Index
Aaron, David, 166
Abbas, Muhammad (Abu al-Abbas), 263, [334n.55]
ABC television, 8, 151, 224
Abd Rabbo, Yasir, [332–33n.36]
Abdul Aziz, King, 54–56
Abdullah, King, 6, 58, 88, 225
Abdul-Shafi, Haidar, 269
Abrams, Elliot, 198, [335n.74]
Abu al-Abbas. See Abbas, Muhammad
Abu Sharif, Bassam, 238, 296n.23, [329–30n.132]
Acheson, Dean, 64, 66, 102
Achille Lauro, 235, 263
Acting with Caution (Ross), 252
AIPAC. See American Israel Public Affairs Committee
Ajami, Fouad, 11
Albright, Madeleine, 279, 285, [337–38n.24]
Algeria, 164
Allen, Richard, 200–201
Allenby, General Edmund, 28
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 29
American Enterprise Institute, 282
American Federation of Labor, 301n.56
American Israel Public Affairs Committee, 42, 101, 102, 137, 166, 168, 249; during Bush administration, 256, [335n.62]; growth and impact on policymaking during Reagan years, 210, 219–21, 222–23
American Jewish Committee, 52
American Jewish Congress, 223
American Palestine Committee, 51
American University of Beirut, 23, 29
American Zionist Emergency Council, 52, 68, 73
Amnesty International, 173, [318n.47]
Anatolia, 23
Andersson, Sten, 237, 238, 239
Anglo-American Committee, 75, 76
Anglo-American Convention, 34
anti-Semitism, 24, 34–35, 43, 46, 47–48, 51, 130
Arab Americans, 34, 42, 59, 74, 146, 286
Arab Higher Committee, 76–77
The Arabian Nights, 17, 19
Arab Information Office, 56
Arab-Israeli confiict.See separate listings
Arabists.See U.S. State Department, Arabists
Arab League, 213
Arab Legion, 88
Arab revolt, against Turkey during World War I, 31
Arabs (see also specific countries and peoples): compared to Nazis, 102, 104, 117–21; referred to as Turks, 19–20, 37, 38–39; U.S. public perceptions of, 3, 8, 9, 19, 24, 37–41, 42–44, 53, 62, 86, 102–4, 124, 136, 152
The Arab States and the Palestine Question (Miller), [332n.24]
Arab summit meetings: Algiers (1988), 8, [329–30n.131]; Fez (1982), 212 (see also Fez Plan); Rabat (1974), 141–42, 145
Arafat, Yasir, 128, 145, 152 (see also Palestine Liberation Organization); and Bush administration, 258–59, [333n.37], [334n.53]; and Declaration of Independence (1988), 196; early organizing efforts, 115, 122; and Oslo process, 283, 290, 291–93; overtures to U.S., during Carter administration, 175–78, 319n.64;—, during Nixon administration, 140–43;—, during Reagan administration, 8, 205, 208; and Persian Gulf crisis, 263–64, 286, [334n.55]; reaction to Camp David accords, 185–86; and Reagan Plan, 212; statement leading to U.S.-PLO dialogue, 238–239, 330n.134; U.S. public image of, 153, 231, 269, 275–76, 283, 285–86
archaeology, in Palestine, 17, 20
Arens, Moshe, 173–74
Armenia, 23, 29, 38–39
al-Asad, Hafiz, 125, 147, 168, 179, [325n.63]
Ashrawi, Hanan, 251, 267–69, [335n.67]
Associated Press, 217 Aswan formula, 180
Atomic Energy Commission, 107
AWACS aircraft, sale of to Saudi Arabia, 197, 219–20
AZEC. See American Zionist Emergency Council
Baghdad Pact, 99
Baker, Howard, 142–43
Baker, James: allows 1989–1990 peace process to languish, 243, 245, 255, 262–64, 271, [334n.55]; attitude toward Israel, 255, 262, 276; change in negotiating tactics, 255, 267–69; compared unfavorably to Reagan administration by Israel, 256–57; friendship with George Bush and similarities of style, 244–45; influence of cautious, pro-Israeli advisers, 242–43, 247–55, 285, [335n.67]; interest in process over substance, 242–43, 244–45, 270, 272; Israeli elections proposal, 258–60, [333n.42]; lack of sentimentality toward Israel and Palestinians, 245–47, 256, 268; Palestinian-Israeli negotiations following Persian Gulf crisis, 264–67; personal meetings with Palestinian representatives, 247, 251, 267–69; personal style, 242–43, 244–47, 251, [330n.4], [331nn.11], [17]; perspective on Palestinian situation, 246–47, 258, 267–69, 270, 272; preparations for Madrid conference, 268–69, [335n.68]; relations with Shamir, 246, 259–60
Balfour, Sir Arthur, 30–31, 32, 33, 34, 41
Balfour Declaration, 8, 13, 27–28, 34, 35, 36, 42–43, 48, 52, 59, 66
Ball, George, 111, 146
Begin, Menachem, 6, 163, 188, 194, 220, 221, 222; background as terrorist, 170, 172, [317–18n.44]; initial U.S. reaction to, 170–172; relations with Carter, 166, 167, 168–70, 174–75, 180, 181–85, 186, 189, 261, [317n.36]; relations with Reagan, 198; U.S. popular acceptance of, 170–72, 173, 185, 194
Beilin, Yossi, 290–91
Bellow, Saul, 226
Ben-Gurion, David, 47, 52, 62, 106, 107
Bennett, William, [335n.74]
Benvenisti, Meron, 5, 153, 250, 280
Biltmore Program, 52
The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem (Morris), 5
Blackstone, William, 23, 30
Bliss family, 23
Blitzer, Wolf, 220–21
B'nai B'rith, 113, 197
Bolling, Landrum, 177–78, 319n.64
Boston Herald, 75
Bourguiba, Habib, 213
Brand, Laurie, 328n.116
Brandeis, Louis, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 41, 46–47, 49
Britain. See Great Britain
British Broadcasting Corporation, 5
British Mandate. See Mandate for Palestine
Brookings Institution, 164–65, 247
Brown, Harold, 162, [318n.51]
Bruce, David, 146
Bryen, Shoshanna, 201
Bryen, Stephen, 201, [322n.18], [335n.74]
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 146, 182, 276; background and beliefs, 163–64; criticized by supporters of Israel, 165, 166, 171; relations with Carter, 162, 163, 189; views of PLO, 164, 178, 179, 319n.64
B'Tselem, [337n.17]
Bundy, McGeorge, 146
Bush, George, 88, 220, 247, 248, 249, 250, 252, 258, 284–85, 287–88 (see also Baker, James); alters conventional view of Palestinians and Israelis, 243, 266–67, 269, 270; anti-Palestinian actions before Persian Gulf crisis, 263–64; attitude toward Israel, 243, 255–56, [323n.33]; attitude toward Palestinians/PLO, 255, 268, 270–71; background and beliefs, 242–44, 251; election calculations as factor in peace process, 265–66; failure to follow through after Madrid, 271, 290; lack of sentimentality toward Israel, 243, 244, 246, 256–57; preoccupation with Israeli settlements, 261–62, 271; readiness to move in peace process after Persian Gulf war, 264–66; readiness to pressure Israel, 243, 255, 260–62, 265–67; relationship with Yitzhak Shamir, 244, 259–61, 264, 271; similarities to Baker in personal style, 242–43, 244–45, 270, [330n.4]
Buxton, Frank, 75–76
Camp David (Quandt), 167
Camp David accords, 166, 167, 177, 178, 180; linkage, 182, 184, 185, 187; negotiations leading to, 181–84; Palestinian autonomy plan and negotiations for, 181–82, 184–85, 186–88, 190–91, 208; Palestinian opposition to, 185–88; proposals for Israeli withdrawal, 182–83, 184, 187; proposed freeze on Israeli settlement construction, 184, 186–87; U.S. failure to understand Palestinian position on, 185, 188
Carlucci, Frank, 276
Carter, Jimmy, 10–11, 149, 156, 195, 199, 202, 205, 220, 239, 243, 247, 259–60, 261, 287 (see also Camp David accords; Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty; peace process, early attitude toward involvement of Palestinians in); alters conventional wisdom, 157–62, 167, 191–92, 240; anti-Israeli votes in UN, 183, 189–90; approach of foreign-policy team of, 162–66; background and beliefs, 158–63; domestic political pressures on, 157, 167, 171–72, 177–78, 180–81, 183–84, 185, 188, 190; influence of pro-Israeli advisers, 166–67, 189, [317n.28]; interest
― 374 ―in human rights, 160–61, 162, 165–66, 172; and lead-up to Camp David, 181–84; misjudges Likud determination, 170, 185; perspective on Palestinian situation, dealings with Palestinians/PLO, 157–62, 172, 175–81, 319n.71; position on Palestinian self-determination/ statehood, 161, 162, 177, 179–80, 182, [316n.9]; post-Camp David discouragement, 189; relations with Arabs, 159, 168; relations with Israel, 158, 159, 161, 167–72, 174–75, 189, 194, [316n.13], [317n.36]; U.S.-Soviet communiqué (1977), 319n.65Casey, William, 200, [323n.33]
CBS television, 172, 224
Central Intelligence Agency, 35, 87, 98, 107–8, 140, 200, 309–10n.34
Chacour, Elias, 269
Chancellor, John, 224
Chavez, Linda, [335n.74]
Chicago Tribune, 38
Childers, Erskine, 295n.12
Christian Science Monitor, 227
Christopher, Warren, 278, 280, 285, 291
Churba, Joseph, 200–201, [321–22n.16], [322n.17]
Clifford, Clark, 63, 69–72, 79
Clinton, Bill, 275, 288; general tilt toward Israel/pro-Israeli policy changes, 276–80, 281–82, [337–38n.24]; impact of proLikud political pressures, 282, 284–85; influence of pro-Israeli advisers, 249, 255, 285; lack of interest in details, 285; limited involvement in peace process, 277, 279–80, 281, 284–85, 290–91; personal affinity for Israel, 276; position on UN resolutions, 279–80; relations with Netanyahu, 277, 284–85
CNN, 269
Commager, Henry Steele, 102
Commentary, 154, 199, 226, 228–29, 253
Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations, 171, 172
Conflicts Unending (Haass), 253
conservatives, U.S., anti-peace lobbying of, 282–85
conventional wisdom. See "frame of reference" on Palestinian-Israeli issues
Crane, Charles, 32
Crossman, Richard, 76
Crusades, 19, 20, 25
Deir Yassin massacre, 6, 172
Democratic Party, 45, 51, 53, 71, 166
Dillon, Douglas, 146
Dimona, 107, 309n.33
Dine, Thomas, 219–20
Dodge, Cleveland, 23, 29, 38
Dole, Robert, 248
Duffy, Michael, 244
Duke, Angier Biddle, 226
Dulles, Allen, 35, 36
Dulles, John Foster, 91, 97, 99, 100, 102
Dunsmore, Barrie, 150, 151
Eagleburger, Lawrence, 218, 247, 276
Eban, Abba, 74, 87, 93, 96, 101–2, 110, 112, 118, 120, 130, 260, 267, 309n.33
Egypt, 87, 97, 107, 116, 117, 129, 130, 131, 176, 181, 265 (see also specific Arab-Israeli wars; specific U.S. administration policies; individual Egyptian leaders; specific peace agreements); and Camp David accords, 184, 185; impact of Camp David on role of in Arab-Israeli conflict, 187; intermediary in Bush administration negotiating efforts, 257, 259, [333n.37], [334n.55]; negotiations leading to Camp David, 178, 181–83; 1973 war and aftermath, 135, 140, 143, 151; and Palestinians,
― 375 ―84, 90, 114–15, 179, 180, 190–91; relations with Reagan administration, 199Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, 136, 157, 166, 178, 184, 185, 189, 191
Eichmann, Adolf, 117–20
Eilts, Hermann, 203–04
Eisenhower, Dwight, 74, 102, 104, 105, 107, 113, 116, 265, 287; actions/attitude toward Israel, 96–97, 98, 157; background and beliefs, 96–97; efforts to thwart Soviet advances, 98–99; Eisenhower Doctrine, 99; ignorance of Palestinians, 97–98, 99–100, 122; relations with Arab states, 97–99
Eizenstat, Stuart, 166, [335n.74]
Ellis, Marc, 120
Elon, Amos, 213
Epstein, Eliahu, 72
Eretz Israel, 7. See also Israel, "Greater Israel" policy
Erlanger, Steven, 277
Evensen, Bruce, 79, 80
Evron, Ephraim, 109
Exodus (Uris), 103–4, 118, 119, 121, 227, 266–67
Exodus 1947, 75
Fackenheim, Emil, 118, 120–21
Fahd, Prince, 142–43, [324n.48]
Fahd Plan, 213, [324n.48]
Fairbanks, Richard, 205, 276
Fatah, 100, 115, 122, 128, 140, 175, 314n.41
Faysal bin Abdul Aziz, Prince, 66
fedayeen, 127–29, 132, 155
Feinberg, Abraham, 109, 110
Fez Plan, 212–14, [324n.48]
Findley, Paul, 186
Finkelstein, Norman, [326–27n.93]
Fish, Hamilton, 37
Fisher, Max, 130
Fisk, Robert, 7, 216–18, 297n.2
FLAME (Facts and Logic about the Middle East), 284
Flapan, Simcha, 328n.112
Ford, Gerald, 124, 136, 148, 149; ignorance of Palestinian issue, 144–45; influence of Henry Kissinger on, 125, 144–45; reassessment of policy toward Israel, 145–47
Foreign Policy, 164
Foreign Service.See U.S. State Department
Fortas, Abe, 109, 110, 112
Fourth Geneva Convention, 202
"frame of reference" on Palestinian-Israeli issues (see also orientalism; scholarship on Palestinian-Israeli conflict; and specific U.S. administrations): anti-Palestinian cast of public mindset after 1960s, 153–56, 157–58, 168, 195–96, 203; assumption, that all Palestinians are refugees or terrorists, 7, 90, 130–31, 140–41, 150, 153, 193, 202, 216–18;—, that Arabs are warlike, primitive, 19, 32, 36, 37–40, 42, 50, 70, 76, 81, 102–4, 150, 287;—, that burden of compromise is on Palestinians, 248–49, 252, 253;—, that criticism of Israel endangers it, 171–72, 183, 229, 256–57, 327n.103;—, that Palestine should be Jewish, 19, 21–22, 25, 26, 33, 36, 38, 42, 45, 46, 52, 53, 54, 59, 63, 77, 274, 287;—, that Palestinian/Arab hostility to Israel is irrational, 1, 2, 5–6, 61, 65, 89, 90–91, 111, 120–21, 130, 159–60, 185, 197;—, that Palestinians lack sense of nationalism, as held during British Mandate period, 36, 44, 57–58, 88;—, that Palestinians lack sense of nationalism, as held during 1960s and 1970s, 111, 116, 148, 154, 162, 168;—, that Palestinians lack sense of nationalism, as held during Reagan-Bush years, 195–96, 198, 202–3, 204, 225–27, 240, 249, 250–51, 254;—, that Palestinians not attached to Palestine, 5, 16, 85, 90–91, 104, 297n.2;—, that Palestinians/PLO
― 376 ―unalterably radical, 181, 187, 215–16, 246, 249–50; assumption of unique U.S. bond with Israel, 2, 5, 82, 95, 101–4, 119–20, 136, 192, 218, 257, 287–89; changes in, beginning after 1960s, 125, 149, 151, 152–53, 155, 191–92, 270; changes caused by new scholarship, 232–33; changes caused by peace process, 269–70, 275–76; definition, 2, 3–4, 5; effect of on open discourse, 155, 172, 230–31; effect of Palestinian/Arab militancy and terrorism on, 50, 56–57, 78, 92–93, 96, 124, 152–54, 183, 285; effect of Palestinian statelessness on, 12, 92, 95, 98, 272–73; effect of on prolongation of conflict, 275, 289–93; enduring nature of, despite factors for change, 228, 269–70, 276–77, 280–85; as framework for/constraint on policymaking, 1, 3, 14–15, 26, 33, 161, 287–88, 290;—, during Carter administration, 157–58, 167, 180–81, 183–84, 188, 191–92, 194;—, during Kissinger era, 125, 129, 134–35, 136, 137–38, 145, 155–56;—, in 1980s and 1990s, 195–96, 218, 221, 222–23, 227, 228, 240–41, 251, 275, 284;—, in 1950s and 1960s, 97–98, 101–2, 104, 110–11, 112, 114, 115–17;—, during Truman administration, 69–72, 80, 86, 90–91; inherent inequity in U.S. mediation efforts resulting from, 180–81, 191, 275, 293; Palestinian absence from discourse/ignorance of Palestinian grievances, 2, 3, 275, 287–89;—, before 1948, 19–20, 21–22, 25, 26, 30, 42–44, 49, 53, 54, 57, 59–60, 274–75;—, from 1948 to 1967, 62, 65–66, 77, 82, 84, 90–91, 92–94, 97–98, 110–11, 112, 114, 115–17, 121–23;—, since 1967, 8–9, 130–31, 132, 134–35, 138, 141, 144–45, 152, 154, 156, 161–62, 202–3, 218, 232, 239–41, 250, 253; shaped by personal knowledge/ experience, 150, 247, 267–69, 292–93; shaped by terminology, 6–8, 43, 159, 296n.20; shaped from Zionist/Israeli perspective, 287–89;—, before 1948, 2–3, 5–6, 8, 11, 43, 54, 60, 61–62, 72–73, 76, 80–86;—, since 1948, 104, 108–9, 116, 123, 172, 174–75, 191–92, 202, 218, 275; virtually automatic nature of support for Israel, 171, 173, 174, 222–23, 224, 229–30, 232; zero-sum effect of Israeli vs. Arab images, 92–94, 96, 118–19, 121, 168, 171, 174–75, 272–73, [335n.74]France, 33, 97, 98, 103, 164, 210, 216
Frankel, Max, 222
Frankfurter, Felix, 33, 47
Friedman, Thomas, 245, 257, 268, [333n.42]
From Time Immemorial (Peters), 225–27, 254, 327n.94
Fulbright, William, 146, 147, 149
Garment, Leonard, 130, [335n.74]
Gates, Robert, 200
Gaza, 87, 98, 100, 116, 122 (see also West Bank/Gaza; Israel, "Greater Israel" policy; Israeli settlements in occupied territories)
Gemayel, Bashir, 210, [325n.63]
Genesis 1948 (Kurzman), 4
Geneva conference, 139, 146–47, 168, 176, 178
Germany, 27, 28, 29, 47, 55, 56
Geyer, Georgie Anne, 150–52
Gilbert, Martin, 226
Golan Heights, 116, 135, 197
Goldberg, Arthur, 109, 110, 146, 170–71, 226
Gompers, Samuel, 301n.56
Goodgame, Dan, 244
Gore, Al, 276, [336n.5]
Great Britain, 7–8, 38, 97, 98, 103, 225; in Palestine, 31, 33, 34, 39, 48, 49–50, 56–57, 60, 65, 74, 75, 77, 274–75 (see also Balfour Declaration; Mandate for Palestine); and Transjordan, 58, 88; white papers, 33, 48, 49
Greenberg, Irving, 120
Grose, Peter, 2–3, 24, 32
Haass, Richard, 248, 249, 251, 252–54, 255, 258, 270, [336n.6]
Habash, George, 128
Habib, Philip, 206, 207, 209, 210
Haddad, Wadi, 128
Haig, Alexander, 199–200, 201, 276; disinterest in Palestinian issue, 199, 203, 205, 206; "strategic consensus" policy, 199–200; support for Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 205–6, [323nn.30], [33]
The Haj (Uris), 227
Halperin, Morton, 133
Hamilton, Lee, 149, [314–15n.64]
Hamoked, [337n.17]
Harding, Warren, 34, 35
Har Homa. See Jerusalem, Israeli actions in East Jerusalem
Harriman, Averell, 146
Harrison, Benjamin, 23
Harrison, Earl, 63–64
Hasbara Project, 223–24
Hatfield, Mark, 315n.70
Hauser, Rita, 130
Hebron, 6, 39, 42, 277
Henderson, Loy, 70, 88–89
Hentsch, Thierry, 18 Heritage Foundation, 282
Hertzberg, Arthur, 119
An Historical Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Reich), 6
Hitler, Adolph, 45, 47, 49, 119
Holocaust, 45, 53, 65, 77, 86, 103, 132, 155, 246, 272, [316n.13]; "Holocaust theology," 120–21; increased awareness of, in 1960s, 117–21; Jewish refugees in Europe, 46, 47, 62, 63–64, 68, 75, 77; U.S. reaction to, 2, 61–62, 74, 118, 150, 158, 161, 196
Holy Land.See Palestine
Horne, Alistair, 164
Hughes, Charles, 34
Hull, Cordell, 48, 51
Humphrey, Hubert, 170–71
Hussein, King, 113, 115, 168, 213; and Jordan civil war, 128–29, 135; and Palestinians, 179, 234; reaction to Camp David accords, 186; reaction to Reagan Plan, 212
Hussein, Saddam, 255, 263–64, 286, [334n.54]
Hussein, Sherif, of Mecca, 31
Husseini, Faisal, 238, 263
al-Husseini, Haj Amin, 56–57, 77, 88, 118–19, 287
Ibn Saud. See Abdul Aziz, King
Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land (Stephens), 17, 20
Indyk, Martin, 220, 249–51, 252, 276, [331nn.13], [15]
The Innocents Abroad (Twain), 16–17
In These Times, [326–27n.93]
intifada, 8, 57, 214, 215, 228, 230, 241, 242, 255, 262; factors leading to, 235, 240; message/implication of, 196, 236, 238, 240, 250, 272–73; U.S./Israeli reaction to, 57, 233, 236–37, 242, 248–49, 250, 256, 266, 286
Iran, 98–99, 189
Iraq, 31, 33, 49, 105, 128, 197, 200, 263–64 (see also Hussein, Saddam)
Irgun, 6, 109, 163, 170, 172
Islam.See Muslims; Palestinians, Islamic fundamentalism among
Israel (see also various Arab-Israeli wars; specific U.S. administration policies; individual Israeli leaders; specific peace agreements): committed
― 378 ―core of pro-Israeli sympathizers, 231–32, 266; diminished U.S. sympathy for in 1980s, 223–24, 231, 266–67; fear of Palestinian legitimacy, 139, 141, 148, 153–54, 168, 169, 213–14, 250, 272, 289–90, 292–93; "Greater Israel" policy pursued by Begin, 167, 169–70, 171, 174, 185, 186, 193–94; "Greater Israel" policy pursued by Shamir, 242, 256, 259–60, 261, 262 (see also Israeli settlements in occupied territories); hospitable to journalists, 80, 120, 151; housing loan guarantees for, 262, 266, 271, 281, [337n.15]; increased U.S. sympathy for following Eichmann trial and 1967 war, 117–21, 311–12n.72; internal impact of U.S. support for Likud, 221–22, 235–36, 260, 267, 284, [337–38n.24]; issue of repatriation of Palestinian refugees, 89–90, 100, 105, [307–8n.97]; military superiority, 107–8, 117, 133, 145 (see also specific Arab-Israeli wars); nuclear program, 107–8, 133, 309n.33, 309–10n.34; opposition to Palestinian/PLO involvement in peace process, 157, 167–70, 185, 213–14, 234–35; romantic appeal of to U.S. public, 61–62, 63, 82–83, 103–4, 119–20; Soviet Jewish immigrants, 261, 262, [333n.46], [334n.51]; U.S. affinity for, 2–3, 5, 86, 95–96, 136; U.S. diplomatic recognition of, 67, 72, 91–92; U.S. perception of Israeli security vulnerability, 183, 223, 249, 254; U.S. public perceptions of, 2–3, 8, 101–4, 136; as U.S. strategic asset, 3, 92, 132–33, 134, 174, 198–201, 220, 221, 252, [318n.51]Israel in the Mind of America (Grose), 3, 24
Israeli settlements in occupied territories, 111, 168–70, 184, 186, 190, 210, 266, 276, 277, 280; numbers of settlers and settlements, 193–94, 204, 240–41, 261, 262, 271–72; significance of to Palestinians, 262, 269; U.S. position on settlements, during Bush administration, 244, 246, 261–62, 271–72;—, during Carter administration, 168–70, 182, 186–87, 190, 194, 320n.92;—, during Clinton administration, 279, 281–82, [337n.15], [337nn.15], [16];—, during Reagan administration, 199, 201–2, 208, 211, 218, 240
Italy, 210, 216
Ivanhoe (Scott), 25, 37
Jabber, Fuad, 328n.116
Jackson, Henry, 136, 199
Jacobson, Eddie, 68–69
Jennings, Peter, 150, 151
Jerusalem, 6, 17, 38, 39, 83, 190; Hebrew and Arabic names for, 296n.20; Israeli actions in East Jerusalem, 241, 261–62, 271, 277, 281–82, 283, [337nn.16], [17]; status of, 182, 185, 279, 280–82
Jerusalem Post, 229, 256
Jewish Agency in Palestine, 47, 70, 71, 72, 74
Jewish Defense League (Kach), [321–22n.16]
Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs, 137, 138, 198, 199, 200
Jewish intellectuals in United States, 118, 120–21
Jewish organizations in United States, 9 (see also lobby, pro-Zionist / Israel; U.S. Congress, pressures from pro-Israel lobbyists; Zionist movement; and specific organizations); anti-peace lobby among, 282–85, 327n.103; early efforts to generate public support, 101–2; lobbying/educational efforts with government officials, 137–38
Jewish Telegraph Agency, 40
JINSA. See Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs
Johnson, Lyndon, 95, 287; actions/policies during and after 1967 war, 111–12, 116–17, 310–11n.46; animosity toward Arabs/ ignorance of Palestinian perspective, 109, 110, 113–14, 122–23; friendship with Israel, 109–10, 112, 113; influence of pro-Israeli friends/advisers on, 109–11, 112, 116
Jordan, 31, 105, 117, 176, 199, 225, 236 (see also Abdullah, King; Hussein, King); control over Arab areas of Palestine, 6, 58, 87–88, 90, 98; 1970 civil war, 124, 127–30, 132–33, 135, 138; 1985 Jordanian-PLO initiative, 234–35; Palestinian cross-border raids into Israel from, 98, 100, 115, 122; and Palestinians, 84, 86, 89, 90, 140, 154; proposals to link Palestinian control of West Bank with, 149, 161, 164, 175, 177, 208, 254–55; renounces responsibility for West Bank, 237; response to Reagan Plan, 211–12, 214; role in peace process, 141–42, 149, 179, 184, 190
Jordan, Hamilton, 189
Judea and Samaria.See West Bank/ Gaza
Kahane, Meir, [321–22n.16]
Kampelman, Max, 198–99
Karameh, 122, 127
Kedourie, Elie, 226
Kenen, I. L., 42, 74–75, 102
Kennedy, John, 95, 109, 113; attitude toward Israel, 104, 106–7, 309n.30; ignorance of Palestinians, 105–6, 122; and Israel's nuclear program, 107–8, 309n.33, 309–10n.34; military aid to Israel, 107–8; relations with Arab states, 104–6
Kennedy, Ted, 190
Kerr, Malcolm, 1, 2, 62, 110–11, 132, 146
Keyes, Alan, [335n.74]
Khalaf, Salah, 263–64, [334n.55]
Khalid, King, 176
Khalidi, Rashid, 7, 328n.116
Khalidi, Walid, 208–9, 213
Khomeini, Ayatollah, 189
Kimmerling, Baruch, 7–8, 289
King, Henry, 32
King-Crane Commission, 32–33, 34, 36
King David Hotel, 6, 172
Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 198–99, 203, [322n.23], [323n.33]
Kissinger, Henry, 4, 10, 14, 130, 137, 151, 153, 165, 199, 247, 276, [318n.55]; calculated refusal to become involved in mediation efforts, 126, 132, 135, 138; diplomatic assurances to Israel, 133–34, 139–40, 143–44; diplomatic complacency, 135–36, 291; global/Cold War approach to policy, 125–29; ignorance of Arab-Israeli issues, 131–32; ignorance of and efforts to circumvent Palestinian issue, 124, 125, 127–29, 131–32, 138–44, 147–49; importance of Israel in thwarting Soviets, 125, 126, 129, 132–33, 134, 135; importance of Israel personally, 131; negotiations with Israel and reassessment, 145–47; view of Arabs as radical, pro-Soviet, 125, 126, 129
Kollek, Teddy, 103
Koppel, Ted, 269
Krauthammer, Charles, 282, 283
Krim, Arthur, 109, 110, 112
Krim, Mathilde, 109, 110, 112, 116
Krock, Arthur, 79
Kurtzer, Daniel, 251, 252–53, 256, [332n.25], [335n.67], [336n.6]
Kurzman, Dan, 4–5
The Land and the Book (Thomson), 17, 20
Landau Commission, 173
Lansing, Robert, 30, 35
League of Nations, 27, 34, 39, 43
Lebanon, 7, 31, 84, 89, 90, 99, 102, 105, 203, 214, [325n.58]; Israeli attacks in, 134, 183, 192 (see also 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon); Palestinian cross-border attacks from, 115, 183
Ledeen, Michael, 201
Lehman, John, [335n.74]
Lehrer, Jim, 227
Lenczowski, George, 66
Lesch, Ann, 186, 236, 328n.116
Lewis, Anthony, 9
Lewis, Bernard, 11, 154, 226
Lewis, Samuel, 161, 191, 193, 197, 234
Life magazine, 120, 121
Limbaugh, Rush, 283–84
Linowitz, Sol, 166, 189, 190–91, 205
Lippmann, Walter, 274
Lipshutz, Robert, 166
lobby, pro-Zionist /Israel, 37, 41–42, 71, 72–74, 130, 286 (see also Jewish organizations in United States; and specific organizations); pressures during Carter administration, 165, 167–68, 171, 190; pressures during Nixon/Ford administrations, 136–38, 145, 146–47, 148; strength of during Reagan administration, 195–96, 209, 219–21, 222–24
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 25, 37
London Times, 172
Long, Breckinridge, 47, 51
Los Angeles Times, 38, 39
Lowenthal, Max, 69–72
Lustick, Ian, 283, 328n.116
MacNeil-Lehrer News Hour, 227
Madrid peace conference, 242, 245, 251, 267, 269, 271, 275 (see also Baker, James); as a landmark in Palestinian-Israeli history, 242, 270; procedural steps toward convening, 247, 268–69, 272
Mahfouz, Naguib, 9
Mandate for Iraq (British), 31
Mandate for Lebanon and Syria (French), 31
Mandate for Palestine (British), 31, 34, 39, 43, 56, 78, 80, 93, 111, 131, 154, 225 (see also Great Britain, in Palestine)
Mansour, Camille, 289
Manuel, Frank, 36, 84
Marching in Place (Duffy and Good-game), 244
Marcus, Yoel, 214
Marines, U.S., 7, 99, 102, 211, 218, [325n.63]
Marshall, George, 68, 72
Marshall Plan, 67
Mattar, Philip, 57, 328n.116
McCloy, John, 146
McCormick, Anne O'Hare, 82–83, 84
McDonald, James, 83, 85
McGovern, George, 142
McMahon, Henry, 31
McNamara, Robert, 146
McPherson, Harry, 109, 113
media (see also specific newspapers, journals, and television networks): ability to influence policymakers, 78–80, 151, 228–30; ability to influence public opinion on policy issues, 79–80, 151, 153, 204; criticism of Carter, 189, 192; criticism of Israel, 223, 227, 229, 266, 282, [335n.61]; disproportionate coverage of Israel, 227; efforts of Israeli supporters to influence, 223–24; hostile/stereotypical treatment of Arabs/Palestinians, 8–9, 38–40, 53–54, 81, 82, 84–85, 102–3, 142, 192, 204, 224–25, 227; improved treatment of Palestinians beginning in 1970s, 125, 149–52, 192–93, 223, 227; improved treatment of Palestinians following intifada and peace process, 236, 275–76; increase in conservative anti-peace commentary, 282, 283–84; increased Middle East coverage after 1967 and 1973
― 381 ―wars, 120, 150–52; influence of elite media on policymakers, 228–30; pro-Israeli sympathies of, 223–24; pro-Zionist treatment of Palestine, 37–40, 53–54, 75, 78–82; radio talk shows, 283–84; self-perpetuating aspect of pro-Israeli coverage, 227–28, 230–31; treatment of Israel/Israelis, 82–83, 101, 102, 118, 120, 121, 170, 172–73, 192; treatment of Sabra/Shatila massacre, 217–18, 223Meir, Golda, 133, 139
Middle East Watch, 173
Miller, Aaron David, 251, 252–53, 256, [332n.24], [336n.6]
mind-set, in United States about Arabs and Israel. See "frame of reference" on Palestinian-Israeli issues
missionaries in Middle East, 38–39; involvement in Arab independence movement, 29; missionaries to Palestine, 17, 19–20, 21, 22–23, 29; missionary-led educational and wartime relief efforts in Middle East, 23, 29
Mondale, Walter, 162, 166, 170–71, 183, 189, 190, 247
Morris, Benny, 5, 6, 61, 85, 226–27, 328n.112
Moses, Alfred, 166
motion pictures, depiction of Arabs and Israelis in, 40–41, 53, 74, 103 (see also Exodus)
Moughrabi, Fouad, 232
Mroz, John, 205
Mufti of Jerusalem. See al-Husseini, Haj Amin
Murphy, Richard, 215
Muslih, Muhammad, 328n.116
Muslims, 23, 89; in Palestine, 19–20, 25, 37, 38, 42, 70, 84
Mussadegh, Muhammad, 98–99
myths. See "frame of reference" on Palestinian-Israeli issues
Myths and Facts (AIPAC), 137
Nablus, 20
nakba. See Palestinians, dispossession and light in 1948
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 98, 99, 104–5, 111, 113, 115, 119; U.S. perceptions of, 102–3, 130
Nation, 81, 84–85, 102, 227
National Review, 102–3
National Security Council and staff, 87, 99–100, 137, 162–63, 164
Nazi Atrocities (motion picture), 74
Nazis, 52, 53, 56–57, 117, 120, 121
Near East Report (AIPAC), 137
neoconservatives, 198–99, 201, 203 (see also conservatives)
de Nerval, Gérard, 21
Netanyahu, Benjamin, 229–30, 276–77; and peace process, 277, 283; relations with United States, 276, 281, 284–85; and U.S. conservatives, 282, 283–84
New Republic, 79, 81, 84, 203, 228–29
Newsweek, 217
New Yorker, 284
New York Post, 84
New York Review of Books, 226, 327n.94
New York Times, 6, 37, 38–40, 78–79, 82–83, 170, 173, 217, 227
Nightline, 8, 269
Niles, David, 69–72, 79
1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 187, 197, 198, 205, 208–9, 210, 224, 227, 229, [325n.63]; internal Israeli criticism of, 22, 223; Israeli bombing and siege of Beirut, 187, 207, 210, 223, 224; Lebanon-Israel peace agreement, 214, [325n.63]; multinational peacekeeping force, 210–11, 216; Reagan sympathy with plight of Palestinians during, 206–7; Sabra and Shatila massacre, 210–11, 216–18, 223; U.S. guarantees to Palestinians, 216, [325n.58]; U.S. support for invasion, possible collusion, 205–6, [323nn.30], [33]
1956 Arab-Israeli war, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 116, 120
1948 Arab-Israeli war, 6, 61–62, 88, 95, 97–98, 111, 120, 132 (see also Palestinians, dispossession and ?ight in 1948); intercommunal ?ghting following partition, 80; Jewish-Arab military balance, 81; Jewish certainty of victory in, 81
1973 Arab-Israeli war, 6, 11, 125, 131, 137, 139, 140, 143, 155; aid to Israel during, 133, 137; increased U.S. public interest in Middle East after, 150–51; Israeli military weakness revealed by, 233; postwar policy changes induced by, 126, 135–36, 150–51
1967 Arab-Israeli war, 6, 11, 110, 111–12, 115–17, 121, 124, 125, 135, 151; Arab reaction to, 124; fears of another Holocaust, 119; increased popularity of Israel after, 119–21, 311–12n.72; Israeli military superiority, 111–12, 116; Palestinian refugees created by, 122, 312n.73.; postwar implications of, 122–23, 129
1969–1970 War of Attrition, 135
Nixon (motion picture), 4, 14
Nixon, Richard, 136, 137; assurances to Israel about peace process, 133–34; attitude toward Israel, 129–30; global/Cold War approach to policymaking, 125–29; ignorance of Palestinians, 124, 127–31, 132, 138; influence of Henry Kissinger on, 126, 132, 134; intention to pursue "even-handedness," 126, 127; military aid to Israel, 132–33; unnuanced view of Arabs, 125, 129, 130
Norway, 290–92
Ochs, Adolph, 40
oil, 67, 79, 98, 150–51
Oliphant, [335n.61]
orientalism, 17, 18–19, 25, 59; colonialism's disregard for Arab political interests, 21–22, 30, 31–32, 50, 100
Orientalism (Said), 3
Oslo peace process, 2, 275, 278, 279, 281; crises in, following Netanyahu election, 277, 283; initial U.S. skepticism about, 290–92; Israeli withdrawals required by, 277; secret PLO-Israeli negotiations, 278, 290–91, 292–93; U.S. pro-Likud pressures opposing, 282–85
The Other Arab-Israeli Conflict (Spiegel), 212
Ottoman Empire. See Turkey
Palestine: Arab history in, 20, 22, 26, 93; Arab Revolt (1936–1939), 49, 53–54, 56–57; extent of proposed Jewish National Home in, 33, 45, 48, 53; fate of independent Arab state proposed by partition, 6, 86, 87–89; Jewish immigration to, 45, 48–49, 53, 55, 56, 64–65, 67, 73, 75, 302n.12.; Jewish statehood in, 45, 52, 58, 59–60, 65, 67, 68; nineteenth-century descriptions of, 16–17, 20, 297n.2; nineteenth-century travel to, 16–18, 19–20; Ottoman rule in, 22, 28; partition of, 60, 65–66, 74, 76, 77–78, 80 (see also United Nations, partition plan); population, 20, 31, 32, 35, 43, 48–49, 60, 65, 66; status of Arab self-determination in, 30–33, 66, 67, 88–89, 93, 131; U.S. government position on Jewish settlement in/partition of, 33–34, 59–60, 63, 64, 67; U.S. public support for Jewish settlement /statehood in, 19, 23–24, 43, 52–53, 54, 73
Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Smith), 233
Palestine Liberation Front, 263
Palestine Liberation Organization, 148, 152, 159, 160, 164, 165, 182,
― 383 ―237–39, 246, 268 (see also Palestinians; and specific member organizations, U.S. administrations, and peace agreements); acceptance of two-state solution, 142, 175, 179, 186, 208, 213, 238, 242, 250; allegiance of Palestinians to, 162, 215, 258, 272; Arab states press U.S. contacts with, 147, 203; Declaration of Independence (1988), 196, 238, 246, 259, 286; declared "sole legitimate representative" of Palestinians by Arab states, 141–42, 145, 153; and Lebanon, 205–6, 207, 209, 210, 211, 216–17, [325n.58]; negotiations with Bush administration, 257–59; organization and early days of, 114–15, 122; overtures to Israel/United States (see also Palestine Liberation Organization, Declaration of Independence), during Carter administration, 175–81, 185–86, 319n.64;—, during Nixon administration, 140–43, 314n.41;—, during Reagan administration, 8–9, 205, 208, 212–13, 231, 238, 240, 329n.131; Palestine National Charter and demands for amendment, 256, 283; pursuit of diplomacy over military action, 175; renunciation of terrorism, 153, 330n.134; response to Reagan Plan, 211–12, 214; terrorist acts by renegade PLO group, 235, 263; U.S. demands imposed for U.S.-PLO dialogue, 143–44, 148, 165, 175–76, 177–78, 235, 238–39, 329n.118, 330n.134; U.S. failure to probe PLO overtures, 140–41, 142, 155–56, 208–9, 211–12, 213–14, 236, 239, 240–41, [324n.48]; U.S.-PLO dialogue during Bush administration, 255, 257, 263, 264, [332–33n.36], [333n.37]; U.S. refusal to deal with, 125, 143–44, 153–56, 190, 213, 234–35 (see also Sinai II agreement); use of terrorism, 128, 138, 140, 152, 183, 235; viewed as Soviet agent, 125, 128–29, 132, 195–98, 200Palestine National Council, 142, 175, 238, 250, 283
Palestinian guerrillas. See fedayeen
Palestinian-Israeli conflict. See separate listings
Palestinian issue as heart of Arab-Israeli conflict, 117, 123, 125, 142, 147–49, 153, 155, 167
Palestinians (see also Palestine Liberation Organization; and specific administration policies): alleged broadcast orders to leave Palestine, 4–5, 85, 295n.12; Christians, 21, 23, 32, 70; cross-border raids into Israel, 98, 100, 115, 122, 127–28, 152; dispossession and ?ight in 1948, 1, 2, 3, 5–6, 83, 84–85, 90, 155, 231; early nationalism, 22, 43–44, 58, 303n.42; growing frustration over stalled 1990 peace process, 262–64; growing international awareness of as political issue, 122–23, 125, 139, 141–42, 144–45, 147–49, 152–53, 192; growing U.S. public support for Palestinian statehood, 231–32, 266; increased activism/sense of nationalism following 1967 war, 117, 122; Islamic fundamentalism among, 262, 277; opposition to partition of Palestine, 66, 76–78, 92–93; opposition to Zionism, 32, 35, 36, 39, 42, 49, 53, 65, 301n.58; perceived immorality of for opposing Israel, 93; political invisibility of, 2, 3, 7–9, 24–25, 30, 31, 33, 53;—, during British Mandate, 42–44, 60, 82;—, following defeat in 1948, 62, 82–84, 90–91, 92–94;—, in 1950s and 1960s, 95, 97–98, 100, 102, 113–17; poor political organization/public relations, 22, 42–44, 56–59, 76, 151–52,
― 384 ―285–86, [305–6n.52]; refugees from 1948 war, 84–85, 89–91, 94, 99–100, 103, 105, 117; relations with Arab states, 95, 100, 105–6, 114–16, 141, 178, 179; status of self-determination for, since 1948, 142, 147, 149, 164, 166, 175, 177, 179–80, 184, 186, 188, 213, 234, 279; U.S. attempts to ?nd West Bank alternative to PLO, 214, 249, 257–58, 290; U.S. public perceptions of, 2, 5, 37, 76, 183 (see also Arabs, U.S. public perceptions of);—, during partition debate and immediately after, 76–78, 86;—, following upsurge in terrorism, 152–53;—, in 1950s and 1960s, 102–4, 117–21;—, in 1980s and during intifada, 223, 231–32;—, in nineteenth century, 16–25;—, as result of peace process, 243, 269–70, 275–76Palestinian state, 164, 208, 231–32; U.S. opposition to, 40, 87–88, 90, 140, 161, 162, 177, 179–80, 182, 207, 256
Palestinian Students' Union, 115
pan-Arabism, 58, 105, 115–16, 303n.42
Pappé, Ilan, 6, 232–33, 328n.112
Paris Match, 179
Parker, Richard, 12–13, 126
Pasha, Nuqrashi, 65
peace process, 135–36, 140, 145–46 (see also specific agreements and processes); Bush administration efforts to bypass PLO in, 257–58, 290; consequences of stalled 1990 peace process, 262–64, [334n.55]; early attitude toward involvement of Palestinians in, 139, 147, 148, 149, 155–56, 157–62, 165, 168, 172, 175–81; growing public support for in 1980s, 231–32; initial Bush administration mediation efforts, 257–60; 1989 Israeli West Bank/Gaza elections proposal, 257–59; Rabie-Quandt initiative (1988), 237–39; Reagan administration attitude toward, 199, 203, 234–36; Swedish initiative (1988), 237–39
Peel Commission, 88
Pelletreau, Robert, 257, [332–33n.36]
Peres, Shimon, 234–36, 276–77, 291
Peretz, Martin, 229, 327n.106, [336n.5]
Perle, Richard, 199, 201, [335n.74]
Persian Gulf crisis, 243, 255, 264, 268; atmosphere in aftermath of, 264–65
Peters, Joan, 225–27, 254, 327n.95
Peterson, Peter, 146
Philippines, 72
Pipes, Daniel, 199, 226, [326n.88]
Pipes, Richard, 199
PLO. See Palestine Liberation Organization
The PLO and the Politics of Survival (Miller), [332n.24]
Podhoretz, Norman, 199, 228–30, 327n.103
policymakers, U.S. (see also specific administrations, departments, and programs): failure to challenge preconceived assumptions, 1, 3, 9–13, 59–60, 61, 274–75; globalist vs. regionalist perspective, 10–11, 126–27, 134; ignorance of Palestinian situation/perspective, 1, 3, 8, 12, 26, 50, 58, 59–60, 92, 93, 95–96, 98, 100, 114, 115–16; impatience with history, 234; susceptibility to pro-Israeli pressures, 101–2; tendency to ignore history/expert advice, 11–13, 146–47; tendency to misjudge Israeli ?exibility, 61, 170, 171, 185, 259–60; tension between non-political careerists and politicians, 86, 134
The Politics of Defeat (Churba), [322n.17]
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, 128
Porath, Yehoshua, 226, 327n.94
post-Zionists. See scholarship on Palestinian-Israeli conflict, revisionist Israeli scholars
Presbyterian General Assembly, 30
press. See media
Protestant activity in Middle East. See missionaries in Middle East
public opinion polls, 82, 118, 120, 136, 171, 173, 193, 231–32, 234, 266 (see also specific polling organizations)
Quakers, 23
Quandt, William, 149, 160, 162, 164–65, 166, 245, 255, [317n.36], 328n.116; and Camp David process, 182–83, 187; on domestic constraints on Carter, 167, 180, 183; involvement in 1988 peace initiative, 237–39; on Persian Gulf crisis, 264
Rabie, Mohamed, 237–39
Rabin, Yitzhak, 10, 167–68, 271, 277, 280, 319n.71
Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, 327n.94
Reagan, Ronald, and administration of, 11, 111, 193, 194, 244, 249, 259–60, 279, 287, 288 (see also Shultz, George; and other officials); adherence to conventional wisdom, 197, 228, 239–41; anti-Palestinian view-point of, 195–96, 198, 200, 202–4, 214, 225; anti-Soviet viewpoint of, 196, 198–201, 203; belief Palestinian issue a distraction, 198, 199, 203; change of heart about Palestinians during 1982 Lebanon fighting, 206–7; disinterest in Palestinian autonomy negotiations, 199, 203, 204–5, 234; effort to exclude PLO from peace process, 234–36, 237; embroiled in Lebanon, 210–11, 218, 219, [325n.63]; establishment of dialogue with PLO, 196, 238–39, 241; failure to confront Israel over disagreements, 211, 214, 231, 237; globalist perspective of, 198, 200, 203, 234; influence of elite media on, 228–30; influence of pro-Israeli neoconservatism on, 195, 198–201, 228–29, [322n.17]; missed opportunities for peace, 196, 211–15, 234–36, 237, 239, 240–41; oblivious to new trends in public discourse, 231–34; occasional efforts to resolve Palestinian problem, 207, 208, 214; opposition to international peace conference, 235; orientation toward Israeli viewpoint, 195–202, 203–4, 212, 213–14, 218–19, 221, 222–23, 240–41, 242, 256; reaction to intifada, 236–37; Reagan beliefs and personal style, 196–97, [322–23n.25]; strong opposition to PLO, 195–96, 202–3, 205, 208–9, 213–16; support for/ failure to criticize Israeli anti-PLO moves, 195, 202, 204, 205–6, 209
Reagan Plan, 207–8, 222, 256; Arab response to, 210, 211–15; autonomy provisions of, 207–8; Israeli rejection of, 210, 211, 212; U.S. failure to pursue, 211–12, 214, 234
The Realities of American-Palestine Relations (Manuel), 84
refugee resettlement /repatriation efforts. See Palestinians, refugees from 1948 war; United States, refugee resettlement efforts
Reich, Bernard, 5, 288
Republican Party, 53, 71, 282
Resolution 242. See United Nations, Security Council Resolution 242
Retreat from Freedom (Churba), 200–201
revisionism. See scholarship on Palestinian-Israeli conflict, revisionist Israeli scholars
Ribicoff, Abraham, 220–21
Richardson, Bill, [337n.16]
Roche, John, 109
Rockefeller, John D., 24
Rogers, William, 124, 126, 127, 132
Rogers Plan, 127, 137
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 46, 47, 59, 86
Roosevelt, Franklin, 51–53, 59, 62, 67, 69, 109; background and beliefs, 45–46; failure to assist Jews during World War II, 46, 47; poor understanding of Palestine situation, 48–50, 55–56; support for Zionism, 46–50, 55; views on Arabs, 49–50
Rosenfeld, Stephen, 275
Rosenthal, A. M., 282
Ross, Dennis, 13, 249, [318n.51], [331n.18]; attitude toward Palestinians, 254–55, 258, [335n.67]; during Bush administration, 248, 251–53, 254, 270; during Clinton administration, 276, 277, 285; criticized by Likud in Israel, 256; misjudges Shamir's ?exibility, 259–60; proposes changes in territory-for-peace concept, 278–79
Rostow, Eugene, 109, 110–11, 112, 146, 201–2, [335n.74]
Rostow, Walt, 109, 110, 112
Rubinstein, Danny, 9
Rusk, Dean, 110, 125, 146
Sabra and Shatila massacre. See 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon
Sadat, Anwar, 179; and Carter, 168, 180; and Kissinger, 135, 147; negotiations with Israel, 178, 181; and Reagan, 203–4; role in changing U.S. public perceptions of Arabs, 125, 152, 173, 181, 192, 287
Saddam Hussein. See Hussein, Saddam
Safire, William, 130, 281, 282
Safran, Nadav, 146
Said, Edward, 3–4, 18, 286, 311–12n.72
Salamah, Ali Hassan, 314n.41
Samuels, Gertrude, 83
Sanders, Edward, 166
Sarid, Yossi, [337–38n.24]
Saudi Arabia, 31, 54–56, 105, 176, 179, 183, 197, 199, 203, 205, 213
Saunders, Harold, 10–11, 13, 86, 205, 221, 231; Carter administration, 158, 160, 161–62, 164–65, 188, [317n.36]; Nixon administration, 143, 147–49, 291, [318n.57]
Saunders Document, 147–49, 153, 155
A Savage War of Peace (Horne), 164
Savir, Uri, 292
Schifter, Richard, 199
Schindler, Alexander, 171, 172
scholarship on Palestinian-Israeli concflict, trends in (see also individual scholars): national Israeli debate sparked by, 232–33, 328nn.112, 113; revisionist Israeli scholars, 5, 6, 61, 85, 226–27, 232–33, 289, 328n.112; U.S. scholarship on Palestinians, 233, 328n.116
Scott, Sir Walter, 25
Scowcroft, Brent, 276
Scranton, William, 146
Seelye, Talcott, 129
Segev, Tom, 328n.112
self-determination. See Wilson, Woodrow; Palestine, status of Arab self-determination in; Palestinians, status of self-determination for, since 1948; Palestinian state
Shafir, Gershon, 289–90
Shaftesbury, Lord, 298n.29
Shah of Iran, 99
Shalev, Menachem, 223–24
Shamir, Yitzhak, 172, 235, 237, 268–69; and Bush administration, 242, 244, 261–62, 264, 266, 271, 272, [335n.61]; electoral defeat, 260, 267; maneuvering during 1989–1990 negotiating effort, 257–60
Shammas, Anton, 272–73
Sharabi, Hisham, 155
Sharon, Ariel, 205–6, 209, 216, 283, [323n.30]
Shechem. See Nablus
Sheehan, Edward, 147
Shin Bet, 173
Shlaim, Avi, 6, 61, 226–27, 328n.112
Shultz, George, 146, 213, 229–30; attitude/policies toward Israel, 209–10, 211, 214, 218–19, 256–57, 276; authorship of Reagan Plan, 207–8; early views/style of, 206–7, 209–10; effect of domestic pro-Israeli pressures on, 209, 214; frustration with Arabs, 210, 212, 214, 218; hostility to PLO, 208–9, 213–16, 234–36, 239, 240–41; obstacles imposed to dialogue with PLO, 238–39, 330nn.134, 135; policy/ actions toward Lebanon, 210–11, 214, 216; Shultz initiative (1988), 237
Silver, Abba Hillel, 52, 68
Sinai Peninsula, 96, 111, 116, 135
Sinai II agreement, 143–44, 146, 148, 149, 186; as defined by Ford administration, [318nn.55], [57]; as interpreted and augmented by Reagan administration, 196, 238–39, 329n.118, 330n.134; as interpreted by Carter administration, 165, 175–76, 178, 190, 319n.71
Six-Day War. See 1967 Arab-Israeli war
Smith, Charles, 233
South Africa, 170
Soviet Union, 111, 139, 141, 147, 264–65, 279; and 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 210; perceived impact of partition of Palestine on world role of, 67, 70, 79, 87; Reagan administration belief U.S. losing influence to, 198–201; relations with Arabs, 107, 108, 124, 126, 128–29, 135; U.S. efforts to thwart role of in Middle East, 125–29, 130, 134, 135; U.S.-Soviet communiqué (1977), 319n.65; U.S.-Soviet competition for influence, 79, 96, 98–99, 104, 174, 240; U.S.-Soviet summits (1972, 1973), [313n.36]
Sparkman, John, 114
Spiegel, Steven, 212, [316n.13]
Stephens, John Lloyd, 17, 20, 21
Stern Gang, 172
Stettinius, Edward, 55
Stone, I. F., 230–31
Stone, Oliver, 4
Stone, Richard, 165
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 17–18
Strauss, Robert, 166–67, 189, 204–5, 276
Suez Canal, 98, 102–3, 135
Suez crisis. See 1956 Arab-Israeli war
Sunday Times of London, 139
Sununu, John, [333–34n.49]
Sweden, 1988 peace initiative of. See peace process, Swedish initiative
Syria, 23, 29–30, 31, 33, 36, 131, 134, 135, 149, 151, 175, 207, 217 (see also al-Asad, Hafiz; Golan Heights); 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 210–11, [325n.63]; and Palestinians, 58, 84, 90, 115, 128–29, 178, 179
Syrian Protestant College. See American University of Beirut
The Talisman (Scott), 25
Tal al-Za'atar refugee camp, [325n.58]
Teicher, Howard, 201, 213, 219
television. See media
terrorism, 7, 124, 138, 152–53, 170, 172, 200, 230, 263, 277, 285 (see also Palestine Liberation Organization, use of terrorism)
Tessler, Mark, 43, 117, 194, 236
Thomson, William, 17, 20
Tillman, Seth, 186
Time, 193, 217, 269
Time-Yankelovich poll, 193
Transjordan. See Jordan
Truman, Harry, 55, 73, 96, 97; background and beliefs, 62–63, 67–68; ,brain trusts,- 70–71; influence of domestic politics on, 62–63, 67; influence of pro-Zionist advisers on, 67, 68–72, 79; lack of interest in Arab concerns, 63, 64, 65–66, 67; position on partition and recognition
― 388 ―of Israel, 66–67, 69–70, 72, 78, 79, 80, 91–92; proposal to allow Jewish immigration to Palestine, 64–65; pro-Zionist view of self-determination in Palestine, 66; relations with media, 78, 80; relations with State Department, 67–68; relations with Zionists, 68; support for Zionism/Israel, 62–68trusteeship plan for Palestine. See United Nations, trusteeship debate
Tuchman, Barbara, 226
Turkey, 23, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 38–39, 92
TV Guide, 192
Twain, Mark, 16–17, 20, 21, 297n.2
United Jewish Appeal, 73
United Nations, 60, 75, 86, 89, 111, 189–90, 279–80; anti-Israeli resolutions and U.S. vetoes of, 134, 262–63, 281–82, [337n.16]; General Assembly Resolution 194, 89, 100, 279; international desire to ensure credibility of during partition debate, 62, 67, 77–78, 79, 81; Israeli Likud interpretations of Resolution 242, 169–70, 183, 184; later Palestinian acceptance of partition as basis for peace, 213, 238; Palestinian reasons for opposing Resolution 242, 117, 143, 176, 178; partition plan, 65–66, 67, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78–79, 231; pro-Palestinian actions/resolutions, 142, 145, 153; Security Council Resolution 242, 116–117, 143, 165, 175–78, 184, 238, 311n.59; Security Council Resolution 338, 143; trusteeship debate, 69, 78–79, 80; UN Special Committee on Palestine, 75, 76–77, 79; U.S. alteration of territory-forpeace concept, 278–79, [336nn.8], [9]; U.S. position on various provisions of Resolution 242, 127, 131, 140, 169, 176, 182, 208
United States (government) (see also specific administrations, departments, and programs): acceptance of Israel's existence as fait accompli, 87, 90, 91, 92, 98; Arab perception United States has no control over Israel, 186, 212; change in immigration laws, [334n.51]; commitment to Balfour Declaration/Zionism, 33–34, 45, 54, 59–60, 66, 287; desire to preserve stability/status quo in Middle East, 62, 88, 96, 97–99, 135; effect of U.S. aid on Israeli willingness to compromise, 126, 133, 134, 145, 221–22, 235, 237, 254, 260, 281, 284; refugee resettlement efforts, 89–90, 99–101, 104–5, 113, 140; U.S. military and economic aid to Israel, 107–8, 110, 126, 132–33, 134, 145–46, 182, 218–19, 220, 237;—, during Bush administration, 261, 266, [335n.61];—, during Clinton administration, 281, 284, [337n.15]
UNSCOP. See United Nations, UN Special Committee on Palestine
U.S. Congress, 42, 47, 55, 149, 245, 264, 265, [314–15n.64]; antipathy toward/ignorance of Arabs, 53, 113, 168; arms sales to Arab states, 183, 197, 219; mandates move of U.S. embassy to Jerusalem, 281; pressures from pro-Israel lobbyists, 102, 137, 155, 168, 219, 220, 282, 284, [335n.62]; support for Israel, 97, 136, 145–46, 168, 173–74, 220–21, 222, 236–37, 242, 263, 282; supportfor Zionism, 36–37, 41, 45, 51–53, 59, 73
U.S. Defense Department, 87, 137
U.S. intelligence, 11, 112 (see also Central Intelligence Agency)
U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 87, 92
USS Quincy, 54
U.S. State Department, 9, 24, 33, 42, 55, 71, 84, 101, 102, 149, 180, 214, 238 (see also policymakers, U.S.;
― 389 ―and specific administrations); annual report on human rights, 172–73, [318n.47]; Arabists, 11, 23, 34–35, 50, 162, 201, 251, 252, [326n.77], [331n.18], [333–34n.49]; bypassed during Reagan administration, 201–2, 221, [326n.77]; during Kissinger era, 126–27, 129, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 146; line offices shut out under Baker, 251; obstruction of Jewish immigration during World War II, 46, 47–48, 51; Office of Near Eastern and African Affairs (also Division of Near Eastern Affairs, or Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs, or Near East Bureau), 24, 35, 51, 70, 251, 298–99n.37; policy on partition of Palestine, 67–68, 69, 70, 78–79, 80, 86–89; policy toward Zionism/ Palestine, 34–36, 50–51; views of Arabs/Palestinians, 36, 76, 88–89, 90Uris, Leon, 103–4, 227
Vance, Cyrus, 10–11, 146, 162, 163, 190, 243, 276; attitude toward Israel, 166, 168–69, 181–82, 183; efforts to resolve Palestinian problem, 165–66, 167, 175–77, 189–90, 320n.92; regionalist perspective on Middle East, 165; willingness to deal with PLO, 165
Vatikiotis, P. J., 226
Veliotes, Nicholas, 186–87, 205, 206, 207
Versailles Peace Conference, 23, 28, 29, 30, 36
Vietnam, 110, 111, 119, 140, 151, 199
Voyage en Orient (de Nerval), 21
Wagner, Robert, 51–52
Wall Street Journal, 9, 217, 283
Walters, Vernon, 140
War of Independence. See 1948 Arab-Israeli war
Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 220, 276, 279; access of to policymakers, 249; 1988 report, Israeli perspective of, 247–51, 252, 253, 255, 257
Washington Post, 9, 38, 173, 227, [322n.17]
Watergate scandal, 124
Wattenberg, Ben, 109
We Belong to the Land (Chacour), 269
Weinberger, Caspar, 200, [322n.18], [323n.33]
Weizman, Ezer, [318n.51]
Weizmann, Chaim, 28, 46, 49, 69, 79, 85–86
Welles, Sumner, 50–51
West Bank/Gaza, 8, 87, 88, 98, 149, 164, 167, 175, 211, 214 (see also Israel, ,Greater Israel- policy; Israeli settlements in occupied territories; and specific peace agreements); autonomy for (see Camp David accords, Palestinian autonomy plan; Reagan Plan); concept of transitional arrangement for, 176, 181–82, 184, 237; growing popular Israeli opposition to occupation, 204, 221, 260; Israeli occupation of, 9, 116–17, 122, 141, 152, 170, 171, 232, 262; Israeli treatment of Palestinians in, 160–61, 162, 172–73, 174, 193–94, 204, 215, 218, 229, 240, 253–54, 262–63, 280, [318n.47]; justifications for Israel's occupation of/settlements in, 110, 111, 201–2, [322n.23]; U.S. proposal to improve "quality of life" for Palestinians, 214, 236; West Bank/ Gaza uprising (see intifada)
Wiesel, Elie, 118, 120, 226
Wieseltier, Leon, 228
Will, George, 282, 283
Wilson, Woodrow, 8, 34, 35, 40, 45, 66, 106, 287; background and beliefs, 26–27, 299n.3; endorsement of Balfour Declaraton, 27–28, 33; influence of Protestant missionary
― 390 ―friends, 29; and principle of self-determination, 27, 30–33, 66; support for Zionist program, 27–28, 29, 33, 36, 41Wirthlin, Richard, 231–32
Wise, Stephen, 28, 46–47, 55
Wye agreement, 277, 283, 284–85
Yad Vashem, 119, 272
Yale, William, 36
Yom Kippur war. See 1973 Arab-Israeli war
Yost, Charles, 146
Young, Andrew, 190, 192
Zionist movement, 22, 25, 32 (see also specific organizations); connections to U.S. policymakers, 28, 30, 41, 45, 46–47, 59, 70–71; divisions in, 46, 52; inconsistency with self-determination in Palestine, 30–32, 50; leadership and organization in Palestine, 57–58, 71; relations with Congress, 36–37, 41, 45, 51–52, 59; relations with U.S. media, 78, 80, 81; romantic appeal of, 38, 39, 75–76, 78; U.S. membership, 41–42, 73; U.S. organizations and activities, 33, 34, 41–42, 51–52, 54, 59, 70–71, 72–74; U.S. public perceptions of, 36, 41, 42–43, 48, 53, 54, 82, 301n.56
Zionist Organization of America, 28, 37, 41–42, 46, 284