Index
abstract paintings, 115, 120, 128–29
age, gender inflected by, 168
Agent Orange: reference to in A Quiet Little Town, [225n25]; victim of, 210(fig.)
agriculture: collectivization of in North Vietnam in late 1950s and early 1960s, 53; redistribution of land to the peasantry in 1991–92, 54
Agulhon, Maurice, 14
airports, 9, 15, 199, 229
All Souls' Day, Vietnamese (see also Feast of Wandering Souls), [75n40]
altar(s)
in Giap Tu communal house, 70–71
in homes: ancestral altars, 60, 62, 64, 82; funeral altars, 60, 62, 63–64, 65, [75n30], 178 (fig.);as part of Commemorative Area for Ton Duc Thang, 82, 84, 87–88; role in soldier's death anniversary ceremony, 69–70
American War. See War of National Salvation Against the Americans
amnesia, collective/social, 7–8, 14, 15, 190, [193n33]
anarchists, as political prisoners in colonial prisons, 34–35, [44n65]
ancestral cult, Vietnamese, 47, 60, [75n30], 82, 170; ancestral altars in homes, 60, 62, 64, 82; role in Commemorative Area for Ton Duc Thang, 82, 85–86
Anderson, Benedict, [16n12]
An Giang Province. See Commemorative Area for Ton Duc Thang;My Hoa Hung village
animals, caged, images of in classical prison poetry, 26–27
appropriate behavior (hanh), as one of the Four Virtues, [193n15]
architecture, 10, 13; French, 13, 148, 152
Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN), 190–91; brothels serving portrayed in Girl on the River, 212; military cemetery razed in1975, 191; privileges for northern veterans and survivors not extended to, 67, 227–28
Army Museum (Hanoi), exaggerated death figures for American soldiers, [75n35]
art(s): politicization of aesthetics, 12–13; state subsidies for, effect on 1980s film industry, 198; visual (see visual art(s))
“art for art's sake,” 115
“art for humanity's sake,” 214
art galleries, 109, 121
Arts Association, Vietnamese (Hoi Nghe Si Tao Hinh; National Arts Association;Vietnamese
Arts Association (continued) Artists' Association), 110, 113–15, 129
attitude toward Bui Xuan Phai's paintings, 124, [133n25]
criteria, 113–15; changes in advocated at 1994 congress, 113, 120–21, [133n18]; strictness and enforcement, 115–20
atheism, as official DRV policy, 58, 72
August Revolution of 1945. See Revolution;War Against the French
autobiographies, relationship to “national biographies,” [16n12]
Autobiography of Malcolm X (Malcolm X and Alex Haley), 22
Ba Dinh Square (Hanoi), Shrine to the Unknown Soldier, 67, 68 (fig.)
Bao Ninh, The Sorrow of War, 60, 180, [194n23]
Bastille, the, use as symbol, 30
Benighted (Cao Ba Quat), 26
Berman, Marshall, 125
bicycle and bicycle repair tools, among Ton Duc Thang artifacts, 90
billboards, images of women, 167, 183, 183 (fig.)
Bird in a Cage, The (Nguyen Huu Cau), 26
Black Sea mutiny, Ton Duc Thang's fabricated role, 80, 83
Bloch, Maurice, 71
Bodnar, John, ix–xi
Bradley, Mark, 14–15, 46, 72, 196–226
Breaking Rocks on Con Dao (Dap Da Con Dao) (PhanChau Trinh), 28–29
Brombert, Victor, [41n28]
Brothers and Relations (Anh va Em) (film), 15, 196–98, 199–200, 210–11, 219, [226n31]
Buddhism, 23–25, 83; Feast of Wandering Souls, 206 (see also All Souls' Day);influence on Vietnamese war literature, 171–72; monks released from reeducation camps, 158; radical adherents as political prisoners, 34; temples, installation of souls of war dead in, 70
Bui Xuan Phai (artist), 121–24, 122 (fig.), 125–26, 128, 129–30, 131, [133nn20], [25]
paintings, 12, 13, 123–24; Old Hanoi Street, 123 (fig.)
portrait of painted by Nguyen Sang, 124–26
Butler, Samuel, 2
cadres, 93–94, 97, 99, 199; portrayal in revisionist films, 203, 212–13, 216–18; reaction to The General Retires, 221
Cadres sociaux de la me´moire, Les (Halbwachs), [193n33]
Cafe´ Lam, 122–23, 124–25
calendars, artwork displayed in form of, 110, 113
Cambodia, 5, 139–40, [193n33], 202–7
Cao Bang Province, formation of the “Tran Hung Dao Platoon,” 48
Cao Ba Nha, 27
Cao Ba Quat, prison poetry, 25–26, 27
Cao Dai religion, 29
Carnochan, W. B., 22, [41n28]
Carroll, Lewis, 2, [16n3]
carvings adorning communal houses, sketches of used by Nguyen Tu Nghiem, 128–29
Catholic Church, 217
cemeteries, in Vietnam (see also cemeteries for martyrs and the war dead): Mai Dich state cemetery, Ton Duc Thang's grave, [102n12]
cemeteries, military, erected following World War I in Europe, 199
cemeteries for martyrs and war dead, 1, 54–55, 179, 191, 199
in the South: bridal pictures taken in, 188; razed in1975, 191; retrieval of Northern soldier's bones in portrayed in film, 196–97
Tam Nong District Revolutionary Martyrs Cemetery, 51 (fig.), 55 (fig.)
Truong Son Cemetery, 200 (fig.)
censorship, state, of revisionist films, 207, 221, [226n30]
Central Committee for War Dead, magazine providing information on location of war dead, 71
certificate, given to families of dead soldiers deemed martyrs, 57–58
Champa, people of, Vietnamese treatment of, 172
chastity, female, importance of instilled in young girls, 170
children, 169; of the deceased, role in funerary rites, 62–63; portrayal in travel brochures, 153
China, classical (see also Confucianism), 10, [226n32]; history and philosophy, Ton Duc Thang's instruction in, 80; Sino-Vietnamese culture, 10, 11, 15, 23–29; Vietnamese independence defended against (from 43 to 1442), 86, 91, 109
China, communist, 10, 78, 228
art community, 110, 116, 127, [133n13], [134n30]
closing of Chinese Rooms of the Vietnamese War Crimes Museum, [162n32]
war with Vietnam in late 1970s: grave of soldier killed during, 51 (fig.); publishing of collection of prison memoirs coinciding with, 37–38
China Beach (Da Nang), as tourist destination, 150, 152, 155, 156
Chinese script, instruction in received by Ton Duc Thang, 79–80
cinema. See film(s)
Civil War, American: feminization of space in the South, 175, 182; post-war era, postwar Vietnam compared to, 5, 82
civil war, Vietnam War as, 190; acknowledgment of in North by 1990s, 180–81; portrayal in South, 175–76, 181
Clark, T. J., 125
class, social, 12, 189; background of Communist leaders deemphasized in prison memoirs, 23; of EBAI students, 111; gender inflected by, 168
Clinton, Catherine, 14
Cloche Feˆle´e, La (The Cracked Bell) (newspaper), 30
Cloister on Mount Le De, The (Le Thieu Dinh), 24–25
clothing
Western dress worn by men and women at weddings, 188
women's: articles on in Phu Nu, 191–92; displayed in Hanoi Museum of Women, 188
Club Med, 150
Coal Season (Mua Than) (film), 208
coffeehouses: in Europe, 122, 125; in Vietnam, 122–23, 124–25, 131, [133n21]
Cohen, Erik, 142
collaboration, defense of in film and literature, 212, 214–15
collectivity, sacrifice of life to protect and improve, as Communist virtue, 49–52
Colonial Williamsburg (Va.), 137
Commemorative Area (khu luu niem)for Ton Duc Thang, 11, 15, 77–79, 81–86, 95–97, 145; childhood home, 82, 83 (fig.), 84–85, 87–88, 97; exhibition building, 82–84, 85, 88–91, 97; unifying theme, 97–101
commonlaw prisoners, in colonial prisons, 33–34
communal hall/house (dinh): carvings adorning, sketches of used by Nguyen Tu Nghiem, 128–29; cult of village patron spirit performed in, 85; of Giap Tu village, altar to war dead in, 70–71; men's sphere extended to, 169
Communist Party, Soviet, attempt to create secular cult around Lenin, 72
Communist Party, Vietnamese (VCP), 10, 80–82, 90–91, 94–95, 97–98; attempt to create secular cult around Ho Chi Minh, 72; criticism of by artist members, 115–16; definition of national character as criterion for the arts, 113–20; easier admission to for policy families, 54
community, 6, 190; construction through rituals for fallen dead soldiers, 11–12; diaspora's effect on boundaries of, 228–29; linked to memory, 190, 227
compassion for human suffering, in Buddhist tradition, 25
Complete Historical Records of Dai Viet (Dai Viet Su Ky Toan Thu), 88–89
Con Dao Islands, resort complex planned, 150
Con Dao Penitentiary, 27–28, 32, 35; political prisoners as minority in, 33; prison memoirs from, 28–29, 36–37; Ton Duc Thang's imprisonment, 80, 81, 83, 89
confinement, images of, 23–29; in French romantic tradition, 23, 29–31; in revolutionary prison memoirs, 23
Confucianism, 49, 91–95, 172
affinity between Vietnamese Communism and, 93–95
government school of: adapted by Nguyen Trai, 92–94, 96–97; neo-Confucianism contrasted with, 92, 93, 94
patriarchal family system, 169, [193n3], 215
prison poetry, 25–26, 27–28
cong (good management), as one of the Four Virtues, 174, [193n15]
Con Son mountain, Nguyen Trai's retreat on as national hero shrine, 95
corpses, of dead soldiers: concern for wholeness of, 60, [75n32]; effects of not having at funerary rites, 62, 63–64; not returned, “remembrance of
corpses (continued)the dead” ceremony for, 63, 65–67; of soldiers missing in action, 71, [76n42]
Correction of Errors campaign, decision on execution of Nguyen Ton Duyen during, 52
COSVN (Tan Bien), as reconstructed war site for tourists, 146, 148
Council of Ministers, Vietnamese, reported to by the VNAT, 140
Count of Monte Cristo, The (Dumas), 29
“Courageous Sons” (Museum of Women exhibit), 179
Cry of Innocence, A (Nguyen Trai), 25, 27
Cua Bien (The Ocean's Mouth) (Nguyen Hong), 29
Cuba, 138–39
Cu Chi area, Vietnam, 178; tunnel complex, 13, 146, 147 (figs.), 154–55, 178
Culture, Vietnamese Ministry of, 22–23; Arts Association founded as subbranch of, 113–15; censorship of revisionist films, 207, 221, [226n30]; declaration of Ton Duc Thang's childhood home as cultural-historic monument, 81–82
Culture and Information Committee of Son La Province, collection of prison verse published by in late 1970s, 37–38
Cuu Kim Son, Prison Break, 21–22, [44n57]
“cynical realism” (“Maopop”) (Chinese art movement), [134n30]
Dame aux came´ lias, La (Dumas), [42n45]
Da Nang (China Beach), as tourist destination, 150, 152, 155, 156
Da Ngan, “The House with No Men,” 167
Dang Kim Quy, 83, 89, [102n13]
Dang Nhat Minh (filmmaker), 15, 202; Girl on the River, 15, 211–14, 215–16, [224n18]; When the Tenth Month Comes, 15, 201–7, 218, 221
Dang Thai Mai, 27, 31, [44n57]
Dang Tran Con, The Lament of the Soldier's Wife, 171–72, 215
Dap Da Con Dao (Breaking Rocks on Con Dao) (Phan Chau Trinh), 28–29
“Day of Buddha's Forgiveness,” 206
dead soldiers
glorification of in nations other than Vietnam, [73n2]
northern Vietnamese (see also martyr; war dead), government efforts to honor, x–xi, 11–12, 46–47, 52, 53–58, 199, 201 (see also funerary rites)
death
to advance revolutionary cause, public glorification of, 49–52
and multiple meanings of “to die” in Vietnamese, 50–51
Vietnamese cultural attitudes toward, 59–61; distinction between good death and bad death, 59–61, [75nn30], [31], [32]
death anniversary ritual (ngay gio), 69–70, 190, 204–5; alternative ceremonies proposed by state, 205; knowledge of date of death necessary for, 62; portrayal in film, 196–98, 204–5
death announcement (giay bao tu), delivered during official memorial service, 57, [74n26]
death certificates for soldiers, official, use of word sacrifice, 51
decorous comportment (dung), as one of the Four Virtues, [193n15]
Defense, Vietnamese Ministry of, restoration of “MacNamara Line” as tourist site, 148
diaspora, effect on boundaries of identity and community, 228–29
Dickinson, Greg, 151
Dien Bien Phu, battle of, 48, 159; 10th anniversary, documentary film released, 208; To Ngoc Van's injuries at, 112, 129–30; veterans of, 183, 209 (fig.)discotheques, 150
Doi Moi (Renovation) policy (see also market economy), 1, 3–9, 97, [104n52]; adoption of, effect on views of war decades, 180; benefits for policy families, 53–54; and release of Tran Huy Lieu's Tinh trong Nguc Toi, 36; and shift in art historical memory, 109, 120–27; social transformations under, 182–85
Doi Trong Nguc (Life in Prison) (Nhuong Tong), 29
dream sequences, in When the Tenth Month Comes, 205–7
DRV. See Vietnam, Democratic Republic of
Dumas, Alexandre, 29, 31, [42n45]
dung (decorous comportment), as one of the Four Virtues, [193n15]
Duong Bich Lien (artist), 121, 125, 131, [134n28]; Woman with Flower, 126(fig.)
Duong Thu Huong: Novel without a Name, 180, [194n23], [226n31]; Paradise of the Blind, 5–6, 8–9, 190, 191, 229; as screenwriter of Brother and Relations, [226n31]
Duong Tuong, [133nn16], [21]
Duong Van Phuc (Ton Duc Thang's soninlaw), 90
Du Tu Le (poet), 228–29
Duy Tan (Vietnamese emperor), 79
Eastern Capital Free School (Dong Kinh Nghia Thuc), 27
Eastern Europeans: Vietnamese attempts to expand trade and political relations with, 140; as visitors to Vietnam, 84, 138–39, 140
Eastern Travel Movement (Phong Trao Dong Du), 27, 79
Ecole des Beaux Arts d'Indochine (EBAI), 111–12, 121
economy, global, 1, 180
economy, Vietnamese (see also Doi Moi; market economy): failure of policies of the 1980s, 139–40; shifting status of men and women involved in, 182–83; and tourist industry development, 139, 160
education
backgrounds of early Communist party leadership, 38, [45n81]; obscuring of in prison memoirs, 38–39
benefits for policy families, 53–54
political, linked with incarceration, 28, 31–32, 36, 38–39, 45
elites: early VWP leaders' background as, 38–39, [45n79]; heroic spirit tales seen as compiled for the interests of, 85–86; underground intellectuals of the 1960s and 1970s, 122–23
embargoes, imposed on Vietnam by the U.S., 139–40
emigration, effect on identity and communities of memory, 228–29
Enemy Burned My Village, The (Giac Dot Lang Toi) (Nguyen Sang), 117–18, 118 (fig.), 119
ethnic minorities (see also peasants): clothing of displayed in Hanoi Museum of Women, 188; policy of integration of seen in Mai Van Hien's Meeting, 117; portrayal of in tourist sites, 158
ethocracy: neo-Confucian model of, 93; Nguyen Trai's concern with, 96–97
Europe: coffeehouses, 122, 125; Eastern, 84, 138–39, 140; interwar period, 199, 222, [224n14]
Even the Women Must Fight: Memories of War from North Vietnam (Turner and Phan Thanh Hao), [194n19]
exiles, Vietnamese: communities of memory, 228–29; as tourists, 143, [162n27]
Fable for the Year 2000 (Huyen Thoai Nam 2000) (Le Hung), 189, [226n27]
Fairy Tale for Seventeen-Year-Olds (Truyen Co Tich cho Tuoi 17) (film), 200–201, 219
Fall, Bernard, 38
Fallen Soldiers (Mosse), 171
families (see also kinship system), 5, 52–59; birth control policy, 189; commemoration of the dead (see death anniversary ritual;funerary rites);in contemporary society, portrayal in film, 196–98; of fallen soldiers, 11–12, 54–58, 60–61, 63, 67–68, 70–71 (see also Heroic Mothers);policy families, 53–54; portrayal in revisionist films, 198–207, 210–11
Fan Zhongyan (Fan Chungyen;Pham Trong Yem), 92–94, 95, [104n34]
Faulkner, William, 5
Faust, Drew, 14, 175
Feast of Wandering Souls, Buddhist (Ngay Xa Toi Vong Hon) (see also All Souls' Day), 206
feasts (see also food): as component of death anniversary ritual, 205; public, at family funerary rites, 63, 64, 66
filial duties to husband's family, failure to fulfill as subject of When the Tenth Month Comes, 202–5
film(s), 10, 145, 196–99
film(s), Vietnamese, 14–15
revisionist films of 1980s, 196–99, 220–22, [223n5]; censorship of, 207, 221, [226n30]; market reforms effects treated in, 216–21; portrayal of betrayal of wartime sacrifices, 207–14, 215–16; symbolism of the fallen soldier, 199–207 258
film(s), Vietnamese (continued)
size of audience for, 198, [223n4]
use by state to give commemorative meanings to wartime sacrifices, 46, 208, [224n16]
Fledgling, The (Chim Vanh Khuyen) (film), 208
folk art, Vietnamese, 10, 13, 127–30, 131
folktales, Vietnamese, 170, 204
food, role in family ceremonies
at commemoration of dead soldiers on War Invalids and Martyrs Day, 68
at death anniversary ceremony, 69–70
death anniversary ritual, 205
at funerary rites, 63, 64, 66; for dead soldiers, 63–64, 66, [75n38]
food rations, 53–54
food stalls, at historical sites constructed for tourists, 145
foreign aggression, patriotic resistance to: message of in Commemorative Area for Ton Duc Thang, 85; wars against the French and the Americans portrayed as, 205–6
Foreign Investment Law (1988), 139, 161–12
forgetting, 7, 8, 14, 15, 33, 167, 190, 192, [195n35], 228
Four Seasons Hotel (Saigon Floating Hotel) (Ho Chi Minh City), 149–50
Four Virtues (tu duc), 174, [193n15]
France, ix, 10, 152
art and architecture: legacy in Vietnam, 148, 152; painters admired by Bui Xuan Phai, 121; paintings of Paris cafe´ s, 125
classical and romantic literature: images of confinement, 23, 29–31; influence on Vietnamese literature, 11, 29–31, [41n29]; prominence in of prisons and imprisonment, [41n28]
republican ideals, 174–75
rule of Vietnam (see Vietnam, under colonial rule)suffrage, 175
support for “white” Russians in 1918–19, 80
tourists from as visitors to Vietnam battle sites, 6
Vietnamese war against (see War Against the French)
French language, learned by Ton Duc Thang, 80
French Revolution, 2, 171, 175
French War (1946–54). See War Against the French funerary rites, 10, 71–73, 190
funerary rites, Vietnamese, 71–73
local/family, 47, 59, 62–63, [75nn30], [31], [32]; for souls of war dead, 11–12, 14, 15, 47, 63–67, 72, [75n34]
mourning attire worn at regular, 56, 63, 65
official North Vietnamese for dead soldiers, 54–58, 61, 72, 73; resistance or opposition to, 47, [73n5]
Furet, Franc¸ ois, 2
gender (see also men;women), 176, 192, 215, 218; imagery of in images of Vietnam, 14–15, 159, 167–68; images of female constancy and male absence, 168–70; metaphorical and subversive uses of in revisionist films, 14–15, 199, 215, 218–19; roles, changes in as part of social transformations under Doi Moi, 182–85
“General Retires, The” (“Tuong Ve Huu”) (Nguyen Huy Thiep), 184–85, 189; film adapted from, 219–20, [225n26]
General Retires, The (Tuong Ve Huu) (film), 219–20, [225n26]; survey on reaction to, 221
“generals of the interior,” image of women as, 183, 218
Giap Tu Village (in Thinh Liet commune), 54, 70–71, [73n3]; notification of families of death of soldiers, 54, 61–62
Giebel, Christoph, 8, 11, 12, 15, 22, 77–105, 83 (fig.), 109
Gillis, John, 227
Giong (village folk hero), 128
Girl on the River (Go Gai tren Song) (film), 15, 211–14, 215–16, [224n18]
goi hon (“calling up”) of a hero spirit, 87, 100
golf courses, development for tourist industry, 139, 143–44, 150
“good government”: Nguyen Trai seen as champion of, 96; seen as a theme of Vietnamese annals, application to life of Ton Duc Thang, 88–90, 96
good management (cong), as one of the Four Virtues, 174, [193n15]
Gramsci, Antonio, Prison Notebooks, 22
“Great Ordinary Person, A” (proceedings of 1988 symposium on Ton Duc Thang), 89
Greek mythology, Mnemosyne as goddess of imagination and memory, 167
guardian spirits (thanh hoang)(see also
― 259 ―heroic guardian spirits): role in When the Tenth Month Comes, 205–7guerrilla fighters (see also Viet Cong), 13; clothing worn by as current fashion for women, 191; Cu Chi tunnels as headquarters of, 146, 154, 178; women as, 159, 175, 178, 188
Haiti, 139
Halbwachs, Maurice, 2, 137, [194n33], [223n8], 227
hanh (appropriate behavior), as one of the Four Virtues, [193n15]
Hanoi, Vietnam: Bui Xuan Phai's paintings of, 123–24, 128, 131; Cafe´ Lam, 122–23; Ho Chi Minh mausoleum, 67, 68 (fig.), 98; museums, [75n35], 152, 186–88, 187 (fig.); Re-unification Hotel restoration, 148; Shrine to the Unknown Soldier, 67, 68 (fig.);tourism, 150, 152
Hanoi Hilton (Hoa Lo Prison): as museum, 24 (fig.);razed to make way for office towers, 146, [162n33]
harmonious speech (ngon), as one of the Four Virtues, [193n15]
Hartley, L. P., 229
helicopter, American, photograph of in Travel Agent's Guide to Vietnam, 152–53
heroes, national pantheon of, 12, 47–48, 86, 95, 97, 174; Ton Duc Thang, 85–86, 88, 91, 95, 96; Trung Sisters, 47–48, 86, 159, 177, [193n11]
heroes and heroic action
Communist: portrayal of as feature of revolutionary prison memoirs, 22, 23, 32, 37–38
creation of new categories of, 46
Vietnamese government efforts to honor the dead cast in tropes of, x–xi, 72, 73
in war: celebrated in literary and historiographic tradition, 171–73; paintings depicting, 109, 114
women as symbols of in Vietnam images of war, 14
heroic guardian spirits, 86–87, 97, 100, [105n54]; Ton Duc Thang seen as belonging to, 85–88, 95–97, 99
Heroic Mothers (Me Anh Hung), 14, 159, 178–82, 178 (fig.), 181 (fig.), 192; honoring of contrasted with postwar birth control policy, 189
“Heroic Mothers” (Museum of Women exhibit), 179
hero spirit tales, as Vietnamese genre, 86–87
Hertz, Robert, 71
hi sinh. See sacrifice
historical materialism, Ton Duc Thang interpreted in terms of, 85
historical sites (see also individual sites), 1, 144–45; sites from French and American Wars as, 145–50
historic events, portrayals of in paintings as sites of commemoration, 109
history
minimization of in tourism literature, 151–56
official: relationship to public memory, 6–9, 137–38, [161n8], 190; relationship to tourist “attractions,” 137–38, 158–60
reconstruction of, 138, [161n8]
History, workings of, as Marxist concept, 4
History Museum (Hanoi), 152
Hoa Lo Prison (Hanoi Hilton): as museum, 24 (fig.);razed to make way for office towers, 146, [162n33]
Hoang Dung, 37
Hoang Van Thu, 50–51
Ho Bieu Chanh, 29
Ho Chi Minh, 11, 72, 81, 99, 109; Confucian concepts of good government stressed by, 93–94, 95; death of, words used to describe, 50; educational background, 38; mausoleum in Hanoi, 67, 68 (fig.), 98; Les Mise´ rables read by, [42n38]; praise for Ton Duc Thang, 83, 89; Prison Diary, 22, 27, 39, [45n84]; Le Procè s de la colonisation franc¸ aise, 173, [193n12]; requirements for artists, 115; Thanh Nien organized by, 80; tribute to mothers, 171; use of term “national character,” 113; words of used during official memorial service for war dead, 57
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Cu Chi Tunnel complex (see Cu Chi area)
hotel restorations, 148–50, 149 (fig.)
museums: Museum of Fine Arts, 179; Museum of Women, 178–79, 186, 188–89; Ton Duc Thang Museum, 84, 89, 99; War Remnants Museum, 145–46, [162n32], 179
tourism, 150, 152, 153, 155
University of Architecture, 82
Ho Chi Minh Trail, 61; Truong Son Cemetery on, 200 (fig.) 260
Ho Huu Tuong, 35, [44n65]
homoerotic impulses among political prisoners, allusions to suppressed, 36–37
honor (vinh du), dying for the country described as an, 58, [75n28]
Hotel Continental (Ho Chi Minh City), restoration of, 148–49, 149 (fig.)
Hotel Me´ tropole (Thong Nhat [Reunification] Hotel) (Hanoi), restoration of, 148
hotels, in Vietnam: refurbishing and construction of in 1990s, 139, 143, 144, 145, 148–50, 151, 158; shortages in late 1980s, 139
“House with No Men, The” (Da Ngan), 167
How to Behave (Cau Chuyen Tu Te) (film), 15, 183–84, 208–9, 217–19
Hugo, Victor, 29–30, 31, [42nn35], [38]
Humanism (Nhan Van) (periodical), 115–16, 119–20
“Humanitarian Side-Trips” (packaged tour), [161n17]
humiliation campaign, as means for criticizing artwork, 119
Huyen Quang, Pity for Prisoners, 25
Huynh Thuc Khang, 27–28; Thi Tu Tung Thoai, 28, 33–34, [44n57]
Hy Van Luong, [45n81]
idealist humanism, Confucian, adapted by Nguyen Trai, 92–94, 96
identity: diaspora's effect on boundaries of, 228–29; Europeanized, establishment of in travel brochures for Vietnam, 151–52, 156; national, commemoration linked to politics of, 227; produced out of images constructed for tourists, 137–38; women's, attempts to define in museums dedicated to women, 186
incense, use in ceremonies, 63, 68, 84
Independence Day (September 2), 81, 177, 228
Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), educational careers of leaders obscured in prison memoirs, 38–39
industrialization, in Vietnam, efforts ignored by tourism industry, 158
inner/outer, in Vietnamese kinship system and in gender roles, 169, 218
insiders, contrasted with outsiders in Buddhist poetry and Communist prison memoirs, 25
Institute of History, Vietnamese, 36
Institute of Party History, 37
intelligentsia, the: familiarity with classical literary tradition reflected in prison memoirs, 23, 25; leaders of Vietnamese Revolution as members of, 38–39, [45n79]
In the Death Cell (Pham Hung), 31
invasion of national space, rape as metaphor for, 173, 177, [193n11]
Jamieson, Neil, 94
Japan, ix, 72, 111; tourists from in Vietnam, 143–44
Jewish traditions, sorrow and memory in, [226n32]
Joining the Communist Party at Dien Bien Phu (Ket Nap Dang trong Tran Dien Bien Phu) (Nguyen Sang), 118–19, 119 (fig.)
Jones, James, 177
“just cause,” national liberation as a, 47–49
Kennedy, Laurel, 13–14, 109, 135–63
Khai Dinh (king), tomb of, 156
Khmers, of the Mekong Delta, Vietnamese treatment of, 172
Khoa Khang Chien (Resistance Class) (art school), 112–13
Khrushchev, Nikita, [103n27]
kindness (tu te), search for meaning of in How to Behave, 183–84, 217–18, 219
kinship system, Vietnamese (see also families), 12, 168–69, 203–4, 218, 290
kites, paper, significance in When the Tenth Month Comes, 206–7
Kontum Prison (Le Van Hien), 21–22, [44n57]
Koonz, Claudia, 14
Kundera, Milan, 7–8, 227–28
Labor and War Invalids, Ministry of, magazine providing information on location of war dead, 71
Lady Trieu (d. 248), as national military hero, 48, 174
Lam Binh Tuong, 82
Lament of the Soldier's Wife, The (Chinh Phu Ngam Khuc) (Dang Tran Con), 171–72, 215
Lam Son uprising, Nguyen Trai's role in, 91
Land Reform campaign (1953–56), 52,
― 261 ―190; portrayal in Paradise of the Blind, 5–6Lanfant, Marie-Franc¸ oise, 160
Lao Bao penitentiary, 27
Last Days of a Condemned Man, The (Hugo), 31
League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh), 35, 81, 116
Le Duan, 32, 35, 38, 48, 49–50
Le Duc Tho, 38
Le Duc Tien (filmmaker), 216–17, 218, [225n25]
Le dynasty (Vietnam, 1428–1787), 47, 86, 91, 93
Le Huan, 28–29
Le Hung, Fable for the Year 2000, 189, [226n27]
Le Loi (1384–1433), 47–48, 86, 91, [103n29]
Lenin, Vladimir, 12, 72
Lenz, Ralph, 142–43
leper colony, tu te found in, 217
“Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom” (Chinese art and literature program), 116, [133n13]
Le Thieu Dinh, The Cloister on Mount Le De, 24–25
Le Thi Kim Bach, 114
Le Van Hien, Kontum Prison, 21–22, [44n57]
liet si. See martyr
Linh Nam Chich Quai (Wondrous Tales from South of the Passes), 170
Li Po (poet), 213
literature, Vietnamese (see also individual works): countermemories of war expressed in, 222, [226n31]; hero spirit tales, 86–87; images of women, 204, 215; “national character” expressed in, 113, 130
Liu, James, 92
living god (than song), General Tran Hung Dao seen as a, 47–48
“Lost Letters” (Kundera), 7–8
lotus, symbolism of, 83, [102n13]
Louis XV (French king), 175
Lowenthal, David, 137
Lucrè ce Borgia (Hugo), [42n35]
Lundquist, L. R., [16n12]
Luu Trong Ninh (filmmaker), 220–21, [226n30]
Lyce´ e Albert Sarraut (Hanoi), 38
Ly Te Xuyen, Spiritual Powers of the Viet Realm, 86, 96, 195n54
Ly Thuong Kiet (1030–1105), as a hero spirit, 86
MacCannell, Dean, 137, 143
“MacNamara Line” (electronic wall of mines), remains restored as tourist site, 148
Mai Dich state cemetery, Ton Duc Thang's grave, [102n12]
Mai Thuy Ngoc, [133n24]
Mai Van Hien, Meeting (Gap Nhau), 116–17, 117 (fig.), 120
Malarney, Shaun, 11–12, 14–15, 46–76, 77, 79, 109, 154, 172, 227
Malot, Hector, [42n37]
Manet, Edouard, 125
“Maopop” (“cynical realism”) (Chinese art movement), [134n30]
Mao Zedong, 78, 110
market economy, in Vietnam (see also Doi Moi), x, 1, 3, 11
effects of: on filmmakers, 198; treated in revisionist films, 216–22; on women, 192
Marquet, Albert, 121
Marr, David, 25, 94, 95
martyr (liet si; revolutionary martyr) (see also sacrifice): ceremonial recognition of by the government, 54–58, 72, 199; defined, 51–52; monuments for constructed after reunification, 67–68; To Ngoc Van honored as, 112; official memorial service (le truy dieu) for, 55–58; social and economic benefits for families of, 54; Tam Nong District Revolutionary Martyrs Cemetery, 51(fig.), 55 (fig.)
Marx, Karl, 218
Marxism-Leninism: socialist realism intended to embody values of, 111; studied in Vietnam, 31–32, 112; Vietnam's commitment to, 3, 85, 97, 98; worldwide decline, 180
Masterpieces (Giai Pham) (periodical), 115–16, 119–20
medals, awarded to women: for Heroic Mothers, criteria for, 180; by North Vietnamese government for service in American War, 176
Meeting (Gap Nhau) (Mai Van Hien), 116–17, 117 (fig.), 120
memoirs (hoi ky)(see also prison memoirs), 1, 8, 10–11
memorial days, as means for honoring dead soldiers and war dead, [73n2]
memorial service, official (le truy dieu), for war dead, 55–58, 199, 201
Memories of the Jungle (The Lu), 26
memory, ix–x
comment on in Through the Looking Glass, 2, [16n3]
communities of, 227; for Vietnamese exiles, 228–29
faces of as faces of women, 167, 177–82
Mnemosyne as goddess of, 167
personal, tourism's narratives' interaction with, 137–38
public, 1–3, 21; relationship to official history, 6–9, 137–38, [161n8], 190; state control over, delegation of to the tourist industry, 136
relationship to history, 4
represented by women in film, 15
social construction of, 190–91, [193n33], 227; in art field, 109–11; countermemories in film, 196–222; countermemories in literature, 222, [226n31]
and sources of forgetting, 189–90, [193n33]
men, experience of focused on in Western war literature, 171, 174–75
men, Vietnamese, 169–70; emotional relationship with mothers as key relationship, 177–78; loss of status under Doi Moi, 182–85; outnumbered by women in postwar population, 167; portrayal in Doi Moi era film and literature, 183–85; portrayal in travel brochures, 153, 154–55
meritorious work (cong duc), of military heroes resulting in supernatural status, 47–48
Michelet, Jules, 29
military, the (see also soldiers, Vietnamese)
association with manliness, 171
Vietnamese: historiographical view of, 171–73; prestige at beginning of American War, [74n19]
military cemeteries, 199; Vietnamese (see cemeteries for martyrs and the war dead)
militia commander (xa doi truong), 53, [74n19]
Ming dynasty (China), occupation of Vietnam 1407–27, 91–93, 96
Mise´ rables, Les (Hugo), 29, 30, 31, [42n38]
modernism, 125; in visual arts, 128–30
monasticism, Buddhist, poetic depictions of, 23–25
mortuary rites. See funerary rites
Mosse, George, 143, 145, 171, 199
mothers, Vietnamese
celebration of in Hanoi Museum of Women, 186–88, 187 (fig.)
emotional relationship with as key relationship for a man, 177–78
images of, 169–71; as Heroic Mothers, 14, 159, 178 (fig.), 180–82, 181(fig.);in postwar remembrance, 14, 177–82
portrayal in Doi Moi era film and literature, 184, 196–97, 201
as symbol of national grief for South Vietnamese, 181–82
“Mother's Legacy” (“Gia Tai Cua Me”) (Trinh Cong Son), 181
Mother Vietnam, image of, 181–82
mourning attire, 56, 63, 65
Mowlana, Hamid, 144
Museum of American War Crimes. See War Remnants Museum
Museum of Fine Arts (Ho Chi Minh City), 179
Museum of Women (Hanoi), 186–88, 187 (fig.)Museum of Women (Ho Chi Minh City), 178–79, 186, 188–89
museums (see also individual museums), 1, 22, 23, 46; Hoa Lo Prison commemoration, 24 (fig.), [162n33]; images of women, 167
museum-shrines (see also Commemo rative Area for Ton Duc Thang), 11
My Hoa Hung village (An Giang Province) (see also Commemorative Area for Ton Duc Thang): electrification of, 82; Ton Duc Thang's childhood home, 79–80
My Prisons (Pellico), 31
My Son Sanctuary, in Da Nang, described in travel brochure, 156
“Myth of War Experience,” Mosse's concept of, 171
My Thuat o Lang (Art in the Village) (Nguyen Quan and Phan Cam Thuong), 127, [134n32]
Nam Phong (journal), [42n35]
National Art Exhibition (1955), 116
National Art Exhibition (1990), 128
National Arts Association. See Arts Association, Vietnamese
National Assembly: 1994 criteria for award of medals to Heroic Mothers, 180; Ton Duc Thang's role in, 81
national character (tinh dan toc), 130–32
use as criterion: for National Arts Association, 113–20, 126–27, 130; redefining in 1990s, 120–27, 130–31; and use of folk art in 1990s, 128–30
National Day of Shame (Ngay Quoc Han) (April 30), 190, 228
Nationalist Party (Viet Nam Quoc Dan Duang), 35
national liberation, as a “just cause,” 47–49, 197
National Museum of Fine Arts (Vietnam), 109, 119
nativism, 85, 100
neo-Confucianism, 92, 93, 94
New World, The (The Gioi Moi) (periodical), 71
Nghe Tinh Soviets, suppression of in1931, 33
Ngo Duc Ke, 28–29
ngon (harmonious speech), as one of the Four Virtues, [193n15]
Ngon Co Gio Dua (Blades of Grass in the Wind) (Ho Bieu Chanh), 29
Ngo Quyen (897–944), as a hero spirit, 86
Ngo Thao, 180
Nguyen Ai Quoc. See Ho Chi Minh
Nguyen Anh Tuan, Tho Ca Cach Mang Nha Tu Son La 1930–45 edited by, 38
Nguyen An Ninh, 30, 35, [42n45], [44n65]
Nguyen Dang Che, [134n31]
Nguyen Dang Dung, [134n31]
Nguyen Dang Manh, [42n35]
Nguyen Don Phuc, 174
Nguyen Du, The Tale of Kieu, 214, 215
Nguyen Hao Hai, [134n28]
Nguyen Hong, Cua Bien, 29
Nguyen Huu Cau, 26, 27
Nguyen Huu Luyen, Brothers and Relations, 15, 196–98, 199–200, 210–11, 219
Nguyen Huy Thiep, [226n31]
“The General Retires,” 184–85, 189, [225n26]; film adapted from, 219–20, [225n26]
Nguyen Khac Vien, 94
Nguyen Quan, My Thuat o Lang, 127, [134n32]
Nguyen Quang Than, “The Waltz of the Chamber Pot,” 185
Nguyen Sang (artist), 115–16, 121, 124, 125–26, 131, [133n17]; criticism of artwork, 117–20; The Enemy Burned My Village, 117–18, 118(fig.), 119; Joining the Communist Party at Dien Bien Phu, 118–19, 119 (fig.); Portrait of Bui Xuan Phai with Mr. Lam, 124–26, [134n29]
Nguyen Sy Ngoc (artist), 115–16, 124, 131
Nguyen Tao, We Escape from Prison, 32
Nguyen The Truyen, [193n12]
Nguyen Thi Di (Ton Duc Thang's mother), 79, 80, 89
Nguyen Ton Duyen, 52
Nguyen Trai (1380–1442), 91–97, [103n29]; A Cry of Innocence, 25, 27; as a hero spirit, 48, 86, 95–96
Nguyen Tu Nghiem (artist), 121, 125, 128–30, 131; Zodiac, 129 (fig.)
Nguyen Van Lam, [134n29]; coffeehouse, 122–23, 126, [133n21]; in Portrait of Bui Xuan Phai with Mr. Lam, 124–25
Nguyen Van Linh, 30, [42n37]
Nguyen Van Vien, 33
Nguyen Xuan Son (filmmaker), 200–201, 219
nhan nghia (ren yi), concept of, 92, 94
Nhan Van Giai Pham (northern literary movement), [44n64]
Nhat Ky trong Tu (Prison Diary) (Ho Chi Minh), 22, 27, 39, [45n84]
Nha Trang, Vietnam, advertisement for in travel brochure, 156
Nhuong Tong, Doi Trong Nguc, 29
Norkunas, Martha, 137, 138
Northern Sung dynasty (China), government school of Confucianism, 92
Novel without a Name (Tieu Thuyet Vo De) (Duong Thu Huong), 180, [194n23], [226n31]
Nudes, paintings of, unconditionally barred from public display until1990, 115, 120
O'Harrow, Stephen, 85–86
Old Hanoi Street (Pho co Ha Noi) (Bui Xuan Phai), 123 (fig.)
On Collective Memory (Halbwachs), 137
On the Same River (Chung Mot Dong Song) (film), 208
otherworld (the gioi khac, world of the dead), soul's passage to after death, 59–61, 62; as concern of relatives of fallen soldiers, 11–12, 14, 15; as objective of all funerary rites, 63–64, 65–67, 72
outsiders: contrasted with insiders in Buddhist poetry and Communist
outsiders (continued)prison memoirs, 25; inlaws as in Vietnamese patrilineal familial custom, 203–4
Pacific Asia Travel News, Vietnam: A Travel Agent's Guide, 151–53
package tours, 141–43, [161n17]
paintings, 10, 46, 109–12
abstract, 115, 120, 128–29
Communist criteria for, 113–20; 1990s changes in, 120–27
paper votives (hang ma), 66, [75n38], 207
Paradise of the Blind (Duong Thu Huong), 5–6, 8–9, 190, 191, 229
Paris Peace Accords (1973), 4
Parry, Jonathan, 71
Pascal, Blaise, 29
paternalism, 90–91
patriarchy, 168–69, [193n3]
patrilineage, in Vietnamese kinship system, 169, 203
patriotic nationalism, fallen soldier linked to in post-World War I Europe, 199
patriotism, x–xi, 111, 130, 172–73
peasants, Vietnamese, 13, 21
clothing as current fashion for nonpeasant women, 191
portrayal in Doi Moi era film and literature, 184
redistribution of agricultural land to in 1991–92, 54
women: as guerrillas portrayed in Hanoi Museum of Women, 188; market economy's effects on, 192; portrayal in painting by Mai Van Hien, 116–17, 117 (fig.);as prostitutes in postwar cities, 192
Pelley, Patricia, 93
Pellico, Silvio, My Prisons, 31
Penser la re´ volution franc¸ aise (Furet), 2
People's Army Daily (Quan Doi Nhan Dan) (periodical), survey on reaction to film The General Retires, 221
People's Committees: role in ceremony on War Invalids and Martyrs Day, 67; role in official memorial service for war dead, 55–56; role in tourism industry, 141
Pham Hung, 38, [43n47]; In the Death Cell, 31
Pham Huy Thong, 4
Pham Quynh, [42n35], 169–70, 214, 215
Pham Van Dong (Vietnamese prime minister), 38, 90, [103n27]
Phan Boi Chau, 79
Phan Cam Thuong, [133n17]; My Thuat o Lang, 127, [134n32]
Phan Chau Trinh, 27, 28; Dap Da Con Dao, 28–29
Phan Thanh Hao, Even the Women Must Fight, [194n19]
Phan Van Hum, 35, [44n65]; Sitting in the Big Jail, 31
Phung Quan, Vuot Con Dao, 34, [44nn63], [64]
Phu Nu (Women) (periodical), 191–92
Picasso, Pablo, 125
Pity for Prisoners (Huyen Quang), 25
Please Forgive Me (Xin Loi) (film), 220–21, [226n30]
poetry, 10, 23–29; images of confinement in classical tradition, 23–29; revolutionary prison memoirs in form of, 22, 25–28, 37–38; use by North Vietnam state to ennoble war death, 46
poetrywriting clubs (thi dan), in early 20th-century prisons, 27–28
policy families (gia dinh chinh sach), as recipients of state assistance after1954, 53–54
political orthodoxy, neo-Confucian emphasis on, 94
political prisoners, in colonial Vietnam: Communist (see also prison memoirs), 31–32; as minority in Con Dao Penitentiary, 33; non-Communists as, 34–35
Portrait of Bui Xuan Phai with Mr. Lam (Nguyen Sang), 124–26, [134n29]
posters, artwork displayed as, 110, 113
prayers, role in “remembrance of the dead” ceremony, 65–66
prison-as-school narratives, 10, 31–32, 38–39
Prison Break (Cuu Kim Son), 21–22, [44n57]
prison breaks, described in revolutionary prison memoirs, 32, [43n52]
Prison Diary (Nhat Ky trong Tu) (Ho Chi Minh), 22, 27, 39, [45n84]
prison memoirs (hoi ky nha tu), 8, 10–11, 21–23; distortions and elisions, 32–37; 19th-century French literature influence on, 29–31; portrayal of Communist prisoners, 32–37; relationship to classical literature of confinement, 23–29; on transformation of prisons into revolutionary schools, 31–32
Prison Notebooks (Gramsci), 22
prison resistance, described in prison memoirs, 21, 22, 32; distortion of, 35–36
prisons (see also prison memoirs), 29–31, 33–34, [41n28], 115
Procè s de la colonisation franc¸ aise, Le (Ho Chi Minh), 173, [193n12]
proletarianization (vo san hoa) movement (late 1920s and early 1930s), 38–39, [45n83]
proper rule, concept of, 90–94
prostitute(s): as metaphor, 214–15; patriotic, as stock figure in Sino-Vietnamese classical culture, 15, 213–14; place in revisionist films, 15, 211–13; postwar treatment, 212–13, [224n18]; young peasant women as in postwar cities, 192
public service, ethic of, 92–94
public space: division between private space and blurred by war, 175; feminization of, 175, 182; inhabited by men in traditional Vietnamese gender roles, 218
Quang Tri, battle of (1972), 180
Quiet Little Town, A (Thi Tran Yen Tinh) (film), 216–17, 218–19, [225n25]
Quoc Hoc high school (Hue), attended by early Communist party leaders, 38
Raffles Hotel, in Singapore, 137
rape, as metaphor for invasion of national space, 173, 177, [193n11]
reeducation camp, prostitutes sent to, 212–13
registration requirements, for Western travelers to Vietnam in 1980s, 139
religion: freedom of not part of Vietnamese experience, 158; seen in popular or stateled veneration of revolutionary heroes, 77–78 (see also shrines);syncretic sects, 29, 34; temples and pagodas as tourist sites, 158
Renan, Ernest, 7
Renovation policy of 1986. See Doi Moi policy
Resistance Class (Khoa Khang Chien) (art school), 112–13
Reunification Day (April 30), as state celebration, 190, 228
Reunification (Thong Nhat) Hotel (Hotel Me´ tropole) (Hanoi), restoration of, 148
Revolution, the (cach mang)(see also War Against the French), 2–3, 49, 89, 188–89; continuity with War Against the Americans, 177; Heroic Mothers defined by loss of children in, 181; loyalty to among Ton Duc Thang's commemorators, 99–100; positive selfimage, Nguyen Trai's reaffirming role for, 93; term “national character” introduced by Ho Chi Minh at time of, 113; VWP's role in described in revolutionary memoirs, 21; women's contribution portrayed in Museums of Women, 188
revolutionary memoirs (hoi ky cach mang)(see also prison memoirs), 21–23
righteous obligation (chinh nghia), national liberation as, 47–49
“Rock of the Woman Who Waits for Her Husband, The” (folk tale), 170
Roualt, Georges, 121
rural administration, communelevel, structure of established in1945, 52–53
Russian Revolution, Ton Duc Thang's fabricated role in Black Sea mutiny, 80
sacred war (chien tranh than thanh), of ficial narrative of French and American Wars as, 48–49, 197
sacrifice (hi sinh)
to advance the revolutionary cause, public glorification of, 49–52
celebration of during wartime: betrayal of portrayed in revisionist films of 1980s, 207–16; through films, 208, [224n16]
distinction made between martyrdom and, 52
referred to in official memorial service for war dead, 56–58
Saigon, Vietnam (see also Ho Chi Minh City)
fall of (April30, 1975), celebration of: as National Day of Shame for overseas Vietnamese, 190, 228; by the state, 177, 186, 190, 228
Saigon Floating Hotel (Four Seasons Hotel) (Ho Chi Minh City), 149–50
satire, use in A Quiet Little Town, 216–17
Scent of Green Papayas, The (film), 170
scholargentry, Vietnamese, early 20th-century prison poetry, 27–29
Scott, James C., 7
secondary burial, practice of, 71
secret societies, members as political prisoners in colonial prisons, 34–35, [44n65]
self-criticism: Phung Quan forced to undergo, 34; portrayed in Fairy Tale for Seventeen-Year-Olds, 201
self-cultivation, neo-Confucian emphasis on, 94
self-defense, patriotic, war represented as exercise in, 172–73
self-sacrifice, wartime imperative of, 208, [224n16]; betrayal of portrayed in revisionist films, 200–201, 207–16
Sheehan, Neil, 143
Ship Master of Kim Quy Island, The (Chua Tau Kim Quy) (Ho Bieu Chanh), 29
shrines (see also Commemorative Area), 11; to spirit of Tran Hung Dao, 48; spirit shrines-museums, appearance in late 1980s, 98; for war dead, [73n2]; worship of hero spirits, 86, 95
Silber, Nina, 14, 175
Singapore, Raffles Hotel, 137
Sinh Hoat Van Nghe (Literary and Artistic Activities) (periodical), [44n61]
Sino-Vietnamese classical culture, 10, 11, 15, 23–29
Sitting in the Big Jail (Phan Van Hum), 31
social assistance, for local families within communelevel rural administration, 53–54
socialist economy, shift to market-driven economy (see also market economy), x, 1, 3, 11; approval of in film Please Forgive Me, 220–21
socialist realism, 11, 111, 214
decline of in Vietnam, 10; among filmmakers, 198–99, 207; in the art scene, 12–13
Socialist Republic of Vietnam. See Vietnam, Socialist Republic of
social policy officer (pho ban chinh sach xa), 53, 56–58, 67, [74n18]
soldiers, Vietnamese, depiction in paintings, 109, 114; by Mai Van Hien, 116–17, 117 (fig.);by Nguyen Sang, 117–19, 118 (fig.), 119 (fig.);by Resistance Class painters, 112–13
“Song on the Perfume River, The” (To Huu), 214–15
Sorrow of War, The (Bao Ninh), 60, 180, [194n23]
soul(s): direct propitiation of, role in “remembrance of the dead” ceremony, 66; existence after death not challenged by DRV government, 72; mortuary rites' effect on, 71–73; passage to and wellbeing of in the otherworld (see otherworld);propitiation of, family ceremonies for on War Invalids and Martyrs Day, 68; reference to not found in official memorial services for war dead, 58; as a wandering, hungry ghost (con ma), 60–61, 62, [75n30]; of war dead installed in local Buddhist temples, 70
souvenir stands, at historical sites constructed for tourists, 145, 146, 147(fig.)
Soviet Union: art community compared with that of Vietnam, 110, 116; influence on Vietnamese culture, 10
Spengemann, William C., [16n12]
spirit of the land (tho dat; tho dia), [75n41]; Giap Tu village communal house rededicated to, 70
spirit priest (thay cung), role in “remembrance of the dead” ceremony, 66
spiritual powers, supernatural, bestowed on Vietnam's geography, history, and hero figures, 86, [105n54]
Spiritual Powers of the Viet Realm(Viet dien u linh tap) (Ly Te Xuyen), 86, 96, [105n54]
spirit world, conversations held with by character in When the Tenth Month Comes, 205–7
Stalin, Josef, [103n27]
stamps, artwork displayed in form of, 110, 113
state, service to the, as a Confucian dictum, 91–92
State Committee for Cooperation and Investment, role in tourist industry, 140
street vendors, in Hanoi, pirated copies of films sold by, [223n5]
strikes of navy shipyard workers in1925, Ton Duc Thang's possible role in, 80
study tours, of Vietnam, 143
suffering, human, compassion for found in Buddhist tradition, 25
supernatural, the, notions of rejected by DRV, 58
Suˆ rete´ (Security Police), seizure of revolutionary literature in late 1920s and early 1930s, 30–31
surrealism, and use of village motifs, 128–29
Swiss watch, among Ton Duc Thang artifacts, 90
syncretic religious sects, 29, 34
Tai, Hue-Tam Ho, ix–x, 1–17, 46, 167–95, 227–30
Tale of Kieu, The (Truyen Kieu)(Nguyen Du), 214, 215
Tam Nong District Revolutionary Martyrs Cemetery (Phu Tho), 51 (fig.), 55 (fig.)
Tan Anh Hung (filmmaker), 170
Tan Bien, as reconstructed war site for tourists, 146, 148
Tardieu, Victor, Ecole des Beaux Arts d'Indochine founded by, 111
Ta Thu Thau, 35, [44n65]
Taylor, Keith, 86, 88
Taylor, Nora, 12–13, 109–34
Tay Thi, story of, 213–14
television shows, on family and military efforts to find soldiers' remains, 71
temples, 1, 70, 158
Thailand, tourism, 140
Thanh Nien (Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League;Viet Nam Thanh Nien Cach Mang Dong Chi Hoi), 80–81
The Lu, Memories of the Jungle, 26
Thien Mu Pagoda, described in travel brochure, 156
Thinh Liet commune (see also Giap Tu Village), 46, [73n3]
remembrance of war dead, 72–73; ancestral altars not built for dead soldiers, [75n30]; family funerary rites, 63–67; installation of souls in Buddhist temple, 70; official memorial service (le truy dieu) for martyrs, 55–58
skeletons of soldiers brought back to in1996, 71
War Invalids and Martyrs Day, official and family ceremonies, 67–68
Thi Tu Tung Thoai (Prison Verse) (Huynh Thuc Khang), 28, 33–34, [44n58]
Tho Ca Cach Mang Nha Tu Son La 1930–1945 (Revolutionary Poems and Songs from Son La Prison 1930–1945) (Nguyen Anh Tuan, ed.), 38
Thong Nhat (Reunification) Hotel (Hotel Me´ tropole) (Hanoi), restoration of, 148
“Three Competencies” (Ba Dam Dang), North Vietnamese women rewarded for displaying, 176
Through the Looking Glass (Carroll), 2, [16n3]
Tieng Dan (People's Voice) (newspaper), 28, [42n35]
Tieng Hat trong Tu (Songs Sung in Prison) (collection of prison verse), 37
tigers, caged, images of in classical prison poetry, 26–27
Tinh trong Nguc Toi (Love in the Dark Prison) (Tran Huy Lieu), 36–37
To Huu, 34, [42n38]; “The Song on the Perfume River,” 214–15
tombs of unknown soldiers, [73n2]
Ton Duc Nhung (Ton Duc Thang's brother), 81, 82
Ton Duc Thang (1888–1980), 83, 89–90; burial place, [102n12]; Commemorative Area in An Giang province (see Commemorative Area);family, 79–80, 81–82, 83 (fig.), 84–85, 89; life, 79–84, 88–90; 1988 symposium on in Long Xuyen, 89, 99–100
Ton Duc Thang Museum, in Ho Chi Minh City, 84, 89, 99
To Ngoc Thanh (artist), 120
To Ngoc Van (artist), 112–13, 120, 129–30, 131
Ton Quang Phiet, 28–29
Ton Van De (Ton Duc Thang's father), 79
To Quoc Ghi Cong (The Motherland Remembers Your Sacrifice), 57–58, [74n27]
Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, 125
tourism, x, 10, 137–38
tourism, in contemporary Vietnam, 6, 13–14, 135–37, 138–39, 159–60
appeal to upscale tourists, 142–44, 150–56; and development of historical sites, 144–45; hotel remodeling and rebuilding, 149–50; images of women used in, 153, 159, 167–68
control over, 140–42
estimates of numbers of visitors, 139, [161n11]
foreign development of, 136–37, 141–42
historical sites as attractions, 144–45;
tourism, in contemporary Vietnam (continued) from French and American Wars, 13–14, 145–50
narrative created by: in tourist literature, 150–56, 157, 158–59; in tourist sites, 138, 144–50, 157–58
“noninstitutionalized” tourists, 142
travel brochures, 150–56
veterans of French and American Wars as tourists, 6, 13, 135, 143, [161n17], [162n26]
Vietnamese exiles, 143, [162n27], 229
Vietnam's industrialization efforts ignored by, 158
tourist visas, expediting in1993, 139
trade, international, 139–40
Trading with the Enemies Act (U.S.), 139
Tran Bach Dang, 89, 99
Tran Do, 34
Tran Hung Dao (Duc Thanh Tran) (1220s–1300), as national military hero, 47–48, 86
“Tran Hung Dao Platoon,” 48
Tran Huy Lieu, 26–27, 93; Tinh trong Nguc Toi, 36–37; Tu Hoc trong Tu, 31–32
Tran Linh, [42n37]
Tran Quoc Vuong, 91
Tran Van Giau, 80, 99
Tran Van Thuy (filmmaker), 15, 183–84, 208–9, 217–19
Tran Vu (filmmaker), 15, 196–98, 199–200, 210–11, 219
Travel Agent's Guide, A, 151–56
Trinh Cong Son, “Mother's Legacy,” 181
Trois mousquetaires, Les (Dumas), 31, [42n45]
Trotskyists, 34–35, [44n65]
Trung Sisters (d. 43), 47–48, 86, 159, 173–74, 177, [193n11]
Truong Chinh (party secretarygeneral), 38; on the task of the artist, 114–15, 117, [133n16]
Truong Son Cemetery, 200 (fig.)
Truong Son (Long Mountain) range, 61
Tu Hoc trong Tu (Self-Study in Prison) (Tran Huy Lieu), 31–32
Turner, Karen Gottschang, [194n19]
tu te (kindness), search for meaning of in How to Behave, 183–84, 217–18, 219
tutelary deities, 85, 86–87, 100–101, [105n54]
UCLA Television and Film Archive, revisionist films available in, [223n5]
Ungar, Esta, 92–93, 96
United (Fatherland) Front, Ton Duc Thang's role in, 81
United States: embargoes imposed on Vietnam, 139–40; influence on Vietnamese culture, 10; narratives and monuments of culture and politics, ix;postbellum, postwar Vietnam compared to, 5, 182; Vietnam War (see War of National Salvation Against the Americans)
University of Architecture (Ho Chi Minh City), 82
Urry, John, 137–38
USSR-Vietnam Friendship Association,
Ton Duc Thang's role in, 81
Van Nghe (Literary Arts) (periodical), 34, [44n61]
VCP. See Communist Party
veterans, American and French, of French and American Wars, as Vietnam tourists, 6, 13, 135, 143, [161n17], [162n26], 229
veterans, Vietnamese, of the French and American Wars, 209 (fig.), 210(fig.)
portrayal in film, 197, 200, 201, 218; in Brothers and Relations, 197, 199–200, 210–11, 219; in How to Behave, 208–9, 217, 218–19
“Veteran's Tour” (packaged tour), [161n17]
victims of war (nan nhan chien tranh), as term for civilians killed in American bombing raid, 52
Victory at Dien Bien Phu (Chien Thang Dien Bien Phu) (film), 208
Viet Cong, 146, 148, 154
Viet Hai, [133n20], [134n19]
Viet Kieu (overseas Vietnamese), 228–29; as travelers to Vietnam in the 1990s, 143, [162n27]
Viet Minh (League for the Independence of Vietnam), 35, 81, 116
“Vietnam: A Country, Not a War” (tourist industry slogan), 148
Vietnam: A Travel Agent's Guide, 151–56
Vietnam: Investment and Tourism in Prospect (government publication), 141
Vietnam, before colonial era: Le dynasty, 47, 86, 91, 93; Tran dynasty, 91; village and folk art as main source of artistic production, 127
Vietnam, under colonial rule (1883–1945), 2–3, 5, 214
anti-French conspiracy of1916, 79
arts: Ecole des Beaux Arts d'Indochine founded during, 111–12; freedom during late 1930s Popular Front period, 198; seen as originating in royal palaces or stimulated by religious objects, 127
deaths of Communist party members seen as martyrdom, 50
French culture dismissed as bourgeois following, 122–23
1945 Japanese coup against government, 111
portrayal in literature of the 1920s and 1930s, 215
prison memoirs from period (see prison memoirs)
suppression of the Thanh Nien, 81
Ton Duc Thang's imprisonment (1929; 1945), 80, 81
view of in tourist narratives, 136–37, 158–59, 160; French character restored and reconstructed in the 1990s, 148–49, 152, 158–59, 160
Vietnam, Democratic Republic of (DRV; North Vietnam), 1945–76, 49–52, 58, 72
1945–54 (see also War Against the French), independence declared in1945, 81, 113, 177
1954–76 (see also War of National Salvation Against the Americans), 4, 11, 21, 93; reopening of Resistance Class art school in Hanoi in1954, 112–13; revolutionary prison memoirs' function in, 22, 23, 37–39; struggle toward unification 1959 to1975, 46–47, 52
Vietnam, North (post-1976 reunification): rituals for the war dead, portrayal in film, 196; wounds left by Land Reform program of 1950s, 190
Vietnam, Republic of (South Vietnam), 1954–76: Armed Forces (see Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam); portrayal of Vietnam War as a civil war, 175–76, 181; prison verse, revolutionary prison verse from colonial era compared with, 37
Vietnam, Socialist Republic of (contemporary Vietnam) (see also Vietnam, North;Vietnam, South), x–xi, 1–3, 9–10 ;commemoration of the war dead, 1–2, 67–71 (see also war dead);revisionist account of in Paradise of the Blind, 5–6, 8–9, 190, 191, 229; Ton Duc Thang as president of, 11; tourism industry (see tourism)
Vietnam, South (post-1976 reunification), 99–100, 190; and cult of Ton Duc Thang, 11, 77–78, 99–100; similarities to the postbellum American South, 5, 182
Vietnam Airlines, 155
Vietnam Cinema Department, [223n5]
Vietnamese annals, structuralist readings of, 88
Vietnamese Artists' (Arts) Association. See Arts Association, Vietnamese Vietnamese language, 168
Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth League
(Thanh Nien;Viet Nam Thanh Nien Cach Mang Dong Chi Hoi), joined by Ton Duc Thang in1926, 80–81
Vietnamese Workers Party (VWP), 21, 34, 37–38, [44n59]
Vietnam National Administration of Tourism (VNAT), 140–41, [161n11]
Vietnamtourism (special unit of VNAT), 140–41, [161n17]
Vietnam War. See War of National Salvation Against the Americans Vietnam War Memorial (“The Wall”)(Washington, D.C.), 9, 171
village customs: art, 10, 13, 127–30, 131; failure of heroine to observe in When the Tenth Month Comes, 206; patron spirits (thanh hoang), 85; role of hero spirit tales, 87; state's attempts to appropriate, 205–6; tradition of endogamy, [193n3]
Viollis, Andre´ e, [45n83]
virtues, revolutionary, 49–52, 94
“Visit Vietnam Year” (1990), 139, 148
visual art(s), Chinese, in communist China, 110, 116, [133n13]; counterrevolutionary movement, 127, [134n30]
visual art(s), French, legacy of in Vietnam, 148, 152
visual art(s), Vietnamese (see also paintings), 10, 12–13, 46, 109–12
art galleries in Hanoi and Ho Chi
Minh City, 109, 121
contemporary market for, 130
criteria for, 113–31; changes in the 1990s, 120–27
cult of motherhood depicted in commemorative exhibits, 177–79
folk art, 10, 13, 127–30, 131
― 270 ―in Hanoi Museum of Women, 186–87, 187 (fig.)revival of village and folk art, 10, 13, 127–30, 131
VNAT. See Vietnam National Administration of Tourism
Vo Nguyen Giap (general), 38, 48
votive objects, 66, [75n38], 207
Vung Tau, Vietnam, depiction in Travel Agent's Guide, 155
Vuot Con Dao (Escape from Con Dao)(Phung Quan), 34, [44nn63], [64]
Vu Trong Phung, [42n35]
Vu Tu Nam, 34, [44n61]
VWP. See Vietnamese Workers Party
“Waltz of the Chamber Pot, The” (“Vu Dieu cai Bo”) (Nguyen Quang Than), 185
war: divisiveness, social amnesia as result of, 190, [193n33]; Vietnamese historiographical view of, 171–74
war, images of
Vietnamese, 154, 171–74; in literature, 171–72; women as symbols of heroism, 14; women's contribution showcased in Ho Chi Minh City Museum of Women, 186
in Western thought, 171, 174–75; seen as rite of passage to manhood, 177, 179
War Against the French (French War), x, 10, 48, 70; cemeteries for war dead (see cemeteries for martyrs and war dead);described as war of national salvation, 172; government policies toward families of soldiers, veterans, and war dead, 53, 67; northern Vietnamese military casualties, 46; official memories of challenged in revisionist films of 1980s, 196–98; tourist literature on, 151, 152–55, 156, 158–59; veterans of (see veterans);war sites reconstructed as tourist sites, 148
War Crimes Museum (Ho Chi Minh City). See War Remnants Museum
war dead, in interwar France, competing claims to remains of, [224n14]
war dead, Vietnamese (see also dead soldiers;funerary rites;martyr), 46–47, [73n2]
casualty rate for North Vietnamese soldiers in American War, 58–59
cemeteries for (see cemeteries for martyrs and war dead)
commemoration of after 1975 reunification: family and community, 68–71; official, 67–68
competing claims for remembrance of, [223n8]; portrayed in revisionist films, 199–207
deaths seen as bad deaths, 60–61
families of: notification of, 54, 61–62; social benefits, 53–54
official memorial service for (le truy dieu), 55–58, 61, 199, 201
soldiers dying of illness or disease (tu si), 52, 61
War Invalids and Martyrs Day (Ngay Thuong Binh Liet Si) (July 27), 54, 67–68
war memorials, use by North Vietnam state to ennoble war death, 46
war monuments, in Europe, erected following World War I, 199
War of National Salvation Against the Americans (American War;Chien Tranh Chong My Cuu Nuoc;Vietnam War;War Against the Americans), x, 4, 10–11, 59, [75n35], 81
American veterans of (see veterans, American and French)
cemeteries for war dead (see cemeteries for martyrs and war dead)
commemorative sites visited by tourists, 13–14, 145–49
described by North Vietnam as war of national salvation, 172
Heroic Mothers defined by loss of children in, 181
literature of, travelogues of return trips to Vietnam by veterans as genre within, 143
meaning of debated in American films and books, 145
military service seen as an honorable and patriotic duty by both sides, 172
official memories of challenged in revisionist films of 1980s, 196–99
postwar era compared to post American Civil War era, 5, 182
seen as a civil war, 175–76, 180–81
southern Vietnamese perspective, 227
tourist literature on, 136, 151, 152–55, 156, 159
Vietnamese death toll and soldiers missing in action, 180
Vietnamese government policies toward war dead and families of dead military personnel, 46–47, 52–58, 54–58 (see also war dead)
women's role, 159; floor of Hanoi Museum of Women devoted to, 188; North Vietnam mobilization, 176, [194n19]
― 271 ―War Remnants Museum (formerly War Crimes Museum)(Ho Chi Minh City): American Rooms, 145–46; Chinese Rooms closed, [162n32]; Mother sculpture, 179
Warring States, period of the (403–221 b.c.), story of Tay Thi, 213–14
War Veterans of Vietnam (Cuu Chien Binh Viet Nam) (periodical), 71
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey, [230n4]
weddings, 55, 188, 190
We Escape from Prison (Nguyen Tao), 32
What's My Crime (Tran Huy Lieu), 26–27
When the Tenth Month Comes (Bao Gio cho den Thang Muoi) (film), 15, 201–7, 218, 221
Whitmore, John, 91
Williams, Mary Rose, 13–14, 109, 136–63
Wolf, Margery, [193n3]
Wolters, Oliver, 86–87, 88–89, 91–92, 100, [105n54]
“Woman of Nam Xuong, The” (Thieu Phu Nam Xuong), 170, [193n5]
Woman with Flower (Tien nu ben Hoa)(Duong Bich Lien), 126 (fig.)
women: corrupting influence of, French republican ideal of universal male franchise as response to, 175; faces of memory as faces of, 167; female narrative voice, 14, 215
women, Vietnamese, 14, 15, 167, 173–74, 192 (see also mothers;prostitute[s])
birth control policy, 189
change in status under Doi Moi, 182–85
Confucian patriarchal system effect on, 169
images of, 168–70, 175, 192; in bill-boards and magazines, 167–68, 183, 183 (fig.);fashions in Phu Nu, 191–92; as female guerrilla fighters, 159, 175, 178, 188; as “generals of the interior,” 183, 218; as Heroic Mother, 14, 159, 178 (fig.), 180–82, 181 (fig.);in travel literature, 153, 159; as victim image of war, 173–74, [193n10]
medals awarded to, 176, 180
mobilization of, 176, [194n19]
museums dedicated to (see Museum of Women [Hanoi];Museum of Women [Ho Chi Minh City])
portrayal in Doi Moi era films and literature, 184–85, 196–208, 211–20
portrayal in painting by Mai Van Hien, 116–17, 117 (fig.)
virilocal residence effects, 169, [193n3]
wives of dead soldiers replaced by mothers as primary keepers of memory, 14, 177–82
Women's Union(see also Museum of Women [Hanoi]), 188; Phu Nu, fashion articles, 191–92
Woodside, Alexander, [45n79], 94–95, 96
world of the dead. See otherworld
World Tourism Organization, VNAT statistics on number of tourists furnished to, [161n11]
World War I: European cult of fallen soldier following, 199; pilgrimages to battlefields of, 143; resistance to penal system during, 35–36
Writers Association, Vietnamese, 115
“writing brush wars” of the 1860s, 214
Xuan Dieu, 27
Yersin Museum, in Nha Trang, 156
youth camps, hosted by the Commemorative Area for Ton Duc Thang, 84
Youth Publishing House, 37
Zhou Enlai, 116
Zinoman, Peter, 8, 10–11, 12, 21–45, 77, 79
Zodiac (Nguyen Tu Nghiem), 129 (fig.)