto, 221 n, 226 n

Bartram, William, 228

Basso, Ellen B., 221

Basso, Keith H., 192

Bastide, Roger, 114 , 115 , 121 , 123 -26

Bastien, Joseph W., 213

Batek (Negritos of peninsular Malaysia), 146 .

See also Negritos

Bateson, Gregory, 79 n

Batuque. See Brazil, spirit possession cults of

Beals, Ralph L., 201 , 201 n, 204

Bean, Lowell J., 186 , 187 n, 188

Bear, as object of ritual or worship, 155 (Boreal hunters and Finns), 161 (Yenisei Ostiaks), 165 -66 (Ainu), 190 -91 and 195 (Pueblos), 236 (northeastern North America), 250 (Great Plains)

Beattie, John, 109 , 111 , 126 , 128 , 130

Beckett, Samuel, 294

Beidelman, T. O., 74

Bella Coola (of British Columbia, Northwest Coast), 180 , 181

Bellah, Robert N., 5 n, 97

Belo, Jane, 106 , 121

Benedict, Ruth, 62 , 70 -72, 106 , 173 n.2, 177 , 182 , 185 , 249 , 250

Bennett, Wendell C., 205 , 206 , 210

Berawan (of Sarawak, Borneo), 147

Berger, Peter L., 4 , 14 -15

Bergson, Henri, 4 , 8 , 11 , 13 , 16 , 16 n, 50 -51, 53 , 62 , 84 , 261

Bernard, Claude, 274

Bernbaum, Edwin, 150

Berndt, Ronald M., 68 , 218 n

Bernstejn^[*] , N. A., 18 , 23 n

Berreman, Gerald D., 108 , 129

Bertalanffy, Ludwig von, 22 , 29 , 48

Best, Elsdon, 88 -91

Biard, Father Pierre, 233

Biddle, Nicholas, 251 n.13

Big House ceremony of Delaware, or Lenape, 85 , 233 , 234 , 238

Binary opposition, or duality, 16 , 51 , 269 -71, 269 n, 290 .

See also Closure and openness; Static and dynamic; Structure and process; Ternary relation

Biocca, Ettore, 222

Biology, 18 -24, 48 , 267 -68;

and complexity, 23 n.

See also Aristotle, teleology of; Closure and openness; Darwin, Charles; Directionality; Evolution; Future and futurity; Genome; Gould, Stephen Jay; History; Mayr, Ernst; Monod, Jacques; Piaget, Jean; Purpose; Structure and process; Teleonomy

Birds, as divinities or guardian spirits, 154 -56, 160 , and 161 (Siberia), 166 (Ainu), 167 (Manchu), 172 (Eskimo), 220 (Amazon), 224 (Tapirapé), 245 and 250 (Sioux), 251 (Blackfoot), 254 and 255 (in Black Elk's vision), 262

Bjerke, Svein, 111 -12, 140

Blackburn, Thomas C., 186

Black Elk, Nicholas (Oglala holy man), 245 , 247 , 249 , 250 , 250 n, 253 -57, 253 n, 256 n, 264 , 265 , 285

Blacker, Carmen, xii

Blackfoot (Algonquian people of Great Plains), 248 , 251 , 251 n.14, 252 , 252 n

Blair, Emma Helen, 236

Boas, Franz, 172 , 173 n.1, 175 -77, 178

Bödiger, Ute, 225

Bodmer, Karl, 251 n.13

Bogoras, W., 154 , 158 , 159 , 159 n

Bon (Bön) religion of Tibet, 149 -50

Bondo (of Orissa, east central India), 108 -9

Bori cult (of Nigeria and northwest Africa), 112 , 127 n, 136

Borneo, 146 -48

Bororo (of Brazilian Amazon), 219 , 220

Bossu, M, 231

Bourguignon, Erika, 119n, 128 , 129 , 185 n

Bourke, John G., 70n, 192 , 193

Brain, plasticity of, 269 -70

Brain, James L., 64 n

Bramly, Serge, 114

Brazil, spirit possession cults of:

African and other influences on, 113 -15;

Batuque, 114 -15, 117 -18, 119 -20;

Candomblé, 113 -14, 114 n, 121 , 124 -26;

Macumba, 114 , 115 ;

Umbanda, 114 -16.

See also Amazonian and other tropical cultures and religions of South America

Brébeuf, Father Jean de, 236 -38, 242

Brinton, Daniel G., 199

Brown, Jason W., 43 , 47 , 49

Brown, Joseph Epes, 245 , 246 , 246 n, 248 , 253

Brundage, Burr Cartwright, 199 , 211

Bruner, Jerome, 41 -46

Bruno, Giordano, 274

Buddhism. See Shamanism, relation of Lamaist and Mahayana Buddhism to

Buechler, Hans C., 213

Bulmer, R. N. H., 106

Bunzel, Ruth, 62 , 63 , 72 , 191 , 203

Burkert, Walter, 262 , 262 n

Burma, 107 , 126 .

See also Kachins

Buryat (of southern Siberia), 156 , 158 , 159 n

Busama (of New Guinea), 79 -80

Bushnell, David I, Jr., 231

Busia, K. A., 104

Buxton, Jean, 74 , 88 n.4, 109 , 117 , 119 , 130 -31, 131 n

Byers, Douglas, 200 , 202

C

Caddo (of Arkansas, Louisiana, and eastern Texas), 231

Caddoan peoples, 245 , 247 n.

See also Arikara; Caddo; Pawnee

Cáhita (comprising Mayo and Yaqui of northern Mexico and southern Arizona), 200 -201, 204 .

See also Mayo; Yaqui

Cahuilla (of southern California), 186 , 188

Calderón Palomino, Eduardo (coastal Peruvian curer), 214

Calendar, of ancient Mesoamerican and Andean peoples, 196 -97, 200 , 203 , 211 n.6

California, cultures and religions of, 182 -89, 193 -94.

See also Atsugewi; Cahuilla; Chumash; Hupa; Karok; Kuksu and other cults of north central California; Luiseño; Maidu; Mohave; Mono; Nisenan; Ohlone; Patwin; Pomo; Shasta; Tachi; Yana; Yokuts; Yuma; Yurok

Campbell, Jeremy, 131 , 270 , 271 n.4

Campbell, Joseph, 289 , 289 n.6

Candomblé. See Brazil, spirit possession cults of

Cannibalism, 72 , 74

Cargos (rotating offices in Mesoamerica and Andes), 200 , 213

Carib (of Guianas and Brazil), 221 n, 222

Caribou Eskimo (of Canada), 174

Carnap, Rudolf, 39 n.3

Carrasco, Pedro, 200

Cashinahua (of Amazonian eastern Peru), 224

Cassirer, Ernst, 7 , 40 n.5, 85 n

Castaneda, Carlos, 201 n

Catlin, George, 246 , 247 , 251 , 251 n.14

Causes of disease and death:

affliction of animal companion, 203 (Mesoamerica);

evil winds or "airs," 203 (Mesoamerica), 212 (Inca);

fright (espanto ), 203 , 205 , and 209 (Mesoamerica), 212 (Inca);

intrusion of foreign object, 176 (Eskimo), 181 (Northwest Coast), 183 (northwest California), 184 (California), 222 (Amazon);

soul loss, 147 (Berawan), 172 and 176 (Eskimo), 181 (Northwest Coast), 184 (California), 205 (Mesoamerica), 209 -10 (Tzotzil Maya), 212 (Inca), 222 (South America), 224 (Gran Chaco and Amazon), 242 (Saulteaux).

See also Curing methods; Myths, of descent to and

return from world of dead; Shaman, recovery of souls of sick or dead by; Witchcraft and sorcery

Cave paintings, Ice Age, 139 -40, 151 , 262

Celebes. See Sulawesi

Chadwick, Nora, 164 , 164 n.7

Chagnon, Napoleon A., 219

Champlain, Samuel de, 241 , 241 n

Chance:

in biological evolution, 20 -21, 24 , 267 ;

in human communication, 271 ;

in physics, 267 -68, 273

Change. See Adaptation; Conflict and change, in religion and society; Innovation, creativity; Static and dynamic; Transition

Chapman, Anne, 218 , 218 n

Chatino (of Oaxaca, Mexico), 203

Cherokee (Iroquoian people of North Carolina and Georgia), 230 , 234

Cherry, Colin, 39 n.3, 270

Cheyenne (Algonquian people of Great Plains), 252 , 253

Chichicastenango (Quiche Maya village, Mesoamerica), 203

Chickasaw (Muskogean people of Missis- sippi and Tennessee), 229 , 230 , 232

Chippewa (Algonquian people of northeastern and midwestern North America), 234 , 234 n.

See also Ojibwa

Chilam Balam, prophet of ancient Maya, 198

Chimán (Mayan soothsayer and curer), 202 , 204

China, 149 , 151 -52, 152 n

Chiricahua Apache (of southwestern North America), 192

Chitimacha (of Louisiana), 232

Choctaw (Muskogean people of Mississippi and Alabama), 231

"Choice," at bifurcation point between biological or physical states, 21 , 267 -68, 270

Chomsky, Noam:

affinities and differences between his and Saussure's linguistics, 34 -35;

on autonomy of grammar, 34 , 37 ;

on creativity of language, 36 , 40 -41, 45 ;

on incomparability of language with structuralist taxonomies, 85 n;

on innately programmed universal grammar, 34 , 40 ;

on interacting systems of language, 38 -40;

on language acquisition, 41 -43;

on linguistic intentionality, 34 , 36 -37, 47 ;

on linguistic reference to extralinguistic reality, 38 ;

on grammar as process, 34 -35, 51

Chorti Maya (of Guatemala), 200

Chukchee (of eastern Siberia), 154 , 157 -59, 159 n

Chukovsky, Kornei, 45 n

Chumash (of southern California), 186

Cibecue Apache (of southwestern North America), 192

Cieza de León, Pedro, 211 , 211 n.6

Claparède, E., 54

Clark, William, 251 n.13

Clarke, Kenneth W., 88 n.4

Closed system. See Closure and openness

Closure and openness, opposition and interaction of, 8 , 16 , 50 -53, 56 , 261 ;

in binary oppositions and ternary relations, 269 , 271 ;

biological, 22 -23, 51 , 265 ;

in California ritual and shamanism, 189 ;

in Central Andean religion, 213 -14;

in ceremonialism and shamanism of southwestern North America, 192 -93;

cognitive and psychological, 25 -26, 29 -31;

in computers and brains, 270 ;

in evolving universe, 276 ;

in journey into the wild, 77 ;

in language, 33 (Saussure), 38 , 40 -41 (Chomsky), 43 , 44 (Heidegger), 45 (Chomsky and Humboldt), 46 (de Laguna and Bruner), 47 , 206 (Mazatec mushroom visions);

in Mapuche shamanism, 216 ;

in physical systems, 266 -67;

in reader's response to narrative, 292 ;

in ritual and quest, 97 , 263 , 265 ;

in spells and myths, 82 -84;

in spirit mediumship, 122 -23, 130 , 135 ;

in Yaqui religion, 200 -201;

in Zinacanteco ceremonials, 209 .

See also Bergson, Henri; Cultivated and wild; Static and dynamic; Structure and process

Clowns:

Iroquois False Faces, 233 , 235 ;

of Pueblos, 70 , 70 -71n, 72 , 73 , 189 , 197 ;

Sioux heyokas , 248 , 256

Coast Salish (of British Columbia and Puget Sound, Northwest Coast), 179 -82

Cobo, Bernabé, 211 , 211 n.5

Cochiti Pueblo (of southwestern North America), 75

Cocopa (Yuman people of southwestern North America), 193

Codrington, R. H, 66 , 105 -6, 144

Coe, Michael D., 198

Cofitachequi (South Carolina), 229

Collins, June McCormick, 179 , 182

Colson, Elizabeth, 119 , 125 , 130

Comanche (Uto-Aztecan people of south-ern Great Plains), 245 , 252

Communitas, Turner's concept of, 10 - 12 , 83

Computers. See Digital computers

Confession, 176 (Eskimo), 199 (Mesoamerica), 211 and 212 (Inca)

Conflict and change, in religion and society, 68 -81

"Conjurer." See "Juggler"

Consciousness:

as developing interactive process, 28 , 270 ;

differentiation of, from unconscious in Freud and Jung, 27 -28;

relation of, to spirit, 54 -55;

triadic nature of, 272 .

See also Brain

Copway, G., 238 , 243

Córdova-Rios, Manuel, 225

Cornplanter, Edward, 239

Cortés, Hernán, 197 , 210

Cosmologies, shamanistic and other, 149 (Tibet), 154 -55 and 160 -61 (North Eurasia), 172 (Eskimo), 178 (Northwest Coast), 219 -20 (Amazon), 230 -31 (southeastern North America)

Costanoan. See Ohlone

Courlander, Harold, 112 -13, 118 , 120 , 120 n

Coyote (North American trickster), 186

Crazy Horse (Oglala chief and holy man), 253 , 255

Creativity. See Innovation, creativity

Cree. See Plains Cree

Creek, or Muskogee (Muskogean people of Georgia and Alabama), 229 , 231

Cromer, Richard, 43

Crow (Siouan people of Great Plains), 249 , 252 , 252 n, 253

Cultivated and wild, opposition and interaction of, 76 -81, 103 , 261 ;

in Dinka powers of homestead and wild, 76 ;

in initiation rites, 79 -80;

in Lugbara divinity, 76 ;

in Navajo chantways, 91 -92;

in Tzotzil Maya religion, 210 ;

in Yaqui religion, 200 -201.

See also Closure and openness; Demonic spirits of the wild; Static and dynamic; Structure and process; Witchcraft and sorcery

Curing methods, of shamans and other curers: blowing tobacco smoke, 184 (California), 194 (Pima), 204 (Mesoamerica), 207 (Huichol), 223 (Amazon);

extraction and sucking, 181 (Northwest Coast), 183 (northwest California), 184 (California), 194 (Pima), 198 (ancient Maya), 204 (Maya), 207 (Huichol), 212 (Inca), 217 (Selk'nam), 223 -24 (Amazon), 231 and 232 (southeastern North America), 240 n (northeastern North America);

passing object over patient, 181 (Kwakiutl), 191 (Hopi), 203 -4 (Maya);

singing and dancing, 184 (California), 194 (Pima), 218 (Selk'nam), 223 -24 (Amazon), 232 (southeastern North America).

See also Curing societies; Exorcism; Shaking Tent; Shaman, recovery of souls of sick or dead by; Spirit medium

Curing societies, 182 -83 (Northwest Coast), 187 -89 (California), 190 -91 and 197 (Pueblo), 194 (Pima), 233 -36 and 238 (northeastern North America)

Curtis, Edward S.:

on Eskimo shamanism, 173 ;

on Haida, 179 ;

on Navajo myth of ascent to heavens, 92 n;

on possible Zuñi legerdemain, 71 n;

on Sioux Sun Dance, 246 , 246 n;

on Teton Sioux vision quest, 251 ;

on Zuñi secret societies, 191

Cushing, Frank, 70

Custer, George Armstrong, 253 , 255

Cwezi complex (of Bantu East Africa), 111 -12, 130 , 140

D

Dablon, Claude, 242

Dahomey (Benin, West Africa):

divination in, 110 ;

fate and mobility in, 73 ;

human sacrifices in, 73 ;

influence of, on Caribbean and Brazilian possession cults, 112 -14;

rites for mythical ancestors in, 64 ;

spirit possession in dances among the Fon of, 110 , 121 ;

trickster of, 73 , 115

Dakota (language of Sioux), 246 , 248 , 248 nn.9, 10 , 250 n

Darwin, Charles, 19 -21, 23 -24, 217 , 217 n, 267 , 268 , 274

Datura (jimsonweed, or toloache). See Narcotics and hallucinogens, datura

David-Neel, Alexandra, 149 -51, 164 n.8

Deardorff, Merle H., 235

de Bry, Theodore, 231 -32

Deception, or illusion: in initiation rites, 80 ;

in shamanism, 133 , 282 ;

in spirit mediumship, 124 ;

in vision quests, 250

Deconstruction, 292

de Laguna, Frederica, 180

de Laguna, Grace, 46 , 47 , 49

Delaware, or Lenape (Algonquian people of northeastern North America), 85 , 233 , 234 , 238 , 242

Delaware Prophet, 239

DeMallie, Raymond J., 249 n.12, 253 , 253 n, 256 n, 257

de Man, Paul, 292

Demonic spirits of the wild, 76 , 103 , 115 .

See also Cultivated and wild; Tricksters; Witchcraft and sorcery

Densmore, Frances, 235 , 242 n, 244 -46

Deren, Maya, 113 , 120 n

Derrida, Jacques, 272 n

Desana (of Colombia, northwest Amazonia), 221 -24, 223 n

de Soto, Hernando, 228 , 229

Despard, G. P., 217 n

Dewdney, Selwyn, 234

Digital computers, 269 -70

Dinka (of the Nilotic Sudan, Africa):

distinction between powers of homestead and wild among, 76 ;

jok possession and mediumship among, 109 , 111 , 125 ;

myth of broken connection between earth and sky, 88

Diószegi, V., 151 n.2, 160

Directionality:

of biological systems, 19 -24;

of physical systems, 266 -69;

of play, gestures, and language, 46 , 49 ;

of spiritual quest, 56 , 293 .

See also Closure and openness; History; Purpose; Structure and process; Teleology

Disease. See Causes of disease and death; Curing methods; Curing societies; Shaman; Spirit medium; Witchcraft and sorcery

Diviners, 110 (Tallensi, Fon, Yoruba), 198 (ancient Maya), 202 (contemporary Maya), 212 (Inca), 213 (Aymara)

Dixon, Roland B., 185 , 186

Djaruoskin, Sereptie (Tavgi Samoyed shaman), 157 , 158

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 24

Dodds, E. R., 152

Dogon (of Burkina Faso and Mali, West Africa), 64

Dorsey, George, 245

Doubt, as precondition of information and knowledge, 270 , 272 -73

Douglas, Mary, 11 , 76 , 77

Downs, Richard Erskine, 146 -47, 147 n

Dozier, Edward P., 190 , 191

Dreams (or visions): of ascent and descent, 160 n;

of Mohave and other Yuman tribes, 193 -94;

revelation through interpretation of, 173 (Eskimo), 212 (Inca);

in rituals of northeastern North America, 233 -36;

as shamanic call, 185 -86 (California), 192 (Apache), 194 (Pima), 204 (Cáhita), 208 (Zinacanteco), 211 -12 (Inca), 215 (Mapuche), 249 (Sioux), 251 (Blackfoot);

as source of innovation, 147 (Iban), 238 (Huron and Iroquois).

See also Myths; Shaman, visionary variety of; Vision quest

Drucker, Philip, 178 -81

Drum or tambourine, of shaman, 150 (Tibet), 151 ,159 (Eurasia), 160 (Altai), 161 -62 (Yukhagir, Tungus), 166 -68 (Manchus), 215 -16 (Mapuche)

Duality. See Binary opposition

Dummett, Michael, 39 n.4, 40 n.5

Dundes, Alan, 238n, 290

Durán, Fray Diego, 198 , 199 , 205

Durkheim, Emile, 5 -8, 5n, 13 , 33 , 50 , 69 , 76 , 77 , 81 , 99 , 121 , 283 , 283 n

Duvall, D. C., 248 n.9

Dynamics. See Static and dynamic

E

"Earth diver," 238 , 238 n

Eastman, Charles (Ohiyesa), 247

Eccles, John C., 276 , 277 , 278 n, 280

Ecstasy. See Myths, as models for ecstasy; Shaman, ecstatic trance of; Word, in ritual and myth, and ecstasy

Edda, Elder, 164

Edelman, Gerald M., 270 , 283

Edmunds, R. David, 239

Eggan, Fred, 191

Ehanzu (of Tanzania, East Africa), 77

Einstein, Albert, and Einsteinian physics, 266 , 275 .

See also Physics; Relativity theory

Eldredge, Niles, 268 , 268 n, 275 n.6

Eliade, Mircea:

on Amazonian messianic quest, 227 ;

on anteriority of shamanism to spirit possession, 140 ;

on Australian initiations, 68 ;

on Buddhist stimulus to shamanism, 151 n.2;

on change of ontological status through initiation, 78 ;

on ecstatic shamanism, 136 -38, 137 n;

on "High God" controversy, 142 ;

on rarity of ecstatic shamanism in Africa, 140 ;

on shamanistic ascent to sky, 160 , 160 n;

on shamanistic cosmology, 154 -55;

on shaman's cure of himself, 158 ;

on shaman's habitation of two worlds, 144 ;

on shaman's transformation into animal, 156

Eliot, T. S., 160 n

Elkin, A. P., 68 , 141 , 143 -44

Elliott, Alan J., 106 -7, 146

Ellis, William, 105

Elmendorf, William W., 179

Elpenor, 240

Elwin, Verrier, 108 -9, 122 , 140

Endicott, Kirk Michael, 107 , 145 -46

Endle, Sidney, 108

Entropy, 23 , 267 , 269 , 270 .

See also Thermodynamics

Equilibrium and equilibration: biological, 22 , 52 , 268 , and 268 n;

maintained by encounter with the wild, 80 ;

narrative movement from disequilibrium to, 290 ;

physical, 266 -68;

psychological, 30 , 30 n, 51 ;

religious, 269 ;

social, 103

Erdoes, Richard, 245

Eskimo, or Inuit (of American Arctic), 171 -77, 242 , 263 .

See also Caribou Eskimo; Iglulik; Kobuk; Netsilik

Estrada, Alvaro, 206

Evans, Ivor H. N., 145

Evans-Pritchard, E. E., on African myths, 88 n.3;

on African witchcraft, 74 ;

on Durkheim, 5 ;

on Nuer prayer, 82 ;

on Nuer priest and prophet, 109 ;

on Nuer word for spirit, 55 ;

on reduction of religious to social conceptions, 69 , 69 n;

on Zande ritual, 82 ;

on Zande trickster, 73

Evans-Wentz, W. Y., 150

Evenk. See Tungus

Evolution, biological, 19 -24, 52 , 56 , 267 , 268 and 268 n.

See also Closure and openness; Darwin, Charles; Directionality; Future and futurity; Structure and process

Ewers, John C., 252 n

Exorcism, 107 (Thailand), 112 (Zar cult), 203 (Maya), 233 (Iroquois); call to, 119

F

Fabrega, Horacio, Jr., 208 n, 209 n

Failure in quest, 53 , 180 and 182 (Northwest Coast), 222 (Tapirapé), 243 -44 (Ojibwa), 250 (Great Plains), 256 (Black Elk), 262 (paleolithic hunters), 265 , 283 , 285 , 288 .

See also Fallibilism and fallibility; Spirit medium, failure to enter trance; Uncertainty and indeterminacy

Fairy tales and folktales, 97 , 97 n, 288 -90.

See also Myths; Narratives

Fakhouri, Hani, 112

Fallibilism and fallibility, 273 , 279 -81, 283 .

See also Failure in quest; Uncertainty and indeterminacy

Farmers. See Agriculturalists

Faron, Louis C., 210 , 215 -17

Feibleman, James K., 272 n, 273 , 279

Fenton, William N., 234 , 238 n

Feraca, Stephen E., 248

Fewkes, J. Walter, 191 n.7

Feyerabend, Paul, 278

Fiction, reality of, 285 -86, 291 , 292

Field, M. J., 65 , 110 -11

Findeisen, Hans, 137

Finnegan, Ruth, 110

Finns, 164 -65

Firth, Raymond:

on adaptive function of ritual, 6 -7;

on creative role of medium, 129 ;

on importance of individual in religious transformation, 94 ;

on interdependence of center and periphery, 128 ;

on priest as guardian of ritual, 99 , 125 ;

on shaman as master of spirits, 137 , 137 n;

on Tikopia ancestralism, 67 ;

on Tikopia spirit mediumship, 104 , 118 , 123 , 123 n, 128 , 131 , 137 n;

on Tikopia "Work of the Gods," 66 -67, 69 , 69 n, 123 n;

on verbal codes of spirit mediumship, 120 , 122 -23.

See also Tikopia

Fischer, Michael M. J., xiv

Fitzhugh, William W., 172 , 173

Fletcher, Alice C., 86 -87, 245 , 249 n.12

Florida (Solomon Islands), 105 -6

Florida (southeastern North America), Indians of, 230 , 232

Folktales. See Fairy tales and folktales

Fon. See Dahomey

Food quest, as prototype of spiritual quest, 262

Fools Crow, Frank (Oglala holy man), 246 , 247 , 250 , 253

Forde, C. Daryll, 193

Fortes, Meyer:

on African ancestor worship, 63 , 63 n, 65 ; on ancestor worship and society of Tallensi, 65 , 77 ; on Ashanti worship of deceased lineage heads, 64 -65; on divination of Tallensi, 110 ; on "future orientation" of ancestor worship, 70 , 95 ; on prayers of Tallensi, 82 -83

Fortune, R. F., 106

Foster, George M., 186 , 202

Fox (Algonquian people of northeastern North America), 234

Fox, J. Robin, 75

Frazer, James George, 72 , 83 , 142

Fredericks, Oswald White Bear, 191 n.7

Freeman, Derek, 147

Frege, Gottlob, 39 -40, 39 n.4, 40 n.5, 287 , 291 , 292 n

Freud, Sigmund, 25 -27, 48 , 122

Frobenius, Leo, 136

Frye, Northrop, 289 , 290 n

Fuegians (natives of Tierra del Fuego, South America), 217 -19, 217 n, 218 n.

See also Selk'nam, Yamaha

Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph von, 108

Furst, Peter T., 207

Future and futurity:

biological "invention" of, 48 (Jacob), 54 ;

and Freudian ego, 27 , 48 ;

created by symbolism, language, communication, 29 , 47 -49, 48 n, 131 , 285 , 286 ;

evolution of, in physical and biological systems, 266 -71;

forward thrust or restless drive toward, 16 , 26 , 265 ;

as goal of quest, 52 -54, 56 -57, 61 , 130 , 277 , 293 , 294 ;

influence of, on the present, 48 n.9, 272 ;

lack of, in African sense of time, 65 ;

openness of Mapuche shamanism toward, 216 ;

orientation of ancestor worship toward, 70 , 95 ;

orientation of Huichol pilgrimage toward, 208 ;

orientation of Peirce's and Popper's third modalities toward, 280 -81;

orientation of Siberian other world toward, 161 ;

orientation of word toward, in myth and spirit mediumship, 84 , 95 , 97 , 123 ;

projection of past onto, in revitalization movements, 214 ;

reality as, 279 , 284 ;

subordination of, to past and cyclical change, 66 , 68 , 96 -97, 98 , 135 ;

transcendence of past and present by, 225 (Amahuaca), 244 (Ojibwa);

unpredictability of, 271 ;

vision into, by Selk'nam and Yamana shamans, 218 .

See also Static and dynamic; Time, African conceptions of

G

Gã (of Ghana, West Africa), 65 , 111

Gadamer, Hans Georg, 53 -54

Gahuku (of highland New Guinea), 66 , 73 -74

Galvão, Eduardo, 221 n, 226

Ganeodiyo. See Handsome Lake

Garcilaso de la Vega, the Inca, 210 , 211 nn.5, 6

Gayton, A. H., 187 , 187 n, 237

Gê (of Brazilian Amazon), 220

Geddes, W. R., 147

Geertz, Clifford, xii , xiv , 146 n

Gelfand, Michael, 126

Genette, Gérard, 287 n

Gennep, Arnold van. See van Gennep, Arnold.

Genome, 21 -22, 22 n, 24 , 40 , 45 , 51 , 122 , 275 , 275 n.7

Gesar of Ling (Tibetan/Mongolian epic hero), 164 n.8

Ghost Dance, 189 -90, 247 , 256 , 257

Gifford, E. W., 183

Gillen, F.J. See Spencer, Baldwin

Gillin, John, 214

Gitskan (of northern British Columbia, Northwest Coast), 178

Gluckman, Max, 65 , 74 , 77 , 95

Gödel, Kurt, 55 , 265

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 27 n

Gold, or Nanay (of Siberia), 157 , 159 n, 161 , 205

Goldman, Irving, 178 , 182 -83, 219

Gombrich, E. H., 278 n

Goodman, Nelson, 44 , 286 , 287

Goodwin, Grenville, 92 n, 192

Gorer, Geoffrey, 108

Gould, Stephen Jay:

on Darwin and Fuegians, 217 n;

on Darwin's view of imperfection, 21 ;

on evolutionary complexity, 23 ;

on evolutionary structure, 52 ;

on fluidity of genome, 22 n;

on limits and transcendence, 294 ;

on punctuated equilibria, 268

Gran Chaco (South America), 219 , 222 , 224

Great Plains of North America, cultures and religions of, 244 -57, 263 .

See also Arikara; Blackfoot; Cheyenne; Comanche; Crow; Mandan; Oglala; Omaha; Pawnee; Sioux; Teton Sioux

Greece, 152

Greenberg, James B., 203

Gregor, Thomas, 222 , 223 n

Grey, George, 90 -91

Griffiths, Walter G., 108

Grinnell, George Bird:

on Blackfoot tale of "Scarface," 248 ;

on Blackfoot world of dead, 251 n.14;

on Cheyenne vision quest, 253 ;

on possible Mexican origin of Pawnee, 86 ;

on role of Blackfoot medicine woman, 252 n

Guarani (of Amazonian region), 226 , 226 n.

See also Tupí-Guaraní

Guardian spirit, of shaman or others, 148 (Iban), 155 , 157 (Gold), 158 , 162 (Tungus), 179 -82 (Northwest Coast), 183 (northwestern California), 186 -87 (California), 194 (Papago), 202 -3 (Mesoamerica), 208 -10 (Tzotzil Maya), 212 (Inca), 217 (Yamana), 220 (Amazon), 243 (Ojibwa), 248 and 250 -51 (Great Plains), 251 n.13 (Mandan), 262 , 287 .

See also Animals; Bear; Birds; Nagual; Shaman; Vision quest

Guiteras-Holmes, C., 203 n, 209 -10

Gunther, Erna, 180

Gusinde, Martin, 217 -18, 217 n, 218 n

Gyilodzau (Tsimshian tribe), 181

H

Haeberlin, Herman, 180 , 182

Haida (of Alaska and British Columbia, Northwest Coast), 179

Haile, Father Berard, 62

Haiti, 112 -13, 118 , 120 , 125 , 126 , 128 , 129

Hako (ceremony of Pawnee), 86 -87, 245

Hallowell, A. Irving, 155 , 236 , 237 , 241 , 242

Hallpike, C. R., 69 , 76

Hallucinogens. See Narcotics and hallucinogens

Handsome Lake, 233 -35, 239

Handy, E. S.C., 89 -90

Hano (Tewa Pueblo of southwestern North America), 190

Hariot, Thomas, 229

Harner, Michael J., 220 , 222 , 223

Harries, Karsten, 286

Harrington, John P., 193

Harrington, M. R., 234 , 242

Harrison, Jane, 83

Harva (Holmberg), Uno, 154 -56, 159 , 159 n, 161 , 163

Hausa (of Nigeria and northwest Africa), 112 , 127 n

Heavens. See Myths, of ascent to heavens; Myths, of broken connection between earth and sky; Shaman, ascent of, to heavens; Soul flight by mediums or shamans

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 272 n

Heidegger, Martin, 44 , 53 , 56 n

Heisenberg, Werner, 55 , 265

Heraclitus, 160 n

Herdt, Gilbert H., 79 n

Herodotus, xiv , 152 , 154 , 240

Herrera y Tordesillas, Antonio de, 202 , 204

Herskovits, Melville J., 73 , 110 , 126

Hewitt, J. N., 238 n

Hickerson, Harold, 234

Highwater, Jamake, 248 n.9

Hill Saora (of Orissa, east central India), 109 , 122 , 140

Hindu devotional cults (of Shiva or the Goddess), 109

History:

in biological and physical evolution, 22 , 268 , 270 ;

and development of ego, 26 ;

as open system, 84 .

See also Directionality; Future and futurity

Hocart, A. M., 6

Hoebel, E. Adamson, 245 , 252

Hoffman, Walter James, 234 , 239 , 240 n

Hogbin, H. Ian, 80

Homer, 164 , 239

Hookway, Christopher, 279

Hopi (of southwestern North America):

calendrical rituals of, 62 -63, 98 , 191 ;

curing practices of, 191 , 191 n.7, 197 ;

myth of emergence of, 85 , 98 ;

sorcerers among, 191 , 195 , 198

Horizon, as liminal realm of the quest, 90 -91 (Polynesia), 237 and 239 (northeast North America)

Horton, Robin, 128 , 129

Howard, Wesley R., Jr., 246

Howitt, A. W., 5 , 142 , 143

Huacas (Inca sacred objects), 211 -13, 211 n.5

Hudson, Charles, 228 -31

Hugh-Jones, Christine, 219 , 223 , 224

Hugh-Jones, Stephen, 219

Huichol (of Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico), 201 n, 206 -8

Hultkrantz, Åke:

on derivation of"shaman," 151 n.2;

on Eskimo reincarnation, 172 ;

on North American "Orpheus" myths, 236 ;

on Shaking Tent ceremony, 175 , 241 n;

on shamanic complex, 139 ;

on shamanism and possession, 138 , 185 n;

on soul dualism and free soul, 138 -39, 139 n;

on supposed affinity of wakan and mana , 250 n;

on "weak" and "strong" shamanism, 138

Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 36 , 40 , 41 , 44 , 45

Huns, 151 , 151 n.3

Hunters:

association of, with shamanism of mobile cultures, 139 , 207 (Huichol), 219 (Amazon), 245 (Great Plains), 262 ;

food quest of, as prototype of spiritual quest, 262 ;

opposite stereotype of, to that of agriculturalists, 71 .

See also Agriculturalists; Animals

Hupa (of northwestern California), 183

Huron (Iroquoian people of northeastern North America), 233 , 234 , 236 -38, 240 -42

Hurt, Wesley R., 246

Huxley, Julian, 24

Hypotheses in scientific inquiry, 273 -75, 279

I

Iban (of Sarawak, Borneo), 147 -48, 158

Idowu, E. Bolaji, 64n

Iglulik (Canadian Eskimo), 173 n.1, 174 , 176 , 177

Ilahita Arapesh (of New Guinea), 78 -79, 79 n

Illusion. See Deception

Im Thurn, Everard, 223

Inca (of central Andes), 210 -14.

See also Huacas

Indeterminacy. See Uncertainty and indeterminacy

India:

soul flight exceptional in, 108 ;

spirit possession in, 107 -9, 122 , 128 -29.

See also Ao Nagas; Baiga; Bondo; Hill Saora; Hindu devotional cults; Kachári; Kol; Konyak Nagas; Lepchas; Paharis.

Indonesia. See Bali; Borneo; Java; New Guinea; Sulawesi; Sumatra

Information and information theory, 98 , 131 , 270 -71

Initiation rites, 78 -80, 187 , 249 , 263 -64.

See also Rites of passage

Innovation, creativity:

of Amazonian shamans and messianic movements, 225 ;

attributed to ancestral past in Australia, 68 , 141 ;

of biological evolution, 24 ;

considered dangerous by the Cahuilla, 188 ;

through dreams, 147 , 236 ;

of Iban culture, 147 -48;

impeded in traditional tribal religion, 97 , 99 ;

of language, 35 -37, 40 -47, 82 ;

through liminality of rites of passage, 80 -81;

through metaphor, 287 ;

through myth, 84 , 91 ;

through narrative, 288 , 291 ;

through quest (by shamans and others), 45 , 53 , 54 , 57 , 214 , 234 , 292 ;

through ritual, 6 -7, 23 , 69 ;

through sacred objects of ritual, 83 ;

through spirit mediumship, 129 -31;

of Zinacanteco shamanic rituals, 209 .

See also Adaptation; Closure and openness; Future and futurity; Restlessness; Static and dynamic; Uncertainty and indeterminacy

Instinct, 8 , 25 -27

Intentionality. See Directionality; Purpose

Inuit. See Eskimo

Iolofäth (trickster of Ulithi Atoll), 88

Iroquoian peoples of eastern North America, 233 , 238 -40, 242 .

See also Cherokee; Huron; Iroquois

Iroquois, of the Five (or Six) Nations of the Iroquois League (northeastern North America), 233 -36, 238 , 238 n,

242 , 250 n. See also Iroquoian peoples of eastern North America; Onondaga; Seneca

Iser, Wolfgang, 291 -92, 292 n

J

Jackson, Jean E., 219

Jacob, François, 21 -22n, 48

Jakobson, Roman, 44 -48, 269 , 271

James, William, 48 n, 284 , 285

Japan, xii , 165 -66

Java, 146 , 146 n

Jenness, Diamond, 240 n, 243 , 244

Jensen, Adolf, 72

Jensen, Erik, 147 -48

Jimsonweed (datura, or toloache). See Narcotics and hallucinogens, datura

Jívaro (of Ecuadorian Amazon), 220 , 222

Jochelson, Waldemar, 155 , 156 , 159 n, 161 , 162

Johansen, J. Prytz, 66

Johnson, Richard, 153 , 161

Jok ("Powers"), 109 -12, 121 , 130 -31, 131 n

Joking relationships, 73

Journey. See Road or journey

"Juggler" (Jongleur ), or "Conjurer," 231 , 239 , 240 n, 241 -42, 241 n, 242n, 245 -46.

See also Shaking Tent; Shaman

Jung, Carl Gustav, 27 -28, 283 , 283 n, 290 n

K

Kachári (of Assam, northeast India), 108

Kachins (of highland Burma), 107

Kaguru (of Tanzania, East Africa), 74

Kalevala (Finnish epic), 165

Kalimantan. See Borneo

Kanakas (of New Caledonia, Melanesia), 66 , 144

Kant, Immanuel, 19 , 21 , 280

Kaplan, Susan A., 172 , 173

Kardec, Allan (Hippolyte Rivail), 114 -16

Karok (of northwestern California), 183

Karsten, Rafael, 223

Keesing, Roger M., 66 , 79 n

Kelly, William H., 193

Kennedy, John G., 205

Kensinger, Kenneth M., 224

Kenton, Edna, 233 , 236 -38, 240 -42

Keresan Pueblos (of southwestern North America), 190 -91, 191 n.6, 195

Kets. See Yenisei Ostiaks

Kierkegaard, Soren, 15

King, Jeff (Navajo chanter), 92 -93, 92 n

Kinietz, W. Vernon, 240 , 242

Kirby, Ernest Theodore, 163

Kirk, G. S., 83

Kitagawa, Joseph M., 166

Klah, Hosteen (Navajo chanter), 62 , 92 n

Klamath (of Oregon), 185

Kluckhohn, Clyde, 6 , 7 , 61 , 75

Kobuk (Alaskan Eskimo), 173

Koch-Grünberg, Theodor, 221 , 224

Kohl, J. G., 237 , 243 , 244

Kol (of central India), 108

Konso (of Ethiopia, East Africa), 69

Konyak Nagas (of northeastern India), 108

Kopytoff, Igor, 64 n

Koryak (of eastern Siberia), 154 , 156

Krader, Lawrence, 158 , 159 n

Kripke, Sol A., 286 n

Kroeber, Alfred L.:

on Arapaho vision quest, 249 ;

on California tribes, 183 -87, 188 n, 189 ;

on Mohave dreams, 193 ;

on shamanism

as mastery of spirits, 136

Kruyt (Kruijt), A. C., 146 , 147 , 147 n

Kuhn, Thomas, 55 , 275 , 275 n.6, 278 n

Kuksu and other cults of north central California, 187 -89, 194

!Kung ("Bushmen" of Kalahari desert, southern Africa), 119

Kurnai (of southeast Australia), 141

Kwaio (of Malaita, Solomon Islands), 66

Kwakiutl (of British Columbia, Northwest Coast), 177 , 178 , 181 -83

Kyaka (of highland New Guinea), 106

L

La Barre, Weston, 140 , 201 n, 213 , 247

Lack:

awareness of, as source of quest, 16 -17, 28 , 48 , 289 ;

and lack liquidated, as pattern of quest narrative, 290 -91

La Farge, Oliver, 200 , 202 , 205

Lafaye, Jacques, 200

La Flesche, Francis, 245 , 249 n.12

Laguna Pueblo (of southwestern North America), 191 n.6

Lakota (language of Teton Sioux), 248 n.10

Lalemant, Father Jerome, 236

Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de, 21

Lamb, F. Bruce, 225

Lame Deer, John Fire (Oglala holy man), 245 , 250 , 253

Landa, Bishop, 198

Landes, Ruth, 126 , 233 , 235 , 238 , 240 , 243 , 244

Land of the dead. See Afterworld; Myths, of descent to and return from world of dead; Shaman, descent of, to underworld; Shaman, recovery of souls of sick or dead by

Lang, Andrew, 142

Language, 32 -49;

children's acquisition of, 41 -46;

as construct, 42 -43;

creativity of, 36 , 40 -41, 43 , 45 , 46 ;

and dialogue, 41 -42;

and evocation of future, 47 -49, 269 , 285 ;

heuristic function of, 44 ;

as manifestation of spirit, 123 ;

and meaning, 39 -41;

and play, 43 , 44 , 46 , 46 n;

and purpose, 33 -34, 36 -37, 46 -49.

See also Brown, Jason W.; Bruner, Jerome; Chomsky, Noam; Closure and openness, in language; de Laguna, Grace; Frege, Gottlob; Humboldt, Wilhelm von; Jakobson, Roman; Peirce, Charles Sanders; Piaget, Jean; Saussure, Ferdinand de; Spirit medium, importance of linguistic code for; Word, in ritual and myth

Lantis, Margaret, 171 , 173 , 173 n.2

Laplace, Pierre Simon, marquis de, 265 , 266 , 271

Laufer, Berthold, 151 n.2

Laughlin, Robert M., 208 n

Lawrence, Peter, 96

Lawson, John, 229 , 231

Layard, J. W., 144 -45n

Layzer, David, 271

Leach, E. R., 107

Leacock, Seth, and Ruth Leacock, 113 -15, 117 -18, 131

Le Clerq, Father Chrestien, 237

Lee, Richard B., 119

Leenhardt, Maurice, 66 , 145

Legbá (Dahomey trickster), 73 , 115

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 36 , 286 n

Leighton, Dorothea, 61

Leiris, Michel, 112 , 125

Le Jeune, Father Paul, 236 , 240 -42

Le Moyne de Morgues, Jacques, 230 , 232

Lenape. See Delaware

Lenneberg, Eric, 40

Leonard, Anne P., 105

León-Portilla, Miguel, 197

Lepchas (of Sikkim, northeastern India), 108

Lessa, William A., 88 -89, 105 , 135

Lévi-Strauss, Claude:

on Bororo and Gê of Brazil, 219 , 220 ;

on cognitive quality of structure, 11 ;

on interaction of myth and ritual, 83 ;

on mythology as passive closed system, 84 -85, 85 n;

on Propp and analysis of folktales, 289 , 289 n, 290

Lévy-Bruhl, Lucien, 9 , 12

Lewis, I. M., 119 , 119 n, 126 -28, 127 n, 136 , 137 , 137 n, 158

Lewis, Meriwether, 251 n.13

Liberman, Anatoly, 290

Lienhardt, Godfrey:

on Dinka distinction between powers of homestead and wild, 76 ;

on Dinka jok possession and mediumship, 109 , 125 ;

on Dinka myth of broken connection between earth and sky, 88 ;

on spirit medium's passivity, 118

Liminality, 10 -12, 79 -80, 97 .

See also Horizon;

Transition Linderman, Frank B., 252 n

Ling Roth, Henry, 148

Linguistics. See Language

Link, Margaret, 92 n

Little Water ceremony of Seneca, 235

Loeb, Edwin M., 144 , 146 , 185 , 187 n, 223 n

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 243

Lönnrot, Elias, 165

Lorant, Stefan, 230 -32

Lorenz, Konrad, 6 -7, 23 , 275 n.7, 278 n

Lothrop, Samuel Kirkland, 217 n, 218

Lowie, Robert H., 249 , 252

Lugbara (of Uganda, East Africa), 76 , 88 , 103 -4

Luiseño (of southern California), 188

Lukács, Georg, 287 -88

Lumholtz, Carl, 205 , 206

M

McClintock, Barbara, 22 n

McGregor, Pedro, 114 , 115

McIlwraith, R. F., 180 , 181

MacIntyre, Alasdair, 288

McNeley, James, 55

Macumba. See Brazil, spirit possessionn cults of

Macusi (of Guyana), 223

Maddock, Kenneth, 67

Madsen, William, 204 , 205

Maenchen-Helfen, J. Otto, 151 n.3

Maidu (of north central California), 187

Mails, Thomas E., 245 -47, 246 n, 250

Malaysia (peninsular), 107 , 145

Malinowski, Bronislaw:

on myth as "sociological charter," 84 ;

on relation of religion to society and individual, 5 , 8 -9;

on Trobriand baloma spirits, 66

Man, E. H., 145

Mana (Melanesian and Polynesian supernatural power), 66 , 89 , 250 n

Manchus (of East Asia), 166 -68

Mandan (Siouan people of the Great Plains), 245 -47, 247 n

Mandari (of Nilotic Sudan, Africa), 74 , 109 -11, 117 -18, 119 , 130 -31, 131 n

Mandelbaum, David G., 252 , 252 n

Mannhelm, Karl, 94

Manus (of Admiralty Islands, Melanesia), 106

Maori (of New Zealand, Polynesia), 66 , 89 -91, 105

Mapuche (Araucanian tribe of southern Andes), 214 -17, 263

Marcus, George E., xiv

Margolin, Malcolm, 187

Maricopa (Yuman tribe of southwestern North America), 193

Marlowe, Christopher, 274

Marriage of medium or shaman with spirit, 104 , 107 (Burma), 109 (India), 112 (Haiti), 114 (Brazil), 157 (Gold of Siberia), 204 (Mesoamerica)

Marx, Karl, 4 , 5 , 7

Mason, J. Alden, 211 , 212

Matthews, Washington, 62 n, 92 n

Maui of a thousand tricks, 90 -91, 95

Maya:

of ancient Mesoamerica, 196 , 198 ;

of contemporary Mesoamerica, 200 , 202 -4, 208 -10.

See also Chichicastenango; Chimán ; Chorti Maya; Quiche Maya; San Antonio; Santiago Chimaltenango; Todos Santos; Tzeltal Maya; Tzotzil Maya; Yucatec Maya; Zinacantan

Maybury-Lewis, David, 220

Mayer, Dorothy Y., 110

Mayo (of northern Mexico and southern Arizona), 200

Mayr, Ernst, 18n, 21 , 45 , 51 , 267

Mazatec (of Oaxaca, Mexico), 206 , 208

Mbiti, John S.:

on absence of restless search in African tribal religions and myths, 66 , 88 ;

on African conceptions of time (Sasa and Zamani ), 65 -66;

on African myths of broken connection between earth and sky, 88 n.4;

on ancestors in African worship, 64 , 65 ;

on spirit medium as "radio," 117

Mead, George Herbert, 13 -14

Meaning:

in Chomsky's linguistics, 38 -41;

Frege's distinction between sense and, 39 -40, 39 n.4, 291 , 292 n;

illusory to deconstructionists, 292 ;

in language development and communication, 49 , 270 ;

in living creatures, 24 ;

as objective relation, 30 ;

quest for, 291 -92

Medawar, J. S., 45

Medawar, Peter, 45 , 274 , 278 n

Medium. See Spirit medium

Meggitt, M. J., 96

Mehinaku (of Mato Grosso, Brazil), 222 , 223 n

Melanesia, 66 , 105 -6.

See also Kanakas; Kwaio; Manus; New Guinea; Solomon Islands; Trobriand Islanders

Meno (in Plato's dialogue), 293 , 293 n

Menomini (Algonquian people of the Great Lakes region), 240 n

Mentawei (Indonesia), 145

Mescalero Apache (of southwestern North America), 193

Mesoamerica, cultures and religions of, 196 -210, 228 .

See also Aztec; Cáhita; Huichol; Maya; Olmec; Tarahumara; Toltec; Yaqui

Messenger, John C., 64 n

Messianic and millenarian revitalization movements:

as dialectic of organization and disorganization, 269 ;

Ghost Dance (of Great Basin and Great Plains), 189 , 247 ;

Taki Onqoy (of Central Andes), 213 -14;

of Tupí-Guaraní (Amazon), 225 -27

Messing, Simon D., 112 , 126

Metaphor, 286 -88, 291 -93

Metcalf, Peter, 147

Métraux, Alfred:

on Central Andean curers, 213 ;

on Haitian voodoo, 112 -13, 120 , 120 n;

on Mapuche shamanism, 215 -16, 215 n;

on shamanistic possession in South America, 223 n;

on South American messianic movements, 225 , 227 ;

on South American soul loss beliefs and curing methods, 222 -24;

on spirit medium's passivity, 118 ;

on theatrical aspect of spirit possession, 125 ;

on tropical South American shamanism, 219 ;

on Tupinamba myth of twins, 221

Meuli, Karl, 152 , 163 , 165

Mexico. See Mesoamerica, cultures and religions of; Yuman tribes

Micmac (Algonquian people of Gaspé Peninsula and New Brunswick), 237

Micronesia, 105 .

See also Palau, Ulithi Atoll

Middleton, John:

on African spirit possession, 109 , 126 , 130 ;

on African witchcraft, 74 , 75 ;

on Lugbara divinity, 76 ;

on Lugbara myth, 88 ;

on Lugbara spirit possession, 103 -4

Midéwiwin ceremony of Ojibwa, 234 -35, 239 -40

Mikhailovskii, V. M., 154 -56, 160 , 282

Milky Way, as path or region of souls of the dead, 85 and 233 (Delaware), 221 and 223 (Desana), 238 (Iroquois)

Mill, John Stuart, 274

Millenarian movements. See Messianic and millenarian revitalization movements

Miller, Walter S., 206

Mills, J. P., 108

Mironov, N. D., 151 n

Mixe (of Oaxaca, Mexico), 203 , 205 -6, 208

Mobility, movement. See Static and dynamic; Transition

Moche (of coastal Peru), 214

Mohave (Yuman tribe of southwestern North America), 193 -95

Molina, Christoval (Cristóbal) de, 211 , 211 n.6, 212

Mongolia, Mongols, 152 -53, 164 n.8

Mono (of east central California), 187

Monod, Jacques, 20 -24

Montagnais (Algonquian people of northeastern North America), 233 , 240 , 241

Montagnais-Naskapi (of Labrador), 238 .

See also Montagnais

Montgomery, Evelyn Ina, 220

Mooney, James, 189 , 230 , 247

Morgan, Lewis Henry, 233 , 238 , 239

Morton, Alice, 127

Munn, Henry, 206

Munn, Nancy, 141

Murinbata (of northern Australia), 67 , 69

Murphy, Robert F., 221

Mushrooms. See Narcotics and hallucinogens, mushrooms

Muskogee. See Creek

Myths:

of ascent to heavens, 88 , 88 n.4 (rare in Africa), 89 -91 (Polynesia), 92 -93 and 92 n (Navajo, Apache, Pueblo), 141 (Australia), 146 (Toradja), 178 (Nootka), 186 (rare in California), 221 , 221 n, and 225 (Amazon), 231 (southeastern North America), 238 -39 and 241 (northeastern North America), 248 and 248 n.9 (Blackfoot and Winnebago);

of broken connection between earth and sky, 88 (Lugbara, Dinka), 88n (Africa), 89 (Maori), 142 (Aranda), 149 (Tibet), 218 (Selk'nam), 221 (Bakaïrí), 224 (Amazon);

concern of, with practical needs, 97 , 97 n;

of descent to and return from world of dead, 167 -68 (Manchu), 237 and 241 ("Orpheus" myths of northeastern North America), 248 (Blackfoot);

of "earth diver," 238 , 238 n;

of emergence from underground, 85 and 98 (Pueblo), 91 (Navajo), 231 (Caddo and Choctaw), 238 (Onondaga and Seneca);

as instrument of exploration and transformation, 84 ;

of messianic culture hero's quest, 225 -26;

as models for ecstasy, 123 ;

as passive closed system, 84 -85, 85 n;

pattern of rites of passage in, 91 -92;

of quest in Pawnee Hako ceremony, 86 -87;

relation of, to dreams, 193 -95 (Mohave);

relation of, to ritual, 83 -86, 91 , 97 -98;

as "sociological charter," 84 , 91 ;

variability of, 84 -85, 95 ;

as verbal interpretation of ritual symbols, 83 ;

of women's primordial pre-eminence over men, 218 , 218 n.

See also Afterworld; Animals; Dreams; Narratives; Ritual; Shaman, ascent of,

to heavens; Shaman, descent of, to underworld; Shaman, recovery of souls of sick or dead by; Tricksters; Twins, myths of; Word, in ritual and myth

N

Nabokov, Peter, 252

Nadel, S. F., 74 , 131 , 136

Nagas. See Ao Nagas; Konyak Nagas

Nagel, Ernest, 18 n

Nagel, Thomas, 285

Nago-Yoruba (of Nigeria, West Africa), 110 , 114 , 119 .

See also Yoruba

Nagual (animal spirit companion of Mesoamerica), 202 -4, 203 n, 208 -10, 220 , 262 .

See also Animals; Guardian spirit; Vision quest

Nahuatl-speaking villages of Mexico, 200 , 203 , 204 -5

Namoeteri (of northwest Amazonia), 224

Narcotics and hallucinogens, use of by shamans and others, 152 ;

absence of, among Yaqui, 201 n;

alcohol, 205 (Mesoamerica), 212 (Inca);

in Amazonia, 219 , 221 -25;

coca, 212 (Inca);

datura (jimsonweed, toloache), 186 -88 (southern California), 220 (Jívaro);

morning glory and other seeds, 198 and 205 -6 (Mesoamerica);

mushrooms, 152 , 159 (Chukchee), 198 -99 and 205 -6 (Mesoamerica);

peyote and other cactuses, 199 (ancient Mesoamerica), 201 n and 205 -8 (Huichol and Tarahumara), 212 (Inca), 214 (coastal Peru), 248 (Great Plains);

tobacco, 152 , 186 (California), 198 and 205 (Mesoamerica), 220 (Jívaro), 223 (Amazon);

yagé (ayahuasca, epená; Banisteriopsis caapi), 152 , 222 -24 (Amazon)

Narratives:

as communicable form of quest, 287 -92;

of shamans' heroic exploits, 161 , 163 -68.

See also Myths

Natchez (of lower Mississippi, south-eastern North America), 228 -30, 232

Natural selection. See Darwin, Charles; Evolution, biological; Gould, Stephen Jay

Navajo (Athapascan people of southwestern North America): chantways (rituals and myths) of, 61 -62, 85 , 91 -93, 192 ;

myth of search by twin boys for their father, the Sun, 92 -93, 92 n, 95 , 98 , 221 ;

prayers of, 82 ;

"sand paintings" of, 62 , 85 ;

symbolism of road or journey in rituals of, 85 , 98 ;

witchcraft among, 75 ;

word of, for spirit, 55

Ndembu (of Zambia, southern Africa): Chihamba rite of affliction among, 80 ;

Mukanda rite of male circumcision among, 78 ;

schism and continuity of society and ritual among, 77 -78;

Wubwang'u twinship ritual of, 73

Needham, Rodney, 283 n

Negritos, 145 -46. See also Batek

Neihardt, John G., or Flaming Rainbow, 253 -57, 253 n, 258 n, 264

Nelson, Keith E., and Katherine Nelson, 45 n

Netsilik (Canadian Eskimo), 172 , 175

Newcomb, Franc Johnson, 62 , 85

New Guinea (Melanesia):

ancestor worship in, 66 ;

initiation rites and cults of, 78 -80;

religion as technology in, 96 ;

spirit possession in, 105 -6.

See also Baktaman; Busama; Gahuku; Ilahita Arapesh; Kyaka; Tauade; Tsembaga

Newton, Isaac, and Newtonian physics, 266 , 267 , 274 , 278 .

See also Physics

Nezahualcoyotl (king of ancient Texcoco, Mesoamerica), 197

Nimuendajú, Curt, 221 , 226

Nisan shamaness (heroine of Manchu folk epic), 166 -68

Nisenan (of north central California), 185

Niue (Polynesia), 144

Nooksack (of northwestern Washington, Northwest Coast), 179

Nootka (of Vancouver Island, Northwest Coast), 178 -82, 263

North America, cultures and religions of. See California; Eskimo; Great Plains of North America; Mesoamerica; Northeastern North America; Northwest Coast of North America; Southeastern North America; Southwestern North America

Northeastern North America, cultures and religions of, 233 -44.

See also Delaware; Fox; Huron; Iroquois; Ojibwa; Onondaga; Ottawa; Saulteaux; Seneca

Northwest Coast of North America, cultures and religions of, 177 -84.

See also

Bella Coola; Coast Salish; Gitskan; Haida; Kwakiutl; Nooksack; Nootka; Quinault; Tlingit; Tsimshian; Twana; Upper Skagit; Wishram

Novel, as questing genre, 287 -88

Nsukka Igbo (of Nigeria), 64

Nuer (of Nilotic Sudan, Africa):

conception of God irreducible to social order, 69 ;

infrequency of ancestor worship among, 63 ;

medium or prophet of, 109 , 120 -21, 130 ;

prayers of, 82 ;

word for spirit, 55

Nuñez del Prado, Juan Victor, 213

O

Oakes, Maud, 92n, 204

Oceania. See Melanesia; Micronesia; Polynesia

Odysseus, 164

Oesterreich, T. K., 105 , 119 n, 136 , 138 , 153 , 185 n, 282

Oglala (branch of Teton Sioux, Great Plains), 246 , 248 , 248 n.10, 253

Ohiyesa (Charles Alexander Eastman), 245

Ohlone (of San Francisco-Monterey Bay area, California), 187

Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko, 159

Ojibwa (Algonquian people of northeastern and midwestern North America), 233 , 234 , 234 n, 236 -39, 241 -46

Oliver, Douglas L., 105

Olmec (of ancient Mesoamerica), 196

Olson, Ronald L., 180 , 182

Omaha (Siouan people of the Great Plains), 245 , 249 n.12

Ona. See Selk'nam

Onondaga (Iroquois nation of northeastern North America), 237

Onwuejeogwu, Michael, 127 n

Openness, open program, open system. See Closure and openness; Structure and process

Opler, Morris E., 92 n, 192 , 193

"Orpheus" myths, 237 , 248 , 290

Ortega y Gassett, José, 44

Ostiaks. See Yenisei Ostiaks

Ottawa (Algonquian people of northeastern North America), 234

Oughourlian, Jean-Michel, 120

P

Paharis (of northern India and Nepal), 108 , 129

Paiute (of Great Basin, North America), 189 , 247 , 256 .

See also Paviotso

Palau (Micronesia), 105

Papago (of southwestern North America), 194

Park, Willard Z., 189

Parker, Arthur C., 238 , 238 n, 239

Parkman, Francis, 241 n, 243 , 250

Parmenides, 269

Parsons, Elsie Clews:

on Hopi curing practices, 191 ;

on Laguna Pueblo, 191 n.6;

on Mixe, 203 ;

on parallel between Aztec and Pueblo religious practices, 197 ;

on Pima, 194 ;

on Pueblo myth of ascent to heavens, 92 n;

on road of spirits in Pueblo myths, 85

Parsons, Talcott, 5 n, 13

Patwin (of north central California), 185 , 187

Paulson, Ivar, 137 -38, 139 n, 156

Pavel, Thomas G., 286 n

Paviotso, or Northern Paiute (of Great Basin, North America), 189 .

See also Paiute

Pawnee (Caddoan people of Great Plains), 86 , 245 , 247 , 247 n

Peirce, Charles Sanders:

on fallibilism and scientific inquiry, 273 -74, 276 , 276 n, 283 , 285 ;

on future orientation of symbol as distinguished from icon and index, 48 -49, 48 n, 123 , 272 , 286 ;

on generation of order by chance, 267 ;

on nature of reality, 278 -80;

on "thirdness" in triadic relation of sign, object, and interpretant, 271 -73, 271 -72n, 280 , 281

Peyote. See Narcotics and hallucinogens, peyote and other cactuses; Peyote cult

Peyote cult (Native American church), 247 -48

Philippi, Donald L., 165 -66

Physics, 265 -68, 276

Piaget, Jean:

on biological evolution, 21 -22, 21 n, 51 ;

on child's questionings, 29 , 54 ;

on development of rules through play, 46 n;

on growth of consciousness through differentiation and equilibration, 28 -30, 30 n, 51 ;

on language acquisition, 41 , 42 n, 43 ;

on structural transformation, 52 ;

on symbolical function and intentionality, 29 , 46 , 47

Piattelli-Palmarini, Massimo, 42 n

Pilgrimage:

of Papago, 194 ;

and quest, 53 ;

of Tarahumara and Huichol, 206 -8;

of Zinacantecos, 209

Pima (of southwestern North America), 194

Pizarro, Francisco, 210

Plains Cree (Algonquian people of Great

Plains), 252 , 252 n

Plato, 56 , 56 n, 279 , 293

Plot. See Narratives

Polo de Ondegardo, el licenciado Juan, 212

Polynesia:

ancestral ritual in, 66 -67;

myths of ascent to heavens in, 89 -91;

spirit possession in, 105 .

See also Maori; Niue; Tahiti; Tikopia

Pomo (of central California), 185 , 188

Popol Vuh , epic of ancient Maya, 198

Popov, A. A., 157 , 158

Popper, Karl, 55 , 271 , 275 -77, 276 n, 278 n, 283 , 285

Possession. See Spirit possession

"Possible worlds," 285 -86, 286 n

Potomac (Algonquian people of Virginia), 230

Powers, William K., 246 , 248 , 249 n.12

Powhatan (Algonquian people of Virginia), 228 , 230

Prayer, 82 -83, 192

Pressel, Esther, 115 -16

Priest, as conservative guardian of ritual, 99 , 125 , 183 (Northwest Coast, northwestern California), 196 (ancient Mesoamerica), 204 (Maya), 211 (Inca), 215 (Mapuche), 228 -30 (southeastern North America).

See also Ritual; Shaman; Spirit medium

Prigogine, Ilya, 265 -68, 278 n

Process. See Structure and process

Propp, Vladimir, 288 -90, 288 n.5

Proust, Marcel, 57

Psychological foundations of quest, 24 -31.

See also Consciousness; Freud, Sigmund; Jung, Carl Gustav; Piaget, Jean

Pueblo Indians (of southwestern North America):

calendrical rituals of, 62 -63, 190 ;

ceremonial curing societies of, 190 -91;

myth of ascent to heavens by twins of, 92 , 92 n, 221 ;

myth of emergence of, 85 , 98 ;

parallels between religious practices of, and those of Aztecs, 197 ;

possible influence of, on California tribes, 186 , 188 ;

symbol of road in rituals of, 85 .

See also Clowns, of Pueblos; Cochiti Pueblo; Hano; Hopi; Keresan Pueblo; Laguna Pueblo; Santo Domingo; Tewa; Zuñi

Purpose:

biology and, 18 -24, 48 ;

language and, 33 -34 (Saussure), 34 , 36 -37 (Chomsky), 46 -49;

in pursuit of goal of quest, 3 , 53 , 56 .

See also Directionality; Teleology

Putnam, Hilary, 278 n, 286 n

Pygmies (of Congo region, central Africa), 63 , 71

Q

Quain, Buell, 221

Quantum mechanics, 265 , 266

Quechua (language and people of central Andes), 210 , 213

Quest:

aporia as source of, 56 , 56 n, 292 -94;

as creative process, 57 ;

definitions of, xii , 3 , 24 , 54 , 56 , 291 ;

diversity of, 61 , 263 ;

goal of, 17 , 53 , 55 , 280 , 287 , 288 , 291 , 293 ;

narrative form of, 287 -92;

and pilgrimage, 53 ;

purposeful pursuit of, 3 , 53 , 56 ;

and question, 53 -54;

reality of, 284 ;

and rites of passage, 53 ;

tripartite structure of, 263 -65.

See also Closure and openness; Consciousness; Doubt; Failure in quest; Fiction; Future and futurity; Innovation, creativity; Language; Liminality; Meaning; Metaphor; Myths; Narratives; Religion; Restlessness, disquiet; Rites of passage; Ritual; Science and scientific inquiry; Shaman; Spirit; Spirit medium; Static and dynamic; Structure and process; Ternary relation; Transcendence; Transition; Truth; Uncertainty and indeterminacy; Vision quest

Question, questioning:

in Apache shamanism, 192 ;

of children, 29 , 54 ;

relation of, to quest, 53 -54, 208

Quetzalcoatl (plumed serpent god of ancient Mesoamerica), 197 , 210

Quiche Maya (of Mesoamerica), 198 , 203

Quinault (of northwestern Washington, Northwest Coast), 180 , 182

Quine, Willard Van Orman, 39 n.3

Qotobamha (Quechua community of southern Peru), 213

R

Radcliffe-Brown, A. R.:

on ancestor worship, 63 ;

on ancestral legends of Andaman Islanders, 67 ;

on Andamanese shamanism, 145 ;

on joking relationships, 73 ;

on social function of religion and ritual, 5 , 7 , 13 , 75 , 77 , 81 ;

on variability of myths, 84

Radin, Paul:

on African myths of ascent to heavens, 88 n.4;

on autobiography of a displaced Winnebago, 250 ;

on Aymara diviners, 213 ;

on South American twin myths, 221 ;

on Winnebago Medicine Rite, 246 ;

on Winnebago myth of ascent to heavens, 248 n.9;

on Winnebago vision quest as puberty rite, 249

Radloff, Wilhelm (V. V. Radlov), 160 , 164 , 164 n.7

Raglan, Lord, 83

Ramos, Arthur, 121

Rappaport, Roy A.:

on maintenance of structural homeostasis through change, 95 ;

on sanctity and unquestionableness, 98 -99;

on spirit possession of Tsembaga "smoke woman," 106

Rasmussen, Knud, 172 -77, 173 n.1

Raudot, Antoine Denis, 240

Read, Kenneth E., 66 , 74

Reader, role of, 291 -93

Reality:

linguistic reference to, 38 -40, 39 -40 nn.3-5, 44 ;

nature of, 278 -87, 291 -92.

See also Meaning; Truth

Redfield, Robert, 200 , 203

Reichard, Gladys A., 62 , 82 , 91 , 92 n

Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo, 221 -24, 223 n

Reincarnation:

in Australia, 67 -68, 141 ;

among Eskimo, 172 ;

in Manchu folk epic, 167 ;

among Montagnais-Naskapi,238 ;

in Siberia, 161 ;

in Tibet, 150 ;

in Trobriands, 66

Relativity theory, 265 .

See also Physics

Religion:

Bergson's two sources of, 8 , 9 , 15 -17, 50 -51, 261 ;

as conversation with world, 14 -15;

individual and solitary dimensions of, 8 -9;

as neurosis, 25 ;

as psychotherapeutic system, 28 ;

as ratification of social order, 4 -8, 12 ;

as source of social change, 13 , 15 ;

as "struggle" between entropy and organization, 269 ;

worldly concerns of, 96 .

See also Priest; Rites of passage; Ritual; Sacrifice; Shaman; Shamanism; Spirit medium; Spirit possession

Restlessness, disquiet:

absence from African tribal religions, 66 (Mbiti);

conjectural evolution of, 23 (Monod);

of hunters and herders, 154 ;

of Iban, 147 , 148 ;

of Iroquois, 233 ;

of man as questing animal, 53 , 148 ;

of organism, 24 ;

psychological, 26 (Freud), 30 (Bacon);

of religious experience, 284 -85;

of spirit, 56 ;

of Yamana, 217 , 218

Revitalization (or revivalist) movements. See Messianic and millenarian revitalization movements

Ricoeur, Paul:

on aporia and the quest, 56 ;

on consciousness, 30 -31;

on goal of language, 37 ;

on language as mediation, 40 n.5;

on metaphor, 286 -87;

on narrative as vehicle for semantic innovation, 288 , 291 ;

on restlessness of spirit, 56

Rink, Henrik, 173

Rites of passage, 9 -12, 28 ;

in Apache ceremonial, 192 ;

importance of movement and transition in, 9 -10;

normalcy reinforced by, 96 -97;

as paradigm of quest, 53 , 86 , 91 -92, 97 ;

three phases of, 9 , 78 , 91 -92, 264 , 269 ;

vision quests as, 244 (Ojibwa), 249 (Winnebago), 263 -65.

See also Initiation rites; Liminality; Ternary relation; Transition; Turner, Victor; van Gennep, Arnold

Ritual:

as affirmation of norms, 6 -8, 96 -97;

as agent of adaptation, 6 -8, 13 , 23 , 262 ;

agricultural, 62 , 64 , 72 -73, 207 (Huichol), 229 -30 (southeastern North America), 234 and 235 (northeastern North America);

of animals and humans, 6 , 8 ;

assimilation of anomaly in, 11 -12, 96 ;

as "communication without information," 98 , 122 ;

complementary to quest, 262 -63;

conflict and change in, 68 -81;

invariance and repetitiousness of, 6 , 7 , 61 -62 and 62n (Navajo), 82 , 98 (Navajo), 99 , 192 (Apache), 193 -95 (Mohave, Pima, Papago), 209 (Zinacantecos), 213 (Central Andes), 216 (Mapuche), 262 ;

as outlet for fears and desires, 72 ;

as perpetuation of past, 7 , 61 -62, 82 , 99 , 103 ;

of protest 74 , 95 ;

promotion of stability

without inertia in, 70 ;

relation of, to myth, 83 -86, 97 -98;

for replenishment of animals, 166 (Ainu), 176 -77 (Eskimo), 247 (Mandan);

of slaying a deity, 72 ;

of status reversal, 12 , 73 -74 (Ndembu, Gahuku), 96 , 235 (Iroquois);

symbolic system of sacred objects in, 85 ;

symbolism of road in, 85 -87, 98 ;

transformative nature of (as distinguished from ceremony), 80 , 82 ;

of twinship, 73 .

See also Hako; Religion; Rites of passage; Sacrifice; Shaman, seances and ceremonies of; Spirit medium

Ritzenthaler, Robert E., and Pat Ritzenthaler, 240

Road or journey, in ritual and spirit mediumship, 85 -87, 98 , 118 , 193

Rodrigues, Nina, 114 n, 121 , 125

Rose, Steven, 270

Roth, Walter E., 221 , 221 n, 222

Rothovius, Bishop, 155

Rowe, John Howland, 211 , 211 n.6, 212

Roys, Ralph L., 198

Ruysbroeck, Vilhelm av, 152 -53, 153 n, 154

Ryle, Gilbert, 287

S

Sabah. See Borneo

Sabina, Maria (Mazatec wise woman), 206

Sacrifice:

animal, 63 , 72 , 163 ;

human, 63 , 72 , 73 (Dahomey), 86 (Pawnee), 197 (Aztec), 211 -12 and 211 n.6 (Inca), 230 (southeastern North America), 247 (Pawnee)

Sagard, Father Gabriel, 240

Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de, 198 -99, 205

Salish. See Coast Salish

Samoyeds (of northwestern Siberia), 153 , 157 , 165

Samsonov (Yukaghir shaman), 161

San Antonio (Maya village of Belize, Mesoamerica), 203

San Francisco Tecospa (Nahuatl village of Mexico), 204

San Pedro Chenalhó (Tzotzil Maya village of Chiapas, Mexico), 209 -l0

Santa Eulalia (Maya village, Mesoamerica), 205

Santería (Spanish-American possession cult), 113

Santiago Chimaltenango (Maya village of Guatemala), 202

Santo Domingo (Pueblo of southwestern North America), 190

Saora. See Hill Saora

Sapir, Edward, 178 , 185

Sarawak. See Borneo

Saturnalia. See Ritual, of status reversal

Saulteaux (Algonquian people of Berens River, Manitoba), 237 , 242

Saussure, Ferdinand de, 32 -36, 38 -39, 44 , 50 , 269 , 269 n, 271 , 272 n, 287 , 292

Schaden, Egon, 225

Schebesta, Paul, 145

Science and scientific inquiry, 55 , 273 -77, 275 nn.6, 7 , 279 -86.

See also Kuhn, Thomas; Peirce, Charles Sanders; Popper, Karl

Scotus, Duns, 279

Scythians, xiv , 151 -52, 240

Sea Dayaks. See Iban

Sedna (Eskimo Old Woman of undersea world), 172 -73, 173 n.1, 176 -77

Selk'nam, or Ona (of Tierra del Fuego, South America), 217 -18, 217 n, 218 n

Semang, Senoi. See Negritos

Seneca (Iroquois nation of northeastern North America), 233 , 235 , 237 , 238 n, 239

Sequoiah (Cherokee chief), 230

Serna, Jacinto de la, 199

Shaking Tent, or Spirit Lodge, 175 -76 (Eskimo), 231 (southeastern North America), 241 -42 and 241 n (northeastern North America), 246 -47 (Great Plains), 282

Shaman (or medicine man): ascent of, to heavens, 137 , 138 , 143 (Australia), 145 -46 (Negritos), 147 (Indonesia), 150 (Tibet), 154 (Koryak), 160 (Altai, Tofa), 160 n, 162 (Tungus), 164 (Tatars), 165 (Finns), 175 -76 (Eskimo), 206 -7 (Mesoamerica), 215 (Mapuche), 221 and 223 -25 (Amazon);

call of, 138 , 156 -58 (North and Central Eurasia), 173 -74 (Eskimo), 178 -79 (Northwest Coast), 185 -86 (California), 193 (Mohave), 194 (Pima, Papago), 202 -4 (Mesoamerica), 207 (Huichol), 208

(Zinacanteco), 211 -12 (Inca), 215 (Mapuche), 222 (Amazon);

combat of, with spirits or witches, 176 (Eskimo), 180 -82 (Northwest Coast), 190 -91 (Pueblo), 210 (Tzotzil Maya), 214 (coastal Peru), 216 (Mapuche), 222 and 223 (Amazon), 242 (Saulteaux);

costume of, 150 ;

dangers faced by, 163 (Tungus), 180 (Nootka), 182 (Coast Salish), 210 (Tzotzil Maya), 217 (Mapuche), 225 (Amahuaca), 243 (Ojibwa);

death and rebirth of, 143 -44 (Australia), 181 (Kwakiutl), 222 (Shamatari);

derivation of word, 151 , 151 n;

descent of, to underworld, 137 , 138 , 154 (Koryak), 160 -63 (Siberia), 160n, 164 (Tatars), 165 (Finns), 166 -68 (Manchus), 176 -77 (Eskimo), 181 -82 (Coast Salish), 205 (Mesoamerica), 224 (Gran Chaco), 241 (northeastern North America);

dialogue of, with spirits, 146 (Singapore), 162 -63 (Tungus), 192 (Apache), 216 (Mapuche), 223 (Macusi);

distinguished from or associated with chief, 184 (California), 219 (Amazon), 225 (Amahuaca);

distinguished from or associated with priest, 155 (Eurasia), 183 -84 (Northwest Coast and northwestern California), 208 -9 (Huichol, Zinacanteco), 219 (Amazon), 231 -32 (southeastern North America);

distinguished from or associated with sorcerer or magician, 142 (Aranda), 158 (Siberia), 184 (California);

ecstatic trance of, 136 -37, 155 , 159 , 241 ;

isolation or apartness of, 144 (Australia), 158 -59 (Siberia), 173 -74 and 177 (Eskimo), 255 and 263 (Black Elk);

as "master of animals," 140 ;

as "master of spirits," 136 -38, 137 n, 158 , 160 , 185 (California);

physical handicap of, 148 (Iban), 173 (Eskimo);

as psychopomp or "soul guide," 150 , 152 , 161 ;

quest of, for knowledge or power, 143 (Australia), 146 (Batek), 150 (Tibet), 155 , 157 (Tavgi Samoyed), 159 , 160 , 175 (Eskimo), 194 (southwestern North America), 206 -8 (Mesoamerica), 221 and 224 -25 (Amazon), 261 -62;

recovery of souls of sick or dead by, 145 , 146 (Singapore), 147 (Indonesia), 148 (Iban), 150 (Tibet), 159 (Eurasia), 161 -63 (Siberia), 166 -68 (Manchus), 181 -82 (Coast Salish), 205 (Mesoamerica), 209 -10 (Tzotzil Maya), 224 (Gran Chaco), 241 (northeastern North America);

seances and ceremonies of, 138 , 146 (Singapore), 147 (Toradja, Wana), 148 (Iban), 153 (Mongol, Samoyed), 160 (Altai), 161 -62 (Yukaghir), 162 -63 (Tungus), 175 -77 (Eskimo), 182 (Coast Salish), 182 -83 (Kwakiutl and Nootka), 207 -8 (Huichol), 209 (Zinacanteco), 215 (Mapuche), 223 (Macusi), 224 (Taulipáng), 234 -35 (Delaware, Ojibwa, Seneca), 237 (reflected in North American "Orpheus" myths), 240 (Huron and Montagnais), 256 (Black Elk);

spirit possession of, 136 -38, 137 n (Tungus), 159 , 185 -86 and 185 n (Americas), 215 -17 (Mapuche), 219 (Amazon), 223 n (South America);

visionary variety of, 136 , 138 , 145 (Andamanese), 184 and 186 (California), 193 -95 (Mohave, Pima, Papago), 205 (Mesoamerica), 261 .

See also Animals, transformative interchange of, with shamans and others; Curing methods; Deception or illusion, in shamanism; Drum or tambourine; Failure in quest; Guardian Spirit; Marriage of medium or shaman with spirit; Narcotics and hallucinogens, use of by shamans and others; Narratives, of shamans' heroic exploits; Shaking Tent; Shamanism; Soul flight; Spirit medium; Sweat baths; Transvestism; Vision quest; Women, as shamans

Shamanism:

of Amazon and South American tropics, 218 -28;

of Andean peoples of South America, 211 -18;

in Australia, 140 -44;

in California, 184 -89;

in China, 151 -52, 152 n;

in Central Asia and Siberia, 149 -68;

of Eskimo, 172 -77;

in Greece, 152 ;

historical complex and putative origins of, 139 -40;

of Huns, 151 , 151 -52n.3;

in Indonesian archipelago, 146 -48;

in (peninsular) Malaysia, 144 -45;

in Melanesia, 144 -45;

in Mesoamerica, 196 -210;

of Mongols, 152 -53;

of North American Great Plains, 244 -57;

in northeastern

North America, 233 -44;

of Northwest Pacific Coast, 177 -84;

possible Ice Age antecedents of, 139 -40, 151 ;

rarity of, in Africa, 140 ;

relation of Lamaist and Mahayana Buddhism to, 137n, 139 , 149 -51, 151 n.2, 168 ;

of Scythians, 151 -52;

in Singapore, 146 ;

in southeastern North America, 230 -32;

in southwestern North America, 189 -95;

"weak" and "strong" forms of, 138 , 186 ;

of Zinza, 111 -12, 140 .

See also Cosmologies; Shaman; Siberia; Spirit possession

Shamatari (of northwest Amazonia), 222

Shambhala, 150

Shambaugh, Cynthia, 109

Sharanahua (of Amazonian eastern Peru), 225

Sharon, Douglas, 212 , 214

Shasta (of northern California), 184 , 186 , 187

Shavante (of Mato Grosso, Brazil), 219 -20

Shawnee (Algonquian people of Tennessee Valley), 239

Shelton, Austin J., 64

Sherente (of central Brazil), 221

Sheriff, John K., 272 n

Shipek, Florence C., 188

Shirokogoroff, S. M., 136 , 137 , 137 n, 150 , 151 n.2, 158 , 160 , 163 , 168

Shkilnyk, Anastasia M., 244

Shklovsky, Victor, 287 n

Shona (of Zimbabwe, southern Africa), 126

Shonle, Ruth, 247

Siberia, cultures and religions of, 150 -68.

See also Buryat; Chukchee; Gold; Koryak; Samoyeds; Shamanism; Tungus; Yakut; Ynkaghir

Sierra Popoluca (of Veracruz, Mexico), 205

Siikala, Anna-Leena, 153 , 153 n

Silver, Daniel Ben, 208 n, 209 n

Simpson, George Gaylord, 18 , 19

Singapore, 106 -7, 146

Siouan peoples of North America, 245 , 247 n, 263 .

See also Crow; Mandan; Omaha; Sioux; Winnebago

Sioux (Siouan people of Great Plains), 246 , 246 n, 248 , 248 n.10, 249 , 256 .

See also Dakota; Lakota; Oglala; Teton Sioux; Wahpeton Sioux

Siskind, Janet, 225

Skagit. See Upper Skagit

Sky. See Heavens; Milky Way

Smith, Captain John, 229 , 230 , 230 n

Smith, W. Robertson, 83

Snyder, Gary, 186 , 294

Society:

conflict and change in, 68 -81;

created by symbol and word, 83 ;

as object of worship, 5 , 50 ;

as process, 12 , 13 , 16 , 50 , 80 , 94 ;

relation of, to individual, 13 -14;

schism and continuity of Ndembu, 77 -78;

as structure, 16 .

See also Closure and openness; Cultivated and wild; Religion; Ritual; Static and dynamic; Structure and process

Socrates, 293 -94

Solomon Islands (Melanesia), 66 , 105 -6.

See also Florida; Kwaio

Sorcery. See Witchcraft and sorcery

Soul beliefs, 138 -39, 139 n, 149 (Tibet), 154 (North Eurasia), 184 (California), 220 (Amazon), 235 (northeastern North America)

Soul flight by mediums or shamans, 107 (Kachins), 108 (Ao Nagas, Konyak Nagas), 146 (Batek), 214 (coastal Peru), 223 (Amazon);

exceptional in California, 186 ;

exceptional in India, 108 .

See also Myths, of ascent to heavens; Shaman, ascent of, to heavens

Soul loss. See Causes of disease and death, soul loss

Soustelle, Georgette, 199 , 200 , 203

Soustelle, Jacques, 197 , 198

Southall, Aidan, 121 , 130

South America, cultures and religions of. See Amazonian and other tropical cultures and religions of South America; Andean cultures and religions of South America

Southeastern North America, cultures and religions of, 228 -32.

See also Alabama; Caddo; Cherokee; Chickasaw; Chitimacha; Choctaw; Creek, or Muskogee; Natchez; Potomac; Powhatan; Waxhaw

Southwestern North America, cultures and religions of. See Apache; Navajo; Pueblo; Yuman tribes

Speck, Frank G., 85 , 229 , 230 , 232 -34, 238

Spegazzini, C., 217 n

Spell, 82 . See also Myths; Prayer

Spelman, Henry, 230

Spencer, Baldwin, and F. J. Gillen, 5 , 69 , 142

Spencer, Katherine, 91 -92

Spicer, Edward H., 201

Spier, Leslie, 178 , 185 , 193

Spirit:

as actualization of future, xii , 54 , 57 , 284 -85;

associated with breath or wind, 55 ;

as index of separation and need, 4 , 54 ;

manifested in language, 123 ;

relation of, to mind, 54 -55;

as transcendence of divisions, 55 -56

Spirit Lodge. See Shaking Tent, or Spirit Lodge, ceremony

Spirit medium:

connection of, with ritual, 123 , 136 ;

controlled behavior of, most admired, 115 , 119 -24;

deceptions and theatrical aspects of, compatible with belief in, 124 -25;

distinguished from or identified with diviner, exorcist, or priest, 104 , 105 n (Tahiti), 107 (Thailand and Burma), 108 (India), 109 (Nuer), 110 (Ashanti), 119 , 125 , 126 -27, 128 -29 (India);

distinguished from or identified with shaman, 104 (Africa), 105 n (Tahiti), 120 , 136 -38, 140 (Zinza), 144 (Niue), 155 and 158 (Siberia), 159 (Ainu), 215 (Mapuche);

failure to enter trance, 124 -25, 136 ;

importance of linguistic code for, 120 , 122 -24, 128 ;

inability of, to remember trance, 107 (Singapore), 114 (Brazil), 138 , 215 (Mapuche);

innovative role of, 129 -31;

normalcy of, 126 , 127 ;

office of, not restricted by class, 104 ;

openness of, to transformative spirit, 119 , 120 , 124 , 135 ;

overpowering initial call of, 117 -18;

passivity or receptivity of, 117 -19, 135 ;

sociological explanations of, 121 -23, 127 -28;

status of women and other outsiders as, 126 -28, 127 n;

two-way communication of, 104 , 130 .

See also Diviners; Exorcism; Marriage of medium or shaman with spirit; Priest; Shaman; Spirit possession

Spirit possession, 103 -31:

in Africa, 103 -4, 109 -12, 117 , 119 , 125 -27, 127 n, 130 -31;

in Bali, 106 ;

in Brazil, 113 -16, 118 , 119 , 121 , 124 -26;

in Burma, 107 -8, 126 ;

compared to rite of passage, 264 ;

in Haiti, 112 -13, 118 -20, 125 , 126 , 128 , 129 ;

in India, 107 -9, 122 , 128 -29;

infrequency of, in aboriginal Americas, 185 n, 219 , 223 n;

in Malaysia, 107 ;

in Melanesia and New Guinea, 105 -6;

in Micronesia and Polynesia (including Tikopia), 104 -5, 118 , 123 , 123 n, 128 , 131 , 140 , 144 ;

in Singapore, 106 -7;

in Spanish-speaking America, 113 ;

in Thailand, 107 ;

in Tibet, 150 ;

variability of, 104 ;

voluntary and involuntary, 104 -5, 119 -24, 119 n, 131 n.

See also Shaman; Shamanism; Spirit medium

Spiro, Melford E., 107 , 126

Stanner, W. E. H., 67 , 69 , 141

Static and dynamic, opposition and interaction of, 16 -17, 50 -52, 261 -63;

in Apache religion, 193 ;

in binary oppositions and ternary relations, 269 , 271 , 279 ;

in California shamanism and ritual, 189 ;

in Dahomean fate and mobility, 73 ;

excludes determinism, 276 ;

in id and ego, 25 ;

in language, 33 , 36 , 40 , 44 -45, 47 ;

in mobile intelligence and consciousness, 29 , 30 -31;

in narrative and metaphor, 288 ;

in Ndembu ritual, 77 ; 77 ;

in ritual symbol and mythic word, 83 -84;

in ritual and quest, 265 ;

in ritual of Australian Murinbata, 70 ;

in Siberian other world, 161 ;

in spirit mediumship, 122 , 123 , 130 .

See also Bergson, Henri; Closure and openness; Cultivated and wild; Structure and process

Stengers, Isabelle, 265 -68

Stephen, Alexander M., 191 n.7

Stern, Steve J, 214

Sternberg, Leo, 156 , 157

Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, 70

Steward, Julian H., 210

Stewart, Kenneth M., 185 n

Strehlow, Rev. C., 142

Strehlow, T. G. H., 68 , 141 , 142 , 218 n

Structure and process, opposition and interaction of, 50 -53, 56 , 99 ;

in binary

oppositions and ternary relations, 269 , 271 ;

biological, 22 , 51 , 265 , 268 ;

in computers and brains, 270 ;

cognitive versus existential qualities of, 11 ;

linguistic, 35 -36;

in narrative and metaphor, 288 ;

in Ndembu society, 77 -78;

physical, 267 -68;

psychological, 28 , 30 ;

in ritual and quest, 265 ;

social, 12 , 50 , 83 , 94 -95, 99 .

See also Closure and openness; Cultivated and wild; Society, as process; Static and dynamic; Ternary relation; Transition

Sulawesi, or Celebes (Indonesia), 146 -47, 154

Sumatra (Indonesia), 106 , 146

Sun Dance of Sioux and other peoples of Great Plains, 246 -49, 246 n, 252 n, 253 , 263

Swanton, John R., 179 , 229 -32

Swazi (of southern Africa), 74

Sweat baths:

on Great Plains, 245 , 247 , 249 , 249 n.11, 251 , 252 ;

in northeastern North America, 240 ;

of Scythians, 152 , 240

Sword, George (Oglala holy man), 248

Sylva, Kathy, et al., 46 n

Symbol, symbolism:

Aristotelian purposiveness made possible by, 29 , 48 ;

childhood development of, 29 ;

future orientation of, 48 -49, 84 , 272 , 279 ;

interpretive multivocality of, 83 .

See also Language; Word, in ritual and myth

T

Tachi (of San Joaquin Valley, California), 185

Tahirussawichi, priest or Ku'rahus of Pawnee, 86 -87

Tahiti, 105 n

Taine, Hippolyte, 44

Tale of the Nisan Shamaness,166 -68

Tallensi (of Ghana, West Africa), 63 , 65 , 77 , 82 -83, 110

Tambiah, Stanley J., xii , 107

Tapirapé (of Mato Grosso, Brazil), 219 , 222 , 224 , 225

Tarahumara (of Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico's, 201 n, 206 , 208

Tarski, Alfred, 280

Tauade (of Papua New Guinea), 69

Taulipáng, 224

Tavgi Samoyeds, 157

Teicher, Morton I., 185 n

Teleology. See Aristotle, teleology of; Purpose; Teleonomy

Teleonomy, 20 , 20 n

Tenskwatawa (Shawnee prophet), 239

Tequila (Nahuatl village, Mexico), 200 , 203

Ternary relation, 263 -73, 271 -72 n.5, 280 -81, 283 , 287 , 290 -91, 293 .

See also Binary opposition; Closure and openness; Myths, pattern of rites of passage in; Rites of passage, three phases of; Spirit possession, compared to rite of passage; Structure and process

Teton Sioux (of Great Plains), 245 , 248 n.10, 251 , 252 , 252 n, 253 .

See also Oglala; Sioux

Tewa (Pueblos of Southwestern North America), 190 , 195

Thailand, 107

Thermodynamics, 23 , 266 , 267

Thompson, J. Eric, 204

Thompson, Stith, 88 n.4, 97 n

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, 251 n.13

Tibet, 149 -51, 149 n, 154 , 164 n.8

Tierra del Fuego (South America), 217 -19, 263

Tikopia (Polynesia):

"bureaucratic ancestralism" of, 67 ;

spirit mediumship in, 104 , 118 , 123 , 123 n, 128 , 131 , 137 n;

"Work of the Gods" ritual among, 66 -67, 69 , 69 n, 123 n

Time, African conceptions of, 65 , 70 .

See also Directionality; Future and futurity; History

Titiev, Mischa, 191 , 214 -16

Tlingit (of Alaska and British Columbia, Northwest Coast), 179 , 180

Tobacco. See Curing methods, blowing tobacco smoke; Narcotics and hallucinogens, tobacco

Todorov, Tzvetan, 288

Todos Santos (Maya village of Guatemala), 204

Tofa, or Karagas (of Siberia), 160

Toltec (of ancient Mesoamerica), 197

Tomashevsky, Boris, 287 n

Tonal . See Nagual

Tonalamatl. See Calendar

Tonga (of Zambia, southern Africa), 119 , 125 , 130

Tooker, Elizabeth, 235 , 238 n, 242

Toradja (of Sulawesi, Indonesia), 146 -47

Totonac, Highland (of Mexico), 205

Tozzer, Alfred M., 198

Trance. See Shaman; Spirit medium; Spirit possession

Transcendence:

through metaphor, 287 , 291 , 292 ;

objective reality of, 284 -85, 287 .

See also Closure and openness; Future and futurity; Spirit; Static and dynamic; Rites of passage; Shaman; Spirit medium; Ternary relation; Transition; Vision quest

Transition, 52 -53;

dangers of, 11 , 52 -53;

in operations of brain, 270 ;

in religion as "continuous meanwhile," 15 ;

in revitalization movements, 269 ;

in rites of passage and initiation, 9 -10, 79 -80.

See also Liminality; Rites of passage

Transvestism, of shamans and others, 146 (Toradja), 148 (Iban), 152 , 158 -59 and 159 n (Siberia), 215 (Mapuche), 248 (Sioux "berdaches"), 282

Trickery. See Deception or illusion

Tricksters. See Clowns; Coyote; Demonic spirits of the wild; Iolofäth; Legbá; Maui of a thousand tricks; Ture

Trigger, Bruce G., 233 , 236 , 242

Tripartite process. See Ternary relation

Trobriand Islanders (Melanesia), 66 , 75

Trujillo (city of coastal Peru), 214

Truth, nature of and search for, 39 n.3, 40 , 55 , 270 , 272 -77, 279 -88, 292 -93.

See also Reality

Tsembaga (of highland New Guinea), 106

Tsimshian (of British Columbia, Northwest Coast), 181

Tschopik, Harry, 213

Tucci, Giuseppe, 149 , 150

Tuhoe Maori. See Maori

Tukanoans (peoples of Amazonia), 219 , 223 n, 224 .

See also Barasana; Desana

Tungus, or Evenk (of eastern Siberia), 136 -39, 137 n, 150 -51, 151 n.2, 161 -63, 166 , 168 , 186

Tunkashila (Lakota "Grandfathers"), 249 -50 n.12, 254 -57

Tupí-Guaraní (of Amazon region), 221 , 221 n, 225 , 227

Tupinamba (of coastal Brazil), 221

Ture (trickster of the Azande), 73 , 186

Turnbull, Colin, 71

Turner, Edith, 97

Turner, Victor:

on creation of society by symbol and word, 83 ;

on liminality and communitas, structure and process, 10 -12, 51 -52, 264 ;

on Ndembu Chihamba rite, 80 ;

on Ndembu Mukanda rite, 78 ;

on Ndembu Wubwang'u ritual, 73 , 96 ;

on reinforcement of normalcy in ritual liminality, 96 -97;

on schism and continuity in Ndembu society, 77 -78, 96 ;

on society as adaptive process, 94 -95

Tuzin, Donald, 79 , 79 n

Twana (of northwestern Washington, Northwest Coast), 179

Twins:

myths of, 92 -93 (Navajo), 92 n (Navajo, Apache, Pueblo), 221 and 221 n (Amazon), 231 (Choctaw), 238 (Iroquois);

rituals of, 73 (Ndembu);

as shamans, 231 (Creek)

Tylor, Edward, 55 , 63 n

Tzeltal Maya (of Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico), 202

Tzotzil Maya (of Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico), 208 -10.

See also San Pedro Chenalhó; Zinacantan

U

Ulithi Atoll (Micronesia), 88 -89, 135

Umbanda. See Brazil, spirit possession cults of

Uncertainty and indeterminacy:

affirmed by African ancestral ritual and tricksters, 72 -73;

in Araucanian religion, 216 ;

of biological evolution, 52 ;

compatible with belief in objective reality, 278 ;

of demonic spirits of the wild, 76 -77;

of Freudian ego, 27 ;

in information theory, 131 , 270 ;

of initiatives outside closure of ritual, 99 ;

of language development, 46 , 49 ;

in liminality of rites of passage, 80 ;

of outcome of religion as process, 8 , 13 , 16 ;

of quest (by shamans and others), 53 , 56 , 85 , 209 , 228 , 244 , 250 , 277 , 282 , 285 ;

reduced by standardization of drug-

induced visions in Amazon, 224 -25;

of scientific inquiry, 55 , 273 , 276 , 280 , 281 ;

as source of learning, 45 ;

in spirit mediumship, 122 -24, 131 , 135 ;

of ternary process, 272 -73;

of the word in ritual and myth, 83 , 84 ;

of the Yaqui "tree world," 201 .

See also Closure and openness; Conflict and change; Future and futurity; Horizon; Innovation, creativity; Liminality; Static and dynamic

Underhill, Ruth, 192 , 194

Unkel, Curt. See Nimuendajú, Curt

Upper Skagit (of northwestern Washington, Northwest Coast), 179 , 181 -82

V

Väinämöinen (hero of Finnish Kalevala ), 165

Valero, Helena, 222 , 224

Valéry, Paul, 48

van Gennep, Arnold, 9 -10, 28 , 69 , 78 , 79 , 86 , 91 -92, 264 , 268 , 291 , 292 .

See also Rites of passage; Turner, Victor

Vane, Sylvia Brakke, 188

Verger, Pierre, 110 , 119

Villa Rojas, Alfonso, 203 , 206

Villavicencio, Manuel, 223

Vision quest (or guardian spirit quest), of shamans and others, 145 (peninsular Malaysia), 148 (Iban), 179 -80 (Northwest Coast), 192 (Apache), 194 (Papago), 202 (ancient Mesoamerica), 204 (Cáhita), 220 (Jívaro), 222 (Tapirapé, Desana), 232 (southeastern North America), 237 (and North American "Orpheus" myths), 242 -44 (Ojibwa), 247 (Sioux), 248 -57 (Great Plains), 249 n.11 (Oglala), 251 n.13 (Mandan), 252 n (by women on Great Plains), 255 -56 and 264 (of Black Elk).

See also Dreams; Guardian spirit; Reality; Rites of passage, vision quests as;Shaman, quest of, for knowledge or power; Truth; Women, in vision quest

Vogt, Evon Z., 200 , 208 -9, 209 n

Voltaire, 286 n

von den Steinen, Karl, 220 , 221

von Hagen, Victor, 212

von Wrangel, F., 153 , 282

Voodoo. See Haiti

Vygotsky, L. S., 44 , 46

W

Wagley, Charles, 202 , 219 , 221 n, 222 , 224 -26

Wahpeton Sioux (of Great Plains), 245

Wakan (Lakota "sacred") and Wakan Tanka (Lakota "Great Spirit"), 246 , 248 , 249 n.12

Walens, Stanley, 183

Wales, H. G. Quaritch, 147 n

Walker, James R., 245 , 246 n, 248 , 248 n.10, 249 , 249 n.11, n.12

Wallace, Anthony F. C.:

on the Delaware Prophet, 239 ;

on dreams in Iroquoian cultures, 236 ;

on Iroquois False Face Company, 233 ;

on Iroquois vision quests, 242 ;

on mobilizing function of ritual as "communication without information," 98 -99;

on revitalization movements, 214 , 269

Wallace, Ernest, 245 , 252

Wallace, William J., 185

Wallis, Wilson D., 248

Wana (of Sulawesi, Indonesia), 147

Wasson, R. Gordon, 205 , 206

Waters, Frank, 98 , 191 n.7

Waugh, Linda, 44

Waxhaw (of North Carolina), 229

Weber, Max, 7 , 13 , 15

Weltfish, Gene, 86 , 247 n

Whewell, William, 274

White, Leslie A., 190 , 191 n.6

White Buffalo Woman, of Teton Sioux, 245 , 246 , 254

Whitehead, Alfred North, 8 -9

White Mountain Apache (of southwestern North America), 192

Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 41

Wied-Neuwied, Maximilian, Prince of, 247 , 250 -51, 251 n.13

Wilbert, Johannes, 223

Wild, power of. See Cultivated and wild; Demonic spirits of the wild; Witchcraft and sorcery

Wilson, Edmund, 235

Wilson, Jack. See Wovoka

Wilson, Monica, 92

Windigo (cannibalistic Algonquian spirit), 185 n

Winnebago (Siouan people of Wisconsin), 246 , 248 n.9, 249 , 250

Winter, Edward H., 74 -76

Wiradjuri (of southeast Australia), 142

Wisdom, Charles, 200 , 203 , 204

Wishram (of Columbia River, Northwest Coast), 178

Wissler, Clark, 245 , 246 n, 248 n.9

Witchcraft and sorcery:

in Africa, 74 -76;

of Aztecs, 198 , 202 ;

of Navajo and Pueblos, 75 , 191 , 195 ;

as negation of natural and social order, 74 -75;

resemblances to shamanism, 144 -45n;

in Trobriands, 75 .

See also Demonic spirits of the wild

Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 39 n.3

Wolf, Eric R., 196

Women:

as mediums, 126 -28, 127 n;

as shamans, 146 (Toradja), 147 (Iban), 159 and 159 n (Siberia, Central and East Asia), 163 (Tungus), 165 (Ainu), 166 -68 (Manchus), 173 (Eskimo), 178 (Northwest Coast), 183 -84 (northwestern California), 186 (Shasta), 215 -16 (Mapuche), 248 (Sioux);

in vision quest, 232 (Chitimacha), 243 (Ojibwa), 249 (Crow), 252 and 252 n (Great Plains).

See also Myths, of women's primordial pre-eminence over men; Spirit medium, status of women and other outsiders as

Word, in ritual and myth:

creation of society by, through interpreted ritual symbols, 83 ;

and ecstasy, 206 ;

fixity and variability of, 82 -83, 209 ;

future orientation of, 84 , 123 , 218 (Selk'nam).

See also Language; Myths; Ritual; Spell; Spirit medium, importance of linguistic code for

Worship of dead. See Ancestor worship

Wovoka (Paviotso prophet), 189

X

Xenophanes, 276 , 280

Xumu (Amahuaca shaman-chief), 225

Y

Yagé. See Narcotics and hallucinogens, yagé

Yahgan. See Yamana

Yamana, or Yahgan (of Tierra del Fuego, South America), 217 -18, 217 n, 218 n

Yakut (of eastern Siberia), 156 , 159 n

Yakutat Tlingit. See Tlingit

Yana (of north central California), 185

Yaqui (of northern Mexico and southern Arizona), 200 -201, 201 n

Yava, Albert, 191 n.7

Yenisei Ostiaks, or Kets (of western Siberia), 161

Yokuts (of east central California), 187

Yongden, Lama, 164 n.8

Yoruba (of Nigeria, West Africa), 64 , 110 , 112 -15

Yucatec Maya, 198 , 200 , 203 .

See also Maya

Yukaghir (of eastern Siberia), 159 n, 161 -62

Yuma (Yuman tribe of southwestern North America), 193

Yuman tribes (of southwestern North America), 184 , 193 -94.

See also Cocopa; Maricopa; Mohave; Yuma

Yurok (of northwestern California), 183 -84

Z

Zande (adjective). See Azande

Zar cult (of Ethiopia, African horn, and North Africa), 112 , 126 , 127 , 127 n

Zaretsky, Irving I., 109

Zeno of Elea, 292

Zinacantan (Tzotzil Maya village of Chiapas, Mexico), 200 , 208 -9

Zingg, Robert M., 205 , 206

Zinza (of Tanzania, East Africa), 111 -12, 130 , 140

Zolla, Elémire, 243

Zulu (of southern Africa), 74

Zuñi (Pueblos of southwestern North America):

calendrical ceremonies and worship of dead among, 62 -63;

celebration of excess in secret fraternities of, 70 , 70 n, 72 ;

classified as "Apollonian," 70 -72, 182 ;

curing societies and ceremonies of, 191 , 195 ;

myth of emergence of, 85