1. A previous selection of essays from this conference has appeared as a special edition of Diacritics, edited by Marc Redfield. Two of those essays (Weinstone's and Waller's) are reprinted here. Readers interested in essays of a literary and philosophical cast will want to examine Diacritics 27, 3 (fall 1997), as well as the present collection.

2. See Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983 [1976], 87–93. The entries "Aesthetic," "Art," and "Civilization," among others, are also of interest in this context. The quotations that follow in this paragraph are from the "Culture" entry. For a fuller account of and reflection on the rise of modern aesthetics, see Marc Redfield, Phantom Formations: Aesthetic Ideology and the Bildungsroman (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); and The Politics of Aesthetics: Nationalism, Gender, Romanticism (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002).

3. The OED does, however, record a case from 1779 in which Samuel Johnson speaks of an "addiction to tobacco"; it seems plausible that during the nineteenth century the word would occasionally have been used in a context in which its ancient sense of binding ("enslavement," "attachment," "devotion") was employed in relation to a substance we now call "addictive" (tobacco, alcohol, opium).

4. W. J. Rorabaugh, The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

5. For histories of drug use and policies see, for example, Virginia Berridge and Griffith Edwards, Opium and the People: Opiate Use in Nineteenth-Century England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987); H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History, 1800–1980 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1981); David F. Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); and for an excellent overview of changes in U.S. drug policies and the impacts on women, Stephen R. Kandall, Substance and Shadow: Women and Addiction in the U.S. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996).

6. For a history of late-nineteenth-century legal interventions in private sexual behavior, see Janet Farrell Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994).

7. Among the Wne historical studies of the development of addiction discourse, in addition to the studies cited above, see Barry Milligan, Pleasures and Pains; Opium and the Orient in Nineteenth-Century English Culture (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995) for a study focused more sharply on the ideological link between opium and the "orient" in nineteenth-century Britain. For current official definitions of "addiction," see ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992); and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

8. Much important work on addiction discourse has been influenced by the work of Michel Foucault: for an account of disciplinary society, see especially Foucault's Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977); on the "invention of sexuality" and the pathologization of identity, see above all Foucault's History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Random House, 1978). To varying degrees the work of Eve Sedgwick and Mark Seltzer cited below fall within the Foucaultian tradition.

9. The two wings of "culture" fold together in Richard Klein's Cigarettes Are Sublime (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), where the appeal of the cigarette, in both popular and elite contexts, is identified as "sublime"the aesthetic category that, in the Kantian tradition, is associated with acculturated taste. See Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. Werner S. Pluhar (Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing Co., 1987), section 29, "On the Modality of a Judgment about the Sublime in Nature": "In order for the mind to be attuned to the feeling of the sublime, it must be receptive to ideas.… It is a fact that what is called sublime by us, having been prepared through culture, comes across as merely repellent to a person who is uncultured and lacking in the development of moral ideas. Thus (as Mr. De Saussure relates) the good and otherwise sensible Savoyard peasant did not hesitate to call anyone a fool who fancies glaciered mountains" (124).

10. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, "Epidemics of the Will," in Tendencies (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 132.

11. See Jacques Derrida, "Plato's Pharmacy," in Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 61–171.

12. Jacques Derrida, "The Rhetoric of Drugs," trans. Michael Israel, in Points … Interviews, 1974–1994, ed. Elisabeth Weber, trans. Peggy Kamuf et al. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995), 236.

13. Avital Ronell, Crack Wars: Literature, Addiction, Mania (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 13, 40.

14. Sedgwick, 133–34.

15. Mark Seltzer, "Serial Killers (I)," differences 5, no. 1 (spring 1993): 101.

16. Ronald Bayer and Gerald M. Oppenheimer, eds., Confronting Drug Policy: Illicit Drugs in a Free Society (Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1993); various aspects of the global drug trade are discussed in Alfred W. McCoy and Alan A. Bock, eds., War on Drugs: Studies in the Failure of U.S. Narcotics Policy (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1992).

17. For a rigorous reading of the trope of war in this context, see Ronell, esp. 19; for a more recent study, see Dan Baum, Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure (Boston: Little, Brown, 1996).

18. William S. Burroughs, "Introduction: Deposition: Testimony Concerning a Sickness," in Naked Lunch (New York: Grove Press, 1966), xxxiv.

19. Karl Marx, Capital, trans. Ben Fowkes (New York: Vintage, 1977), 1:163. For the German, see Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Werke (Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1960), 23:85.

20. "Morphine becomes a biologic need like water and the user may die if he is suddenly deprived of it. The diabetic will die without insulin, but he is not addicted to insulin. His need for insulin was not brought about by the use of insulin. He needs insulin to maintain a normal metabolism. The addict needs morphine to maintain a morphine metabolism, and so avoid the excruciatingly painful return to a normal metabolism" (Burroughs, 239–40). This quotation and the following one are taken from the appendix to the Grove edition of Naked Lunch, "Letter from a Master Addict to Dangerous Drugs."

21. Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (New York: Routledge, 1993), xi.

22. See Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991).

1. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, "The Parasite," in Dracula's Brood, ed. Richard Dalby (New York: Dorset Press, 1987), 125. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

2. In an anonymous pamphlet written in 1845, for example, a man who claims to be a mesmerist confesses to having used his powers to elicit desire in the attractive women he treated: "Reader, let me tell you that to be placed opposite a young and lovely female, who has subjected herself to the process for the purpose of effecting a cure of some nervous affection or otherwise, to look into her gentle eyes, soft and beaming with confidence and trust, is singularly entrancing. You assume her hands, which are clasped in your own, you look intently upon the pupils of her eyes, which as the power becomes more and more visible in her person, evince the tenderest regard, until they close in dreamy and as it were spiritual affection.—Then is her mind all your own, and she will evince the most tender solicitude and care for your good. Your will then becomes not only as law to her, but it is the greatest happiness to her to execute your smallest wish.… Self is entirely swallowed up in the earnest regard that actuates the subject, and they will stop at no point beyond which they may afford you pleasure should you indicate it by thought or word." See The Confessions of a Magnetiser, Being an Expose of Animal Magnetism (Boston, 1845), 9–10.

3. Robert C. Fuller, Mesmerism and the American Cure of Souls (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982), 149. Of course, this transition was neither simple nor absolute. As many historians have shown, mesmerism was originally presented as a form of "cure," while later manifestations of hypnosis (as practiced by Freud, for example) were often feared as a form of enslavement as much as they

4. It would be wrong to assume, however, that Doyle is simply drawing on a much earlier model of mesmerism in which the mesmeriser was imagined to "impress" his own desires on the victim, for the form of desire he invokes in "The Parasite" was, by century's end, already being linked to the emergent technology of drug addiction.

5. Nathan Beman, Beman on Intemperance (New York, 1829), quoted in Harry Gene Levine, "The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America," Journal of Studies on Alcohol 39, no. 1 (1978): 156. See also Levine's essay, "The Alcohol Problem in America: From Temperance to Alcoholism," British Journal of Addiction 79 (1984): 109–19.

6. Virginia Berridge and Griffith Edwards, Opium and the People: Opium Use in Nineteenth-Century England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1987), 155.

7. Aside from the articles by Harry Gene Levine (note 5, above), see, for example, Mark Seltzer, "Serial Killers (I)," differences 5, no. 1 (spring 1993): 92–128, and Eve Sedgwick, "Epidemics of the Will," in Tendencies (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993). Avital Ronell's reading of Emma Bovary's addiction as "a kind of crash economy, an exorbitant expenditure with no reserve" also relies on the addict-as-consumer model. See her Crack Wars: Literature, Addiction, Mania (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 109. At the same time, a different school of criticism has claimed that addiction is not so much a generalizable pathology of market culture as it is a kind of utopian transcendence of the market. Derrida, for example, claims that what scares us about the addict is that he flouts the logic of the market by liberating desire from the rhythms of exchange, becoming in the process a kind of pure consumer who refuses to make desire productive of anything except more desire. In an interview on "The Rhetoric of Drugs," he argues, "We do not object to the drug user's pleasure per se, but we cannot abide the fact that his is a pleasure taken in an experience without truth.… The drug addict, in our common conception, the drug addict as such produces nothing, nothing true or real." As a consumer who produces nothing, the addict, according to Derrida, empties out the model of identity built on possession in order to Wnd the "ideal" self or "perfect body" that could resist "social oppression, suppression, and repression." Similarly, David Lenson argues that "what one is purchasing when one buys drugs … is the

8. Levine, "Discovery," 165.

9. Seltzer, 111–14.

10. Benjamin Ward Richardson, "The Physical Benefits of Total Abstinence or, Idiosyncrasy and Alcohol," in Temperance in All Nations: Papers from the World's Temperance Congress, vol. 2, ed. J. N. Stearns (New York: National Temperance Society Publications House, 1893), 217.

11. Henry Cole, Confessions of an American Opium Eater (Boston, 1895), 235.

12. In other words, even something as disruptive as the unconscious still depends on a basic notion of unity in which each desire, intention, and thought must be understood as originating in and thus defining the self, whether or not this self is imagined to be transparent to itself. After all, the unconscious always works to define what the individual "really" wants. Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen makes a version of this argument in The Freudian Subject when he claims that in Freud's theory of the unconscious "the same subject has and does not have access to a given representation, remembers and does not remember a given ‘scene,’ experiences and does not experience a given pleasure. In this sense, the cleavage or division of the subject that psychoanalysis keeps talking about takes place against a background of unity, a unitary subject." I am claiming that the model of addiction Doyle draws on in "The Parasite" explodes this presumed unity by describing a desire that literally comes from outside the self—a desire, therefore, that cannot define that self. See Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen, The Freudian Subject, trans. Catherine Porter (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1982), 6.

13. Moretti makes explicit the connection between his reading of Dracula and Marx's theory of how capital creates value: "Capital is dead labour which, vampire-like, lives only by sucking living labour, and lives the more, the more labour it sucks.’ Marx's analogy unravels the vampire metaphor. As everyone knows, the vampire is dead and yet not dead: he is Un-dead, a ‘dead’ person who yet manages to live thanks to the blood he sucks from the living. Their strength becomes his strength." See Franco Moretti, Signs Taken for Wonders: Essays in the Sociology of Literary Forms, trans. Susan Fischer, David Forgacs, and David Miller (New York: Verso, 1988), 91.

14. Jennifer Wicke, "Vampiric Typewriting: Dracula and Its Media," ELH 59 (1992): 476–79.

15. For an interesting history of the Trilby craze, see L. Edward Purcell, "Trilby and Trilby-Mania, The Beginning of the Bestseller System," Journal of Popular Culture 11, no. 1 (summer 1977): 62–76.

16. George Du Maurier, Trilby (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 78, 80, 63. All further references will be cited parenthetically in the text.

17. See Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 189, 194, 188.

18. Bram Stoker, Dracula (New York: Penguin Books, 1979), 37. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

19. Moretti, 103.

20. Stephanie Demetrakopoulos, "Feminism, Sex Role Exchanges, and Other Subliminal Fantasies in Bram Stoker's Dracula," Frontiers 2, no. 3 (1977): 106. See also Kathleen L. Spencer, "Purity and Danger: Dracula, the Urban Gothic, and the Late Victorian Degeneracy Crisis," ELH 59 (1992): 197; Phyllis A. Roth, "Suddenly Sexual Women in Bram Stoker's Dracula," Literature and Psychology 27 (1977): 113–21; Judith Weissman, "Women and Vampires: Dracula as a Victorian Novel," Midwest Quarterly 18 (1977): 392–405; C. F. Bentley, "The Monster in the Bedroom: Sexual Symbolism in Bram Stoker's Dracula," Literature and Psychology 22 (1972): 27–34; and Anne Williams, "Dracula: Si(g)ns of the Fathers," Texas Studies in Literature and Language 33, no. 4 (winter 1991): 445–63. For readings that argue that the novel represents the repression of a specifically homosexual desire, see Christopher Craft, "Kiss Me with Those Red Lips’: Gender and Inversion in Bram Stoker's Dracula," Representations 8 (fall 1984): 107–33; Marjorie Howes, "The Mediation of the Feminine: Bisexuality, Homoerotic Desire, and Self-Expression in Bram Stoker's Dracula," Texas Studies in Literature and Language 30, no. 1 (spring 1988): 104–19; and Talia Schaffer, "A Wilde Desire Took Me’: The Homoerotic History of Dracula," ELH 61 (1994): 381–425. For a critique of the sexual repression model, see Robert Mighall, "Sex, History and the Vampire," in Bram Stoker: History, Psychoanalysis, and the Gothic, ed. William Hughes and Andrew Smith (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), 62–77.

21. Moretti, 104.

22. In the work of Deleuze and Guattari, the "body without organs" is imagined to be a circuit through which desire flows rather than desire's point of origin. Although I am certainly indebted to their claims, I am not interested in making similar arguments against a strict Oedipal model of subjectivity; I am arguing instead that this anti-identity model actually emerged at the same moment as the Freudian one and that it was not imagined to be an antidote to but to be in competition with this model. See Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983).

23. Wicke, 478.

24. On Dracula and empire, see Stephen Arata, "The Occidental Tourist: Dracula and the Anxiety of Reverse Colonization," Victorian Studies 33, no. 4 (summer 1990): 621–45; Judith Wilt, "The Imperial Mouth: Imperialism, the Gothic, and Science Fiction," Journal of Popular Culture 14, no. 4 (spring 1981): 618–28; Judith Halberstam, Skin Shows: Gothic Horror and the Technology of Monsters (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995); Daniel Pick, "Terrors of the Night’: Dracula and Degeneration in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Reading Fin de Siècle Fictions, ed. Lyn Pykett (New York: Longman Addison Wesley Ltd., 1996), 149–65; David Glover, Vampires, Mummies and Liberals: Bram Stoker and the Politics of Popular Fiction (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996); and Wicke.

25. Frank Norris, "A Reversion to Type," The Third Circle (New York: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1928), 44. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

26. In some respects, this image of a man overwhelmed by passion looks like a typical Naturalist dynamic. But in the context of my argument, this power of desire to overwhelm the personality is linked specifically to the personality of the ancestor—a model of identity that Norris shares, in varying degrees, with writers as different as Pauline Hopkins and Henry James.

27. Henry James, The Sense of the Past (1917; reprint, Fairfield, N.J.: Augustus M. Kelley, Publishers, 1976), 97. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

28. Pauline Hopkins, Of One Blood; or, The Hidden Self, in The Magazine Novels of Pauline Hopkins (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 551. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

29. My reading of race at the turn of the century owes much to Walter Benn Michaels's account of racial identity in Our America. My argument differs from his, however, in that the model of possession I am describing is not uniquely racial, but rather is a technology for creating nonmarket identity in a variety of different ways. Indeed, race is only one example of a model that produces, among other things, addiction and celebrity. See Walter Benn Michaels, Our America: Nativism, Modernism, Pluralism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995).

30. Susan Gillman, "Pauline Hopkins and the Occult: African-American Revisions of Nineteenth-Century Sciences," American Literary History 8, no. 1 (spring 1996): 73, 78.

31. Thomas J. Otten, "Pauline Hopkins and the Hidden Self of Race," ELH 59 (1992): 229, 230, 248. Although Cynthia Schrager notes that Hopkins embraces a "deterministic notion of racial identity by the end of the novel," she suggests that this reliance on "blood" enables Hopkins to "reestablish a network of kinship ties to family and ancestors that at least potentially may enable the formation of a Pan-African community capable of collective resistance and change." See Schrager's "Pauline Hopkins and William James: The New Psychology and the Politics of Race," in Female Subjects in Black and White: Race, Psychoanalysis, Feminism, ed. Elizabeth Abel, Barbara Christian, and Helene Moglen (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997), 314, 322.

32. Benjamin Rush Davenport, Blood Will Tell: The Strange Story of a Son of Ham (New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), 50, 250, 301–2.

33. Otten, 255 n. 38.

34. W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: New American Library, 1969), 45.

35. For a more detailed discussion of the noncontractual subject of privacy, see my "The Public Life: The Discourse of Privacy in the Age of Celebrity," Arizona Quarterly 51 (summer 1995): 81–101.

1. Stanton Peele with Archie Brodsky, Love and Addiction (New York: Signet, 1975), 182. Further references appear in the text.

2. Widely cited estimates of the number of alcoholics in America, for instance, have ballooned from four to Wve million in the 1960s to more than twenty million by the 1980s—though these estimates have been questioned by some researchers (see Don Cahalan, Understanding America's Drinking Problem: How to Combat the Hazards

Speculative estimates are even more common in the new addiction treatment industries. According to Edward Armstrong, the executive director of the National Association on Sexual Addiction Problems, somewhere between 10 and 25 percent of Americans have "a sexual addiction that requires treatment" (quoted in Stanton Peele, Diseasing of America: Addiction Treatment Out of Control [Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993], 115). Accurate or not, such estimates have led to increased treatment. The percentage of Americans in treatment for alcoholism was twenty times higher in 1976 than in 1942 and it has increased steadily ever since (Peele, Diseasing, 49; C. M. Weisner and R. Room, "Financing and Ideology in Alcohol Treatment," Social Problems 32 [1984]: 167–84). As might be expected, the number of treatment facilities and support groups for both traditional problems such as alcoholism, and new pathologies like "shopping addiction" has increased dramatically (Peele, Diseasing, 46–52, 115–43).

3. As William S. Burroughs noted in 1956, "We speak of addiction to candy, coffee, tobacco, warm weather, television, detective stories, crossword puzzles" (William S. Burroughs, "Appendix," Naked Lunch [New York: Grove, 1959], 239).

4. David Foster Wallace, Infinite Jest (Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), 200–5.

5. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, "Epidemics of the Will," in Incorporations, ed. Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter (Cambridge, Mass.: Zone/MIT Press, 1992), 584. For a similar discussion in the context of much larger questions about homosexuality and "homosexual panic," see Sedgwick's Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), esp. 171–78.

6. "Possessive individualism," in C. B. Macpherson's classic account, derives from the political philosophy of Hobbes and Locke and rests on the notion that "every man is naturally the sole proprietor of his own person and capacities (the absolute proprietor in that he owes nothing to society for them)" (C. B. Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962], 270). In this model, individuals owe nothing to an abstractly conceived society because they are "self-made" rather than socially constructed; they possess unique attributes in the form of internal "property"; and their autonomy is guaranteed by the ability to exchange property in the open market.

7. Richard H. Blum, "On the Presence of Demons," Society and Drugs: Social and Cultural Observations, ed. Richard Blum and Associates. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969), 327.

8. Cultural historians have long argued that anxieties about individual liberty and self-control are enmeshed in U.S. culture. Richard Hofstadter's classic essay, "The Paranoid Style in American Politics," demonstrates that anxieties about hidden forms of corporate and government control have been a staple feature of American culture since the colonial period. "The distinguishing thing about the paranoid style," writes Hofstadter, "is not that its exponents see conspiracies or plots here and there in history, but that they regard a ‘vast’ or ‘gigantic’ conspiracy as the motive force

9. Peele, Diseasing of America, 232–33.

10. See David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950).

11. F. C. [a.k.a. the "Unabomber"], "Industrial Society and Its Future" (online at http:/wwfreepress.com/unaba.html, rev. online 15 May 1999 at http:/readroom. ipl.org/bin/ipl/ipl.books-idx.pl?type=entry&id=3638.), 203. In 1996, the so-called Unabomber—whom the FBI suspected of a series of mail-bombings against industrialists and scientists—published a "manifesto" in The Washington Post on Sept. 19, 1995, under the pen name "F.C." This monograph consists of 230 numbered paragraphs. My references denote these paragraphs, not page numbers. Much of the Unabomber manifesto, which the mainstream press often described as the work of an antisocial lunatic, is squarely in the tradition of American individualism that begins roughly with Thoreau and runs through recent critiques of technological rationalization, bureaucracy, and social control. When the Unabomber suggests that "too much control is imposed by the system through explicit regulation or through socialization, which results in a deficiency of autonomy" (85), he could be quoting a number of popular postwar texts. Herbert Marcuse's conclusion, for instance—that individuals suffer a deficiency of autonomy and become "one-dimensional"is similar to the Unabomber's complaints about the "oversocialized" subjects of postindustrial America. It is worth noting, too, that Marcuse's concept of social "introjection" relies on the same metaphysics of internal and external control that underwrites the rhetoric of addiction. See Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon, 1964), 9.

12. This term comes from Richard Slotkin's classic study of the American frontier, Regeneration Through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973).

13. Scott Bukatman's excellent study of postmodern science Wction (Terminal Identity: The Virtual Subject in Postmodern Science Fiction [Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993]) centers on radically reimagined forms of human (and humanoid) subjectivity. The term "terminal identity" itself comes from Burroughs's Nova Express (New York: Grove Press, 1964), 19.

14. Burroughs, Naked Lunch, vi. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

15. The Letters of William S. Burroughs, 1945–1959, ed. Oliver Harris (New York: Viking, 1993), 365. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

16. As Tony Tanner points out, "We are all agents,’ is one of Burroughs's sayings" (116).

17. Philosopher Charles Taylor's account of human agency often mobilizes the traditional opposition between human agency and addiction. See "What Is Human Agency?" in Human Agency and Language: Philosophical Papers I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), esp. 21–22.

18. Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. I, trans. Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling, rev. Ernest Untermann (New York: Modern Library, 1906), 81–82. In Marx's view, the commodity is "a mysterious thing, simply because in it the social character of men's labour appears to them as an objective character stamped upon the product of that labour" (83). To illustrate this point, Marx personifies commodities (81–82) and imagines what would happen "could commodities themselves speak" (95).

19. William S. Burroughs, Junky (1953; reprint, New York: Penguin, 1977), 22. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

20. Jacques Derrida, "The Rhetoric of Drugs," trans. Michael Israel, differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 5, no. 1 (1993): 7.

21. Jean Cocteau, Opium: The Diary of a Cure, trans. Margaret Crosland and Sinclair Road (French original, 1929; English trans., London: Peter Owen, 1957), 73.

22. Avital Ronell, Crack Wars: Literature, Addiction, Mania (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 45.

23. Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (German original, 1927; English trans., New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 196.

24. Derrida, "Rhetoric," 6.

25. William S. Burroughs, "The Invisible Generation," in The Ticket that Exploded (New York: Grove, 1967), 213. Further references to both Ticket and "Invisible" appear parenthetically in the text.

26. Jacques Derrida, "Plato's Pharmacy," in Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 101. On the notion of writing as "organism," see 79 in the same volume.

27. Derrida, "Rhetoric," 14–17.

28. On the cut-up technique and Burroughs's control theories, see Barry Miles, William Burroughs: El Hombre Invisible (New York: Hyperion, 1993), 111–28; Ted Morgan, Literary Outlaw: The Life and Times of William S. Burroughs (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1988), 321–23, 338–41; Timothy Murphy, Wising Up the Marks: The Amodern William Burroughs (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press), 103–7, 135–41; David Porush, The Soft Machine, 101–4; and Tanner, 131–

29. In a 1963 interview, Burroughs claimed that large organizations such as Time/Life magazines and the CIA controlled a powerful hoard of "words and images" that even their human heads (Henry Luce, for instance) had "no control over" (quoted in Miles, 130).

30. William S. Burroughs, The Soft Machine (1961; rev. ed., New York: Grove, 1966), 89.

31. William S. Burroughs, Exterminator! (New York: Penguin, 1973), 6.

32. William S. Burroughs, "Appendix," Soft Machine (1961; rev. ed., London: Calder, 1968). Quoted in Miles, 120.

33. Donna Haraway sets out the distinctions between "postmodern" biology and previous models of the self in "A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century," in Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991), 149–81.

34. Donna Haraway, "The Biopolitics of Postmodern Bodies," in Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1991), 212, 207.

35. See Marvin Minsky, Society of the Mind (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985). For commentary on this model, see Daniel Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991); and Francisco Varela, Even Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch, The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press), esp. chap. 6. The latter text offers a positive alternative to Minsky's view and to the problems I am tracing here.

36. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 283, 20. Scott Bukatman offers an interesting discussion of the relation between Burroughs's Wction and the notion of "the body without organs" in Terminal Identity (see esp. 325–28).

37. Haraway, "Biopolitics," 215, 212.

38. Richard Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype: The Gene as the Unit of Selection (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 264, 254, 210, 39.

39. Haraway, "Biopolitics," 217.

40. William S. Burroughs, Queer (New York: Penguin, 1985), xxii. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

41. For several eyewitness accounts of this event, see Morgan, 194–97.

42. The misogynist strain of these writings is nowhere so evident as when Burroughs attempts to defend himself against charges of misogyny. See, for instance, his short essay, "Women: A Biological Mistake?" in The Adding Machine: Selected Essays (New York: Arcade, 1985), 125–27. For a more detailed account of Burroughs's misogyny than I can give here, see Murphy.

43. Sigmund Freud, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, trans. and ed. James Strachey, vol. 6, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (German original, 1904; English trans., London: Hogarth, 1953–74), 259.

44. Freud, 258.

45. William S. Burroughs, "On Coincidence," in The Adding Machine: Selected Essays (New York: Arcade, 1985), 99. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

46. Gregory Bateson, "The Cybernetics of ‘Self’: A Theory of Alcoholism," Steps to an Ecology of Mind (New York: Ballantine, 1972), 329.

47. Bateson, "Cybernetics," 331.

48. Gregory Bateson, "Conscious Purpose Versus Nature," Steps to an Ecology of Mind (New York: Ballantine, 1972), 461.

49. William S. Burroughs, "The Limits of Control," in The Adding Machine: Selected Essays (New York: Arcade, 1985), 117. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

50. William S. Burroughs, "Sexual Conditioning," in The Adding Machine: Selected Essays (New York: Arcade, 1985), 87.

51. See Letters of William S. Burroughs, 68–69, 85–86, 88–89, and 115–16.

52. Sedgwick, "Epidemics of the Will," esp. 589. See also Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley, vol. 1 (New York: Vintage, 1978), esp. 42–43.

53. Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: David McKay, 1957), 239–

54. Quoted in Packard, 239–40.

55. Packard, 240.

56. Packard, 239. Like Riesman, though more melodramatically, Ellul suggests that psychological collectivization, which is epitomized by advertising, will "implant in [the individual] a certain conception of life" (Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkinson [New York: Vintage, 1964], 406).

57. Packard, 107.

58. Packard, 107.

59. Packard, 107–8. Citations from Packard here are chapter titles. Others chapters with similar implications include "Babes in Consumerland," "Back to the Breast, and Beyond," "The Engineered Yes," and "The Packaged Soul?" Stanton Peele draws the same kind of connection between drugs and large social institutions. Drugs, he says, "also drew the ire of the bureaucratic institutions which were growing up alongside of opiates in America—institutions which exercised a similar type of power psychologically to that of the narcotics, and with which, therefore, the drugs were essentially competing" (Peele, Love and Addiction, 37).

60. Tanner, 118.

61. Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Da Capo, 1950), 11–12. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

1. Thomas De Quincey, "The English-Mail Coach," in The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey, 14 vols., vol. 13, ed. David Masson (New York: AMS, 1968), 13:270–330, 322. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

2. Claudia L. Johnson, Equivocal Beings: Politics, Gender, and Sentimentality in the 1790s —Wollstonecraft, Radcliffe, Burney, Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 105.

3. See my "Techniques of Terror, Technologies of Nationality: Ann Radcliffe's The Italian" (ELH 61 [1994]: 853–76) for an extended consideration of the connection between Gothic Wctions of the 1790s and English nationality.

4. Thomas De Quincey, "Suspiria de Profundis," in The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey, 14 vols., vol. 13, ed. David Masson (New York: AMS, 1968), 13:331–69, 352. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

5. For other literary models from which De Quincey borrowed, see especially the remarkable passage in "Suspiria de Profundis" in which De Quincey makes an extended analogy between a palimpsest and the human mind. The palimpsest features a "Grecian tragedy" overwritten by a "monkish legend," which is in turn overwritten by a "knightly romance." These three genres—tragedy, legend, and

6. For a representative journal entry, consider this excerpt from 1803: "Last night I imagined to myself the heroine of the novel dying on an island of a lake.… Last night too I image myself looking through a glass. ‘What do you see?’ I see a man in the dim shadowy perspective and (as it were) in a dream.… There is something gloomily great in him; he wraps himself up in the dark recesses of his own soul.… I image too a banquet or carousel of feodal magnificence—such as in Schiller's Ghost-Seer, in ye. middle of which a mysterious stranger should enter, on whose approach hangs fate and the dark roll of many woes, etc." (quoted in V. A. De Luca, Thomas De Quincey: The Prose of Vision [Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980], 4). For an extensive list of De Quincey's early reading in the Gothic, see his Diary, ed. Horace A. Eaton [1803; reprint, London: Noel Douglas, 1927], 215–52).

7. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, The Coherence of Gothic Conventions (New York: Methuen, 1986), 7.

8. Sedgwick, 44. As in Radciffe and Lewis, for instance, De Quincey had an obsession with secret murders and societies for accomplishing them (see Alethea Hayter, Opium and the Romantic Imagination [Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968], 245–46). As in Maturin's Melmoth the Wanderer, De Quincey frequently expresses a terror of crowds ("the human face tyrannized over my dreams" [Confessions, 1822, 81]). The full catalog of "Gothic conventions" listed by Sedgwick may be found throughout De Quincey's writings.

9. Sedgwick, 49.

10. Nigel Leask discusses the medicalizing and pathologizing of biographical subjects in De Quincey. See his British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 178–79.

11. On Russ's use of the term "Shadow-Male," see Tania Modleski, Loving with a Vengeance: Mass-Produced Fantasies for Women (1982; reprint, New York and London: Routledge, 1988), 79.

12. As F. S. Schwarzbach has argued, such a vision reveals a sense of London as quite literally foreign, an unknown and threatening terra incognita. (See "Terra Incognita’An Image of the City in English Literature, 1820–1855," in The Art of Travel: Essays on Travel Writing, ed. Philip Dodd [London: Frank Cass, 1982], 65–67.) Later, scenes of architectural terror would come to dominate De Quincey's opium dreams. As he writes, "With the same power of endless growth and self-reproduction did my architecture proceed in dreams" (Confessions, 1822, 106). J. Hillis Miller calls the sensation evoked by scenes such as this one the "Piranesi effect" after Piranesi's Carceri sketches, which were apparently known to De Quincey through Coleridge's description of them (Miller, The Disappearance of God: Five Nineteenth-Century Writers [1963; reprint, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press], 67; see also Hayter, 248).

13. On mass society, see John Barrell, The Infection of Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology of Imperialism (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991), 4–5.

14. This is, in essence, J. Hillis Miller's understanding of De Quincey. Miller, however, attributes a source for this sense of catastrophe: the death of De Quincey's sister, Elizabeth, which, writes Miller, "colors all his existence thereafter" (19). My focus is not on the supposed origin of De Quincey's inevitable narrative of catastrophe (which is also a narrative of inevitable catastrophe), but on the uses to which such a narrative was put in providing a plot both for De Quincey himself and for the English nation.

15. Michelle A. Massé, In the Name of Love: Women, Masochism, and the Gothic (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), 40–72.

16. Perhaps the most resonant use of "pariah" occurs in a footnote that De Quincey appended to the second part of "Suspiria," entitled "Levana and Our Ladies of Sorrow," when it appeared in Blackwood's Magazine in June 1845: "The reader who wishes at all to understand the course of these Confessions ought not to pass over this dream-legend.… Its importance to the present Confessions is this,— that it rehearses or prefigures their course. This FIRST Part belongs to Madonna. The THIRD belongs to the ‘Mater Suspiriorum,’ and will be entitled The Pariah Worlds" ("Suspiria," 13:369n).

17. As De Quincey writes of himself in the 1856 version of Confessions, it is as if he were possessed by "some overmastering Wend, … some oestrus of hidden persecution that bade [him] fly when no man pursued" (338).

18. That the Sphinx should pose the question of the Incommunicable, and that a lion should conquer him without a struggle, is perhaps of a piece with De Quincey's intense phobia of large cats. For an extended treatment of this phobia, see the chapter in Barrell entitled "Tigridiasis: Tipu's Revenge" (48–66). Barrell fails to mention a remarkable coincidence involving tigers in the First Opium War. After hostilities had begun, the Wrst large Chinese counterattack was carried out by troops wearing "tiger-skin caps": "The timing of the Chinese attack—a night assault on 10 March 1842—was decided in the event … by War Magic: the twenty-eighth day of the Wrst Chinese month (a Tiger month) and at the hour of the tiger (between 3 and 5 a.m.)" (Jack Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars [New York: Harcourt, 1975], 144).

19. Barrell's Infection of Thomas De Quincey treats De Quincey's fear of this pollution or "infection" compellingly and at great length.

20. As Joshua Wilner observes, "The drug's effect is to cut across or suspend the historical or organic continuity of the subject and institute in its place a depersonalized and detemporalized machinery of imaginative production" ("Autobiography and Addiction: The Case of De Quincey," Genre 14 [1981]: 493–503, 493). But, like the pharmakon that it is, opium also promises to avert such destabilization. Alina Clej notes: "His [De Quincey's] emphasis on ‘the most exquisite order, legislation, and harmony’ brought by the opium rapture is an attempt to preempt any danger of dissemination and dissipation of the self through the contagious influence of the (feminine, proletarian, or oriental) Other" (A Genealogy of the Modern Self: Thomas De Quincey and the Intoxication of Writing [Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995], xi). (On the pharmakon, see Jacques Derrida, "Plato's Pharmacy," in Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981]).

21. Virginia Berridge and Griffith Edwards, in Opium and the People: Opiate Use in

22. Barrell, Infection of Thomas De Quincey, 21. Such a logic of the simultaneous plausibility of opposed possibilities is typical of De Quincey. Note the rhetorical gymnastics of the following sentence, in which guilt is at once denied and admitted: "But, on the one hand, as my self-accusation does not amount to a confession of guilt, so, on the other, it is possible that, if it did, the benefit resulting to others, from the record of an experience purchased at so heavy a price, might compensate, by a vast overbalance, for any violence done to the feelings I have noticed, and justify a breach of the general rule" (Confessions, 1822, 30).

23. Barry Milligan observes in Pleasures and Pains: Opium and the Orient in Nineteenth-Century British Culture (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995): "Coleridge laid the foundation for a conception of opium as the medium of a retributive Oriental infection-invasion that not only threatens to dissolve the national identity of its user but also clouds some basic reference points for individual identity" (12). The peculiarly powerful anxieties and desires surrounding opium he attributes to the fact that "not only was it literally ingested by British bodies … but it also had a reputation for altering the consciousness of its user, and it is this dual force that prepares the ground for a cultural context in which to interpret opium and its attendant transformations as various forms of foreign invasion, invasions that are imagined in nineteenth-century British culture as simultaneously pleasurable and painful" (30). Berridge and Edwards locate the association of opium use in England with "moral as well as physical descent" in the antiopium movement of the last quarter of the nineteenth century (193); both Coleridge and De Quincey, however, betray a similar anxiety more than half a century earlier.

24. Marilyn Butler, Romantics, Rebel and Reactionaries: English Literature and its Background 1769–1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 74–75.

25. As Michael Cochise Young points out, such a displacement of blame is characteristic of De Quincey (55, 57); see also Maniquis, who argues that for De Quincey "the ‘real’ self floats within a stream of discontinuous selves, and it is always this real self that is innocent. Discontinuous selves mark the presence of guilt, which is always alien, never his" ("Lonely Empires: Personal and Public Visions of Thomas De Quincey," in Literary Monographs, vol. 8, ed. E. Rothstein and J. Wittreich [Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1976], 58).

26. I am grateful to Peter Stallybrass for calling my attention to Mulready's Train Up a Child; for a deft reading of the painting as well as an account of various contemporary reactions to it, see his essay, "Marx and Heterogeneity: Thinking the Lumpenproletariat," Representations 31 (1990): 69–95, 78.

27. See Nancy L. Paxton, "Mobilizing Chivalry: Rape in British Novels about the Indian Uprising of 1857," Victorian Studies 36 (1992): 7–8.

28. Stallybrass, 78.

29. On the linguistic implications of this scene, see also Leask, 209–13.

30. J. Elliot Bingham, Narrative of the Expedition to China, from the Commencement of the War to its Termination in 1842; with Sketches of the Manners and Customs of that Singular and Hitherto Almost Unknown Country (1^st ed., 1843; 2d ed., 2 vols., Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1972), xiii.

31. By 1821 there had been two official missions to China from the British Crown. Both missions had been sent by George III. The Wrst, in 1793, was led by Lord Macartney; the second, in 1816, was led by Lord Amherst. Neither was particularly successful at convincing the Chinese to deal directly with the British Crown— though De Quincey believed that both managed at least to convey British refusal to submit to the Chinese view of them as "barbarians" bearing tribute. Despite these political contacts, relations between the two countries were, from the start, almost entirely mercantile.

32. Maurice Collis, Foreign Mud: The Opium Imbroglio at Canton in the 1830s and the Anglo-Chinese War (1946; reprint, New York: W. W. Norton, 1968), 80.

33. Some indication of the volume of opium imported into China is provided by Collis, who writes that at the end of the eighteenth century two thousand chests of opium (each chest weighing 150 pounds) were sold to the Chinese annually; by 1825, the number had risen to nearly ten thousand chests; in 1836, to more than twenty-six thousand (64).

34. Beeching, 1–12; Jean Chesneaux, Marianne Bastid, and Marie-Claire Bergère, China from the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution, trans. Anne Destenay (New York: Pantheon, 1976), 53–56; Collis, 13–91; and Brian Inglis, The Opium War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1976).

35. Beeching, 36.

36. Chesneaux, Bastid, and Bergère, 62.

37. Beeching, 74–81; Chesneaux, Bastid, and Bergère, 63.

38. Collis, 295.

39. Beeching, 152–56; Chesneaux, Bastid, and Bergère, 65; and Inglis.

40. Arthur Cunynghame, The Opium War: Being Recollections of Service in China (1845; reprint, Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1972), 37.

41. J. Elliot Bingham, Narrative of the Expedition to China (1843; reprint, 2 vols., Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1972), I: 159. These comments, as well as De Quincey's, perhaps owe much to Reverend Sydney Smith's 1803 account. According to Smith, Malays are "the most vindictive and ferocious of living beings.… We cannot help thinking, that, one day or another, when they are more full of opium than usual, they will run amock from Cape Cormorin to the Caspian" (quoted in Leask, 209–10).

42. Peter Ward Fay, The Opium War 1840–1842 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 366.

43. David Masson, ed., The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey, vol. 14 (New York: AMS, 1968), 346.

44. Nigel Leask, John Barrell, and Robert Maniquis all discuss De Quincey's writings on the Opium Wars; see Leask, 208–28; Barrell 147–56; and Maniquis, 96–106.

45. The essay was published in June 1840 under the title "The Opium and the China Question." It was reprinted in the Collected Writings as "The Opium Question with China in 1840."

46. Beeching, 56.

47. Collis, 178.

48. As Leask writes, "The most disturbing element of De Quincey's dream

49. This nexus appears in various guises throughout the essay. In arguing that the Chinese are not to be believed when they claim that they seek to stop the opium trade for the benefit of their citizens, for instance, De Quincey proclaims: "This sudden leap into the anxieties of parental care is a suspicious fact against the Chinese government" ("The Opium Question," 14:167–68). The suggestion that the Chinese, as a nation, are not good parents is echoed in a later essay on China in which Chinese mothers are attacked: the one duty of such a mother, writes De Quincey, is to "teach to her children, as her earliest lesson in morality, some catechism of vengeance" (quoted in Barrell, 154).

50. Beeching, 16.

51. See also Beeching, 81. The incident involving the Lady Hughes also Wgures in an 1833 article in the Chinese Repository. The article's anonymous author, who Collis suggests was probably Jardine of Matheson, Jardine, and Co., concludes his discussion of the incident thus: "Has not the Chinese commerce of Great Britain been purchased with the blood of the gunner of the Lady Hughes? Has not his immolation up to this day remained unavenged? There is the smell of blood still" (quoted in Collis, 97).

52. On De Quincey's sense of the inevitable, eternal iteration of atrocities, see De Quincey, "The English Mail-Coach" 304; Miller, 193; Robert Lance Snyder, "Introduction" to Thomas De Quincey: Bicentenary Studies, ed. R. L. Snyder (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985), xvii–xxiv, xix.

53. James Hogg, "Introduction: The English in China," in The Uncollected Writings of Thomas De Quincey, ed. James Hogg, vol. 2 (1890; reprint, Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Library, 1972), 7.

54. Interestingly, as John Barrell has noted, some of De Quincey's predictions did, in fact, come true (152). There was the case of Captain Stead, who landed on the island of Chousan, which had been seized by the British early in the First Opium War. Stead did not know when he landed, however, that the island had since been returned; he was killed by angry Chinese (Beeching, 128). There were also two ships captured on Formosa (present-day Taiwan): one, a troop transport named the Nerbudda, is referred to by De Quincey in "The Chinese Question in 1857" (14:365; see also Barrell, 152); a second, which goes unmentioned, was named—eerily enough in light of Confessions —the Ann (Beeching, 137–38).

55. In the words of Alina Clej, "To posit and assert itself the subject has to exceed or lose itself." This consolidation of subjectivity by way of excess and transgression constitutes for Clej the principal instance of De Quincey's anticipation of modernity: "This prodigality, the extended play of defiance and impossible redemption, informs De Quincey's confessions and the texts of many of his modernist successors" (11).

56. The constellated concerns of opium, subjectivity, empire, and the Gothic recur frequently in texts throughout the nineteenth century, from Wilkie Collins's The Moonstone (1868) and Dickens's The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1870) to Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) and Arthur Conan Doyle's "The Man with the Twisted Lip" (1901).

57. Note the privileged position occupied by tea in the domestic idyll that De Quincey, immediately before embarking on the section of Confessions titled "The

58. Inglis, 198.

59. Leask, 5.

60. It was in India rather than China that the national victimization De Quincey anxiously predicted Wnally took place. Sepoy troops stationed at Meerut mutinied on May 10, 1857, Wring on their British officers and looting European homes before fleeing toward Delhi: the Indian Rebellion (or Sepoy Mutiny, as the British called it at the time) was underway. Of the various confused accounts of the rebellion that reached England in the weeks and months following the initial action, most electrifying were rumors of atrocities committed against Englishwomen and their children. On September 17, 1857, for instance, The Times reported: "Children have been compelled to eat the quivering flesh of their murdered parents.… Men in many instances have been mutilated and, before being absolutely killed, have had to gaze upon the last dishonour of their wives and daughters previous to being put to death" (quoted in Graham Dawson, Soldier Heroes: British Adventure, Empire and the Imagining of Masculinities [London and New York: Routledge, 1994], 87). Such scenes of carnage quickly assumed the shape of a veritable iconography, a collection of anecdotes and illustrations whose depictions of the rebellion focused with horrified fascination on the spectacle of white women and children menaced, tortured, or hacked to bits by swarthy sepoys. The suppression of the rebellion—which involved no small share of its own atrocities—was conceived less as a military solution to the politico-military crisis of a colony in revolt than as the only appropriate answer to the savaging of English innocents. In the aftermath of the rebellion, the Englishness De Quincey constructed in the pages of Confessions of an English Opium-Eater and in his essays on the Opium Wars, aggressive because fragile, grips the public imagination and shapes official policy toward India. As in the opium-eater's tableaux of victimization, depictions of the rebellion as Indian violation of English daughters, sisters, and mothers evoke by way of response a justly vengeful masculinity. To De Quincey himself such depictions were more than simply the vindication of his predictions, for his daughter Florence, her husband Colonel Richard Bairdsmith, and their young child were living in Delhi when it was captured by rebel troops (Grevel Lindop, The Opium-Eater: A Life of Thomas De Quincey [New York: Taplinger, 1981], 379, 383; Masson, 131). The boundaries between personal and national, textual and historical waver and collapse; the subject position demanded of the public by the iconography of the rebellion—that they witness outrages upon women as if they were those women's sons, brothers, or fathers—is precisely reproduced in De Quincey's relation toward his own daughter and grandchild. Inevitably, De Quincey draws on his private torment in order to fashion a public call to action in the form of a series of essays on the situation in India, all published in James Hogg's Titan: "Hurried Notices of Indian Affairs" (September 1857), "Passing Notices of Indian Affairs" (October 1857), and "Suggestions upon the Secret of the Mutiny" (January 1858). (On the Indian Rebellion

1. M. P. Shiel, "The House of Orven," in The Eighteen-Nineties, ed. Martin Secker (London: The Richards Press, 1948), 447.

2. Arthur Conan Doyle, The Sign of Four (New York: Penguin Books, 1982), 7.

3. Arthur Conan Doyle, "The Man with the Twisted Lip," in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes, ed. Richard Lancelyn Green (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 124.

4. Arthur Conan Doyle, "The Yellow Face," in The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes, ed. Christopher Roden (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 53.

5. Hugh C. Weir, "The Man with Nine Lives," in Crime on Her Mind, ed. Michele B. Slung (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975), 140.

6. Shiel, 448.

7. Doyle, Sign of Four, 94.

8. Wilkie Collins, The Moonstone (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969), 67.

9. Ashish Roy, "The Fabulous Imperialist Semiotic of Wilkie Collins’ The Moonstone," New Literary History 24 (1993): 658.

10. Unlike Barry Milligan (Pleasures and Pains: Opium and the Orient in Nineteenth-Century English Culture [Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995], 93), Nigel Leask distinguishes between pollution from the outside and homeopathic defense (like "Chinoiserie") which he deploys in an inoculation model of culture (Leask, British Romantic Writers and the East: Anxieties of Empire [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992], 8).

11. Collins, 420.

12. Milligan, 68.

13. Sax Rohmer, Tales of Chinatown (New York: A. L. Burt Company, 1922), 14–15.

14. Charles Dickens, The Mystery of Edwin Drood (London: Oxford University Press, 1956), 3. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

15. Doyle, "Man with the Twisted Lip," 123, 140–41.

16. Robert Crooks has noted the curious isolation of all colonial traces in detective Wction that suspend them from our ideological attention. He Wnds the situation of the Hindus in The Moonstone to be paradigmatic ("Reopening the Mysteries: Colonialist Logic and Cultural Difference in The Moonstone and The Horse Latitudes," Lit 4, no. 3 (1993): 215–28, 217, 226).

17. Edgar Allan Poe, "A Tale of the Ragged Mountains," in Collected Works, ed.

18. John W. Bilsland, "De Quincey's Opium Experience," Dalhousie Review 55 (1975): 421.

19. Thomas Burke, The Ecstasies of Thomas De Quincey (London: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1928), 22.

20. Marek Kohn, Narcomania: On Heroin (London: Faber and Faber, 1987), 28.

21. Geoffrey Harding, Opium Addiction, Morality and Medicine (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988), 24.

22. Edgar Holt, The Opium Wars in China (London: Putnam, 1964), 101.

23. Karl Marx quoted in Colin Mackerras, Western Images of China (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 114.

24. Leigh Hunt, "Tea-Drinking," in Inspired by Drink, ed. Joan and John Digby (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1988), 335.

25. Holt, 36–37.

26. Samuel Johnson quoted in David Sanctuary Howard, New York and the China Trade (New York: The New York Historical Society, 1984), 22.

27. Zhang Longxi, "The Myth of the Other: China in the Eyes of the West," Critical Inquiry 15 (1988): 125.

28. Hugh Honour, Chinoiserie: The Vision of Cathay (London: John Murray, 1961), 201.

29. John Keay, The Honorable Company: A History of the English East India Company (London: Harper Collins, 1991), 359.

30. Virginia Berridge and Griffith Edwards, Opium and the People: Opiate Use in Nineteenth-Century England (London: A. Lane, 1981), 173–74.

31. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, On Colonialism (New York: International Publishers, 1972), 220.

32. Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China 1800–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), 104.

33. Holt, 64. See also Brian Inglis, The Opium War (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1976), 74. This was all in keeping with Britain's central role in the drug trade generally, because "by the late seventeenth-century over 95% of drug imports came through London" (Terry M. Parssinen, Secret Passions, Secret Remedies: Narcotic Drugs in British Society, 1820–1930 [Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983], 15).

34. Holt, 143. For recent accounts of the complexities of Anglo-Chinese relations leading to the Opium Wars, see Marshall Sahlins, "Cosmologies of Capitalism: The Trans-Pacific Sector of ‘The World System,’ in Culture/Power/History: A Reader in Contemporary Social Theory, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks et al. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993), 412–55; and Cannon Schmitt, Alien Nation: Nineteenth-Century Gothic Fictions and English Nationality (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997), 65–75.

35. Holt, 152. "Along the China coast itself the traffic was conducted with a guardedness that was little short of stealth. The word ‘opium’ disappeared from the instructions Matheson sent his skippers. When he absolutely had to specify types and quantities, he clothed them in the nomenclature of the cotton textile trade, Patna becoming ‘whites,’ Benares ‘greys,’ and Malwa ‘chintzes.’ Correspondents in England

36. Nathan Allan, The Opium Trade; Including a Sketch of Its History, Extent, Effects, etc. (Lowell, Mass.: James P. Walker, 1853), 51. A curious instance of this disappearing act is found in De Quincey who single-handedly transformed opium-eating from an Oriental to an English vice. He wrote on opium twice: Wrst in The Confessions in 1821 where he praises opium as a miracle substance and again in 1840 in an essay on the Opium Wars. In his treatment of the causes of the war he makes the opium disappear by proving that there can be no population of addicts in China as popularly supposed because coolies are too poor to buy the drug ("The Opium Question with China in 1840," in The Collected Writings of Thomas De Quincey, vol. 14, ed. David Masson [New York: AMS, 1968], 168).

37. Allan, 96; De Quincey, quoted in John Barrell, The Infection of Thomas De Quincey: A Psychopathology of Imperialism (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991), 153. The Emperor Napoleon I, however, "viewing the whole affair from the neutral ground of St. Helena, thought that the British envoy's refusal to kowtow was a great deal of fuss about very little" (Holt, 42).

38. John King Fairbanks, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953), 59.

39. Holt, 25.

40. Milligan, 100–1.

41. Daniel Defoe, The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, vol. III (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1927), 109.

42. Charles Dickens, Our Mutual Friend (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), 318.

43. Arthur Conan Doyle, "The Bruce-Partington Plans," in His Last Bow, ed. Owen Dudley Edwards (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 37.

44. Ronald R. Thomas, "Minding the Body Politic: The Romance of Science and the Revision of History in Victorian Detective Fiction," Victorian Literature and Culture 19 (1991): 239.

45. Collins, 112; Roy, 662, 670–71. In Dorian Gray, the drugs are in a "large Florentine cabinet, made out of ebony, and inlaid with ivory and blue lapis" in a "Chinese box of black and gold-dust lacquer, elaborately wrought" (Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray [Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985], 218–19).

46. Mark M. Hennelly Jr., "Detecting Collins’ Diamond: From Serpentstone to Moonstone," Nineteenth Century Fiction 39 (1984): 33.

47. Ronald Knox, "Detective-Story Decalogue," in The Art of the Mystery Story, ed. Howard Haycraft (New York: Biblio and Tannen, 1976), 195.

1. Robyn Warhol and Helena Michie, "Twelve-Step Teleology: Narratives of Recovery/Recovery as Narrative," in Getting a Life: Everyday Uses of Autobiography, ed. Sidonie Smith and Julia Watson (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 327–50. Our point resembles David Rudy's contention that early-stage alcoholics are "converted" to their belief in their own alcoholism through their contact with AA.

2. These terms achieved currency for narratologists through Nancy K. Miller's application of them to eighteenth- and nineteenth-century British and French novels with female central characters, or "feminocentric" texts. In the euphoric plot pattern, the heroine marries at novel's end; in the dysphoric pattern, she dies. See Nancy K. Miller, The Heroine's Text: Reading in the French and English Novel, 1722–1782 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980).

3. Big Book: Alcoholics Anonymous 3d ed. (New York: A.A. World Services, Inc.), 1976. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

4. Vibeke Steffen explains that the metaphorical substitution of "disease" for "sin" is grounded in the terminology of the Oxford movement, the primary religious influence on the founders of AA. See "Alcoholism and Soul-surgery: Disease Concepts and Metaphors in the Minnesota Model," Folk: Journal of the Danish Ethnographic Society 35 (1993): 127–46.

5. Norman S. Miller, M.D., and John N. Chappel, M.D., "History of the Disease Concept," Psychiatric Annals 21 (1991): 196–205.

6. Miller and Chappel, 197.

7. George Eliot, Janet's Repentance, ed. David Lodge (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977), 334–35. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

8. Anne Brontës novel is one Wctional account of alcoholism that has received interesting analysis from narrative-centered critics. See Edith A. Kosta, "Narrative Experience as a Means to Maturity in Anne Brontës The Tenant of Wildfell Hall," Connecticut Review 14 (1992): 41–47; Marianne Thormählen, "The Villain of Wildfell Hall: Aspects and Prospects of Arthur Huntingdon," Modern Language Review 98 (1993): 831–40; and on narrative embedding, text, talk, and alcoholism in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, see Catherine MacGregor, "I Cannot Trust Your Oaths and Promises: I Must Have a Written Agreement’: Talk and Text in The Tenant of Wildfell Hall," Dionysos: The Literature and Addiction Triquarterly 4, no. 2 (fall 1992): 31–39.

9. Charles Dickens, Hard Times, ed. George Ford and Sylvère Monod (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966), 52. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

10. Charles Dickens, Our Mutual Friend (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971), 291–92. Further references appear parenthetically in the text.

11. Anthony Trollope, Dr. Thorne (1858; reprint, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1982), 371.

12. D. A. Miller, Narrative and its Discontents: Problems of Closure in the Traditional Novel (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981); Marianna Torgovnick, Closure in the Novel (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981).

1. D. H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature (New York: Penguin, 1971), 40. On Indian and white commentary regarding alcohol, especially the fallaciousness of Wrewater myths of Indian biological predisposition to alcohol abuse, see Joy Leland, Firewater Myths: North American Indian Drinking and Alcohol Addiction (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Center for Alcohol Studies, 1976); Dwight B. Heath, "Alcohol Use Among North American Indians: A Cross-Cultural Survey of Patterns

2. Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study Of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), vi, 53.

3. Quoted in Pearce, 6.

4. MacAndrew and Edgerton, 115.

5. William Apess, On Our Own Ground: The Complete Writings of William Apess, A Pequot, ed. Barry O'Connell (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 28.

6. Simon Ortiz, From Sand Creek (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1981), 48.

7. Alan R. Velie, ed., American Indian Literature (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979), 256.

8. Increase Mather, Wo to Drunkards, 2d ed. (Boston: Timothy Green, 1712), 35.

9. Mancall, 169–70.

10. Margaret Fuller Ossoli, At Home and Abroad, ed. Arthur B. Fuller (Boston, 1856), 90.

11. Quoted in Mancall, 27.

12. Benjamin Franklin, The Works of Benjamin Franklin, ed. John Bigelow, vol. 1, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1904), 244.

13. James Fenimore Cooper, The Pioneers, ed. James D. Wallace (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 33. Further references cited parenthetically in text.

14. Alan Taylor, William Cooper's Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 54.

15. In relation to the question of sentimentality and of Chingachgook's role in The Pioneers, Geoffrey Rans observes that it is "astonishing" that Cooper "should choose the least admirable stereotype [of those available to him]—the Indian degraded by liquor—and use it to convey so searing a critique of the entire ethos upon which the novel is founded." See Rans's Cooper's Leather-Stocking Novels (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 260, n. 28.

16. James Fenimore Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans, ed. James Franklin Beard (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 156. Further references cited parenthetically in text.

17. On the relation of alcohol to visionary aspects of Native American religions, see Heath; Mancall; and Eleomire Zolla, who criticizes the "Enlightenment pettiness" with which Cooper oversimplified Native American shamanism into "a jumble of coarse rituals," in The Writer and the Shaman: A Morphology of the American Indian, trans. Raymond Rosenthal (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), 93.

1. Anti-Cancer Council of Victoria, "Smoking: Your Questions Answered," in

2. Diane DuCharme, "The Cigarette Papers," in Recoveries: True Stories by People Who Conquered Addictions and Compulsions, ed. Lindsey Hall and Leigh Cohn (Carlsbad, Calif.: Gurze, 1987), 83–101, 87.

3. Richard Klein, Cigarettes Are Sublime (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 8. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

4. While the preferred style is to use the plural subject to avoid the gender speci-Wcity of the singular form, at some points I felt it was important to retain the singular construction of "the smoker" or "the nicotine addict" to stress that a textually produced identity is being referred to, rather than all the smokers or nicotine addicts in the world. In these cases I have used male and female pronouns interchangeably.

5. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, The Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1988). Interestingly, the analogy with cocaine has not gained the currency of the heroin comparison. Perhaps this difference is related to the debate over whether cocaine can, in fact, cause "genuine" physical addiction.

6. Jeffrey E. Harris, Deadly Choices: Coping with Health Risks in Everyday Life (New York: Basic, 1993), 154.

7. John W. Farquhar and Gene A. Spiller, The Last Puff: Ex-Smokers Share the Secrets of Their Success (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), 28.

8. Rachelle Unreich, "Local Hero," Mode [Australia], Feb.–Mar. 1996, 28.

9. At a broader level, the discourse of nicotine addiction can be located within a trajectory of medicalization in which human conduct and experiences are increasingly understood and explained in medical terms. As Nikolas Rose has argued, the subjection of ethical judgments to the logic of health is part of the modern experience of medicine. He states, "As the secular value of health replaces older non-corporeal or theological virtues and becomes one of the principal dimensions according to which we seek to compose a style of life for ourselves, the remit of medicine extends beyond the dimension of illness and cure and into the management of normality itself." See "Medicine, History and the Present," in Reassessing Foucault: Power, Medicine and the Body, ed. Colin Jones and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1994), 48–72, 67. The construction of smoking as a health issue is one example of the authority of medical knowledge in social life.

10. This discourse can certainly can have unlikely effects. A newspaper reported that at one English girls’ school, pupils who register as addicts are issued two cigarettes a day from the school nurse, to be smoked in her presence. See A. McIlroy, "School Lets Girls Smoke if it Is a Habit," The Daily Telegraph [UK] on-line. Reuters Newsbriefs Health List (March 9, 1995).

11. Renée Bittoun, Stop Smoking!: Beating Nicotine Addiction (Milsons Pt., Australia: Random House Australia, 1993), 2, 99. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

12. Robert Matthews, "Some Are Born to Be Smokers Say Scientists," The Sunday Telegraph [UK] on-line. Reuters Newsbriefs Health List (June 11, 1995). The simplistic genetic determinism that generates concepts like "smoking genes" and gives credence to the idea that genetic codes cause specific behaviors has been convincingly challenged by critics. See Evelyn Fox Keller, "Master Molecules," in Are Genes

R. C. Lewontin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984). However, the power of the gene in popular narratives of selfhood remains undiminished. Nelkin and Lindee have argued that DNA now functions as the secular equivalent of the Christian soul: the basis of human identity and the locus of the self (see Dorothy Nelkin and M. Susan Lindee, The DNA Mystique: The Gene as a Culture Icon [New York: Freeman, 1995], 40–41). In this cultural context, it makes sense that a vulnerability to addiction should be marked by an indelible flaw in the genetic makeup.

13. A discourse of smokers’ rights, which couches the debate in exactly these terms, has gained prominence at the same time that the smoker as addict has become a common Wgure. In smokers’ rights discourse, smokers’ freedom is threatened not by the tyranny of addiction, but by the Puritanical and fascistic forces of anti-smoking. There are a number of comprehensive smokers’ rights sites on the World Wide Web, maintained both by organizations and by individuals (National Smokers Alliance; The Freedom Organisation for the Right to Enjoy Smoking Tobacco [UK]); and Joe Dawson, "Essays on the Anti-Smoking Movement," Smoker's Web site [http:/www.tezcat.com/smokers/issues1.html] (March 10, 1997). Much more could be said about the relationship between the discourses of rights and of addiction, but such a discussion is beyond the scope of this essay.

14. Although Nicotine Anonymous, founded in the 1980s, is a relatively small organization without the public recognition and prominence of Alcoholics Anonymous, a visit to its Web site suggests that it is experiencing some success. Regular meetings throughout North America are listed, with almost one hundred established in California alone. Australia, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Spain, Poland, Hong Kong, Pakistan, and Argentina are among the other countries in which NicA has a presence, albeit a limited one. Even France has three NicA groups, and Internet meetings are available for those in need who are unable to attend a "live" gathering. NicA publishes a basic text called The Book, a range of pamphlets and a quarterly journal. Prolific publisher of "recovery" titles, Hazelden, also produces books and materials for smokers using the Twelve-Step approach to quitting.

15. Jay L., "Nicotine Anonymous," in The Clinical Management of Nicotine Dependence, ed. James Cocores (New York: Springer Verlag, 1991), 326–36, 329.

16. Nicotine Anonymous, "How Nicotine Anonymous Works," Nicotine Anonymous [http:/www.slip.net/billh/nicworks.html] (January 15, 1996).

17. It should be noted that writers like Bittoun, who have a narrower and more "scientific" view of addiction, understand it as a state of physical and psychological dependence. Bittoun is an enthusiastic advocate of nicotine replacement therapy for "strongly dependent smokers," and she contrasts its "scientifically evaluated" effectiveness with the unscientific advice and tips offered by group therapy. Her only comment specifically on Smokers Anonymous (sic) is that it has been "singularly unsuccessful, mainly due to the physical and social differences between alcohol and nicotine" (Renée Bittoun, You Can Quit! [Rushcutters Bay, Australia: Gore & Osment, 1995], 34).

18. Elizabeth Hanson Hoffman, Recovery from Smoking: Quitting with the 12 Step

19. Ellen Walker, Smoker: Self-Portrait of a Nicotine Addict (San Francisco: Harper, 1990), 108. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

20. Strictly speaking, the correct description of Hazelden authors is people "in recovery," rather than people who have recovered. In Twelve-Step discourse and practice, addiction is controllable but incurable and recovery is a life-long process.

21. Sid Farrar, "Foreword" to Smoker: Self Portrait of a Nicotine Addict (San Francisco: Harper. 1990), v.

22. Farrar, vi.

23. See Michael A. H. Russell, "Nicotine Intake and Its Regulation by Smokers," in Tobacco Smoking and Nicotine: A Neurobiological Approach, ed. William R. Martin et al. (New York: Plenum, 1987), 25–50, 43–47. Smoking has been identified as improving concentration, memory, and performance of cognitive tasks, in part because of the actions of nicotine in the brain (Keith Wesnes, "Nicotine Increases Mental Efficiency: But How?" in Tobacco Smoking and Nicotine: A Neurobiological Approach, ed. William R. Martin et al. [New York: Plenum, 1987], 63–79; and David Warburton, "The Appetite for Nicotine," in Appetite: Neural and Behavioural Bases, ed. Charles R. Legg and David Booth [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994], 264–84, 271–72). It is also related to decreased risk of Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Tourette's Syndrome, endometrial cancer, and ulcerative colitis (Bittoun, Stop Smoking, 100; and Barry J. Ford, Smoke Screen: A Guide to the Personal Risks and Global Effects of the Cigarette Habit [North Perth, Australia: Halcyon, 1994], 129; further references to Ford are cited parenthetically in the text).

24. Some commentators have called for the production of low-tar, high-nicotine cigarettes as a way of reducing the harm of smoking, without depriving smokers of the drug effects they seek (Wesnes, 77). Others have speculated about long-term self-administration of purer forms of nicotine as a future alternative to smoking (Russell, 47). These ideas themselves reflect and support the view of smoking as basically a question of nicotine dependence.

25. The logic of substitution can lead to contestation of the boundary between good drug and bad drug. Oral pathologist Brad Rodu has developed a smoking cessation strategy that encourages smokers to switch to smokeless tobacco products, which he states are "98% safer than smoking"(Oral Pathology Dept., University of Alabama). Oral Pathology Dept., University of Alabama at Birmingham, "A Smoking Cessation Strategy," For Smokers Only [http:/www.dental.uab.edu/www/oralpath/FSO.html] [Jan. 21, 1996]).This advice is contrary to public health policy, which is to counter the perception of smokeless tobacco as a safe alternative to smoking, stressing its connection with oral lesions and the possibility that it is "highly addicting" (Barbara S. Lynch and Richard J. Bonnie, eds. Growing Up Tobacco Free: Preventing Nicotine Addiction in Children and Youths [Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1994], 155–59, 39).

26. Arden Christen and James McDonald Jr., "Safety of Nicotine-Containing Gum," in Nicotine Replacement: A Critical Evaluation, ed. Ovide F. Pomerleau and Cynthia S. Pomerleau (New York: Pharmaceutical, 1992), 219–35, 230.

27. Bittoun, You Can Quit, 20.

28. Harris, Deadly Choices, 172.

29. Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 89–90, 158–62. My use of Deleuze and Guattari is indebted to the interpretations of Paul Patton, "Metamorpho-Logic: Bodies and Powers in A Thousand Plateaus," Journal of Behavioral and Social. Phenomenology 25 (1994): 157–69; and Elizabeth Grosz, Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism (St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin. 1994), 166–73.

30. Deleuze and Guattari, 256–57.

31. Whorf cited in Barbara Adam, "Perceptions of Time," in Companion Encyclopedia of Anthropology, ed. Tim Ingold (London: Routledge, 1994), 503–26, 514.

32. Norman Denzin, The Alcoholic Society: Addiction and Recovery of the Self (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1993), 97–101.

33. Public health discourse usually assumes that people underestimate the risks of smoking and are not aware of the extent of the dangers, thus "accurate" information is taken to mean information that stresses the magnitude of the risks, in order to raise risk perception. However, there is evidence that consumers’ estimates of the effects of smoking on mortality and life expectancy tend to exceed "scientific" estimates (W. Kip Viscusi, Smoking: Making the Risky Decision [New York: Oxford University Press, 1992], 7, 83). This overestimation of risk is particularly pronounced in the case of lung cancer. Therefore, it could be argued that a concern with accuracy would be best served by information reassuring the public that the risk of smokers developing lung cancer is probably less than they imagine.

34. One reason put forward to explain why smokers do not want to quit, despite knowing the dangers, is that they labor under particular "cognitive defects." One of these is "time discounting," the tendency to attach too little importance to the future relative to the present (Robert Goodin, "The Ethics of Smoking," Ethics 99 [1989]: 582).

35. Mary Douglas, "Risk as a Forensic Resource," Daedalus 119 (1990): 3.

36. Douglas, 1.

37. Bittoun, You Can Quit, 9.

38. Nelkin and Lindee, 166.

39. Helga Nowotny, Time: The Modern and Postmodern Experience, trans. Neville Plaice (Cambridge: Polity, 1994), 51–52. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

40. Harris, Deadly Choices.

41. Hilary Graham, "Surviving by Smoking," in Women and Health: Feminist Perspectives, ed. Sue Wilkinson and Celia Kitzinger (London: Taylor & Francis, 1994), 102–23, 116–20.

42. Bobbie Jacobson, Beating the Ladykillers: Women and Smoking (London: Pluto, 1986), 119.

43. See Neales on the "urban myth" of the smoking and boozing "New Australian Woman" (Sue Neales, "The Ultimate Equality: Die Like a Man," Age [Melbourne, Australia], March 27, 1993, 20).

44. As Nowotny discusses in detail, this kind of "self-time" is unequally distributed, with access depending on the hierarchies of power and income in which individuals are located (133).

45. Most famously and succinctly by Oscar Wilde, "A cigarette is the perfect type

46. Roland Barthes, A Lover's Discourse: Fragments, trans. Richard Howard (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), 31.

47. Another difficulty, downplayed by health promotion discourse, is the possibility of conflict between different health-related goals. The healthy lifestyle it promotes is presented as an interconnected set of practices that logically Wt together into a harmonious whole: exercising, eating well, maintaining a desirable weight, and not smoking. But many smokers who quit smoking gain weight, and one of the factors in the increasing prevalence of overweight in the United States is the decline in smoking (Katherine Flegal et al., "The Influence of Smoking Cessation on the Prevalence of Overweight in the United States," The New England Journal of Medicine 333 [1995]: 1165–70).Therefore, one trend that is welcomed as the source of significant health benefits is linked to another trend that is regarded as a major threat to public health. By obscuring the tension between exhortations to stop smoking and encouragement to stay slim, health discourse suggests that individuals who fail to realize both goals are the problem, rather than questioning the feasibility or desirability of its utopian dream of health.

1. Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 194–217. See also Pierre Bourdieu, Ce que parler veut dire (Paris: Fayard, 1982), 11–95.

2. Albert Gross and David Duke, America's Longest War (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 78. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

3. David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 32.

4. See Musto; and also Stephen Kandall, Substance and Shadow: Women and Addiction in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996).

5. See Musto; David Courtwright, Dark Paradise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); and Clarence Lusane, Pipe Dream Blues (Boston: South End Press, 1991).

6. Kenneth Anger, Hollywood Babylon (New York: Dell, 1975); Kevin Brownlow, Behind the Mask of Innocence: Films of Social Conscience in the Silent Era (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990); and Michael Starks, Cocaine Fiends and Reefer Madness (East Brunswick, N.J.: Cornwall Books, 1982).

7. Because they were produced outside of the major studios, and within the exploitation circuit, these Wlms were, strictly speaking, neither Hollywood nor hegemonic. However, insofar as exploitation Wlms bypassed the Hays Code and did, cheaply and unpretentiously, what the studios themselves would have liked to do, the exploitation market revealed the worst sides of hegemonic discourse. For a superb treatment of the American exploitation drug Wlms, see Eric Schaefer, "Bold! Daring! Shocking! True!": A History of Exploitation Films, 1919–1959 (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 217–52.

8. See Musto; Jack Herer, The Emperor Wears No Clothes (Seattle: Queen of Clubs Publishing Co., 1985); and Larry Sloman, Reefer Madness (New York: Grove Press, 1979).

9. See Lusane, 38–39.

10. See Starks, 165–94.

11. Dan Baum, Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1996), 253.

12. Quoted in Baum, 253.

13. Harm Reduction designates a policy that tries to minimize the damage done by drug use instead of making things worse in the unrealistic attempt to reach a "drug-free America." The Netherlands are a good example of a country that implements Harm Reduction. The Dutch virtual legalization of cannabis has succeeded in separating the soft drugs (hemp and its derivatives) market from the hard drugs. It is worth noting that the number of people using soft drugs in Holland has not increased significantly. On the contrary, availability defuses the "forbidden fruit syndrome," so much so that the average age for youthful experimentation is calculated to be twenty, whereas in the United States it is sixteen! (DPF newsletter, fall 1997).

14. Herer, 20.

15. Herer, 22.

16. Another telling, if ludicrous, link between homosexuality and drug use was provided by drug czar Carlton Turner in 1987. The nation's foremost authority on marijuana (he studied it for years in the only legal pot farm in the United States) once quipped that "pot can make you gay."

17. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Tendencies (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 130.

18. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), 172.

19. According to Thomas Szasz's Ceremonial Chemistry, drugs and drug users are the modern-day equivalents of ancient Greece's pharmakoi, the "official" scapegoats sacrificed in the name of the well-being of the community. Of course, the pharmakos’ (scapegoat) etymological proximity with pharmakon (drug) adds spice to Szasz's forceful argument. See his Ceremonial Chemistry (Holmes Beach, Fl.: Learning Publications, 1985).

20. Avital Ronell, Crack Wars: Literature, Addiction, Mania (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 3.

21. Craig MacAndrew and Robert Edgerton, Drunken Comportment (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), 88.

22. Alfred Lindesmith, Addiction and Opiates (Chicago: Aldine, 1947).

23. Howard Becker, Outsiders (Toronto: McMillan, 1963).

24. Norman Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984).

25. Andrew Tudor, "On Alcohol and the Mystique of Media Effects," in Drunken Comportment, ed. Craig MacAndrew and Robert Edgerton (Chicago: Aldine, 1969). Jim Cook and Michael Levington, Images of Alcoholism (London: BFI, 1979), 12.

1. Nicole Stenger, "The Mind Is a Leaking Rainbow," in Cyberspace: First Steps, ed. Michael Benedikt (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), 49–58, 57. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

2. Michael Benedikt, "Introduction" to Cyberspace: First Steps, ed. Michael Benedikt (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), 1–25, 1. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

3. Niculae Asciu, "The Lure and Addiction of Life on Line" [cartoon], New York Times, March 8, 1995, B1.

4. Robert Markley, "Boundaries: Mathematics, Alienation, and the Metaphysics of Cyberspace," in Virtual Realities and Their Discontents, ed. Robert Markley (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 55–78, 56. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

5. Jean Baudrillard, "Two Essays," trans. Arthur B. Evans, Science-Fiction Studies 18 (1991): 309–10.

6. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 10. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

7. Richard Doyle, On Beyond Living: Rhetorical Transformations of the Life Sciences (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997), 3, 4. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

8. Scott Bukatman, Terminal Identity: The Virtual Subject in Postmodern Science Fiction (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 45–46.

9. Michael Heim, "The Erotic Ontology of Cyberspace," in Cyberspace: First Steps, ed. Michael Benedikt (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), 60–80, 64. See also Heim's The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

10. William Burroughs, Junky (New York: Penguin, 1977), xv–xvi. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

11. Jeff Noon, Vurt (New York: Crown, 1995), 339. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

12. "Burn: Cycle" [Philips Media VR game advertisement], Wired, Dec. 1994, 36.

13. Avital Ronell, Crack Wars: Literature, Addiction, Mania (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 61.

14. John Colapinto, "Rock & Roll Heroin," Rolling Stone, May 30, 1996, 18.

15. Kathleen Ann Goonan, Queen City Jazz (New York: Tor, 1994), 253–54.

16. Jacques Derrida, "The Rhetoric of Drugs. An Interview," trans. Michael Israel, differences 5 (1993): 6. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

17. Jacques Derrida, Dissemination, trans. Barbara Johnson (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 82. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

18. Tim Holmes, CD insert. Glenn Branca Symphony Nos. 8 & 10. Atavistic, 1994.

19. Istvan Csicsery-Ronay Jr., "Antimancer: Cybernetics and Art in Gibson's Count Zero," Science-Fiction Studies 22 (1995): 70.

20. Evelyn Fox Keller, "The Body of a New Machine: Situating the Organism Between Telegraphs and Computers," Perspectives on Science 2 (1994): 313.

21. David Porush, "Frothing the Synaptic Bath: What Puts the Punk in Cyberpunk?" in Fiction 2000: Cyberpunk and the Future of Narrative, ed. George Slusser and Tom Shippey (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 246–61, 256. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

22. David Porush, "Hacking the Brainstem: Postmodern Metaphysics and Stephenson's Snow Crash," in Virtual Realities and Their Discontents, ed. Robert Markley (Baltimore Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 107–41, 14. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

23. David Porush, "Out of Our Minds," ANQ: A Quarterly Journal of Short Articles, Notes and Reviews 5 (1992): 234. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

24. Plato, The Collected Dialogues, ed. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), 1178.

25. Heim, "Erotic Ontology," 64–65.

26. Allucquère Rosanne Stone, The War of Desire and Technology at the Close of the Mechanical Age (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995), 167. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

27. Carol Mason, "Terminating Bodies," in Posthuman Bodies, ed. Judith Halberstam and Ira Livingston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995), 225–43, 228.

28. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, "Epidemics of Will," in Zone 6: Incorporations, ed. Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter (New York: Urzone, 1992), 582–95, 587. Further references are cited parenthetically in the text.

29. Severo Sarduy, Christ on the Rue Jacob, trans. Suzanne Jill Levine and Carol Maier (San Francisco: Mercury House, 1995), 12.

30. "The Groove Thing" [Big Top Productions VR game advertisement], Wired, April 1995, 173.

1. Laura Miller, "Women and Children First: Gender and the Settling of the Electronic Frontier," in Resisting the Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information, ed. James Brook and Iain A. Boal (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1995), 49–57, 53.

2. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).

3. John Perry Barlow, "Declaration of Independence of Cyberspace," e-mail forward from barlow@eff.org (February 9, 1996).

4. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, "Epidemics of Will," in Zone 6: Incorporations, ed. Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter (New York: Urzone, 1992).

5. Tamara Bennett, "Starbright: Best of Broadband," Convergence (Dec. 1995): 36–41.

6. Susan McCarthy, "The Good Deed," Wired, Sept. 1996, 170–75, 230–31.

7. Laurie Flynn, "Prototypes of Virtual Shoppers: ‘Avatars,’ With Your Head on Their Shoulders, Navigate Cyberspace," The New York Times, March 4, 1996, C3; and Rob Schmults, "Issho Iwai, Toppan Printing, and Worlds Inc. Announce Sweeping Alliance, Move to Rapidly Accelerate the Spread of Online Multiuser 3-D in Japan," Worlds Inc. Press Release (March 11, 1996): 2.

8. Robert Rossney, "Metaworlds," Wired, June 1996, 142–46, 202–12; and Marc Laidlaw, "The Egos at Id," Wired, Aug. 1996, 122–27, 186–89.

9. Roger Chartier, "Representations of the Written Word," in Forms and Meanings: Texts, Performances, and Audiences from Codex to Computer (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 1–24.

10. Sue-Ellen Case, The Domain-Matrix: Performing Lesbian at the End of Print Culture (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1996), 189–231.

11. Neal Stephenson, Snowcrash (New York: Bantam Books, 1992).

12. Rossney, 210; Laidlaw, 188.

13. Flynn, C3.

14. Duncan Galloway, Patrick Collins, Eric Wolanski, Brian King, and Peter Doherty, "Visualization of Oceanographic and Fisheries Biology Data for Scientists and Managers," Communique: Data Explorer Newsletter 3 (1995): 1–3.

15. Howard Rheingold, Virtual Reality (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 13. See also Heinz Pagels, The Dreams of Reason (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988).

16. "New Information Technology for Collective Visualization of the Future," conference handout. Informal conference convened at California Institute of Technology, spring 1996.

17. Dave Gobel et al., "Worlds Incorporated—Education Position Statement," Aug. 1995 (unpublished), 2.

18. Leland Wilkinson, Sygraph: The System for Graphics (Evanston Ill.: Systat, Inc., 1989), 45.

19. Allucquère Rosanne Stone, The War of Desire and Technology at the Close of the Mechanical Age (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995); and Sherry Turkle, "Artificial Life as the New Frontier," in Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).

20. N. Katherine Hayles, "The Seductions of Cyberspace," in Rethinking Technologies, ed. Verena Andermatt Conley (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 173–90, 177.

21. Gobel et al., 3.

22. Anne Balsamo, Technologies of the Gendered Body: Reading Cyborg Women (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1996), 144–45.

23. Scott McCloud, Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art (Northampton, Mass.: Kitchen Sink Press, Inc. 1993), 30–32.

24. McCloud, 36.

25. Giles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaux: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987),

26. Deleuze and Guattari, 153.

27. Anne Friedberg, "A Denial of Difference: Theories of Cinematic Identification," in Psychoanalysis and Cinema, ed. E. Ann Kaplan (New York and London: Routledge, 1990), 36–45, 36.

28. McCloud, 49.

29. Jean Baudrillard, Simulations (New York: Semiotext(e), 1983), 2–3.

30. Baudrillard, 11.

31. Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (New York and London: Routledge, 1993).

32. Octavia Butler, Dawn (New York: Popular Library, 1987); Octavia Butler, Adulthood Rites (New York: Popular Library, 1988); and Octavia Butler, Imago (New York: Popular Library, 1989).

33. Deleuze and Guattari, 189–90.

34. Judith Hersko, "Artist's Statement," Europe: Creation and Recreation at LA Art-core, Los Angeles, 1995 (unpublished handout).

35. J. Butler, 27–55.

36. Stone, 40, 93.

37. Balsamo, 144.

38. Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press, 1985), 167–72; Turkle, 149–74.

39. Fox Keller, 168.

40. Ann Weinstone, "Welcome to the Pharmacy: Addiction, Transcendence, and Virtual Reality," (this volume), 163.

41. Hayles, 173–83.

42. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (Oxford and Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1984), 396.

43. Lefebvre, 313.

44. Ted Nelson, e-mail correspondence with the author (August 17, 1995).