1. Academic science in nineteenth-century France is discussed in such works as R. Fox and G. Weisz, eds., The Organization of Science and Technology in France, 1808-1914 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980); Harry W. Paul, The Sorcerer's Apprentice: The French Scientist's Image of German Science, 1840-1919 (Gainesville: Univ. of Florida, 1972); idem, From Knowledge to Power: The Rise of the Science Empire in France, 1860-1939 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985); and Mary Jo Nye, Science in the Provinces (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1986). On Dumas, see especially L. J. Klosterman, "A Research School of Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century: Jean Baptiste Dumas and His Research Students," Annals of Science , 42 (1985), 1-80; and Marcel Chaigneau, Jean-Baptiste Dumas: Sa vie, son oeuvre, 1800-1884 (Paris: Guy Le Prat, 1984). [BACK]

2. Liebig to Berzelius, 8 May 1831, 2 July 1832, and 17 May 1841, in Carrière, BLB , pp. 11, 34, and 230.

3. ibid. Liebig to Berzelius, 17 April 1841, ibid., p. 223. [BACK]

2. Liebig to Berzelius, 8 May 1831, 2 July 1832, and 17 May 1841, in Carrière, BLB , pp. 11, 34, and 230.

3. ibid. Liebig to Berzelius, 17 April 1841, ibid., p. 223. [BACK]

4. For a summary of this dispute, see F. L. Holmes, "Justus Liebig," DSB , [BACK]

5. Liebig to Berzelius, 30 May 1833, 14 September 1833, and 31 December 1834, in Carrière, BLB , pp. 62, 71, and 99. "The most maddening thing is," he wrote in the latter letter, "somewhat upset by the oxamide business, in my paper on the constitution of ether I permitted myself some expressions of a personal nature against Dumas, which I should not have done. . . . The devil take these accursed affairs." Even earlier (28 December 1831, ibid., p. 25) Liebig expressed great contrition over a published critique of some work of O. B. Kühn: "I will write no more critiques as long as I live," he vowed. [BACK]

6. Liebig to [C. F. Kuhlmann], 23 April 1850, Archives of the Académie des Sciences, Paris (Dossier Liebig, Fonds Dumas). My translation from the German.

7. Ibid. (additional letters from Liebig to Dumas); Carrière, BLB , pp. 276-278; Liebig to Wöhler, 1 June 1850, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 352-353. [BACK]

6. Liebig to [C. F. Kuhlmann], 23 April 1850, Archives of the Académie des Sciences, Paris (Dossier Liebig, Fonds Dumas). My translation from the German.

7. Ibid. (additional letters from Liebig to Dumas); Carrière, BLB , pp. 276-278; Liebig to Wöhler, 1 June 1850, in Hofmann, LWB , 1 , 352-353. [BACK]

8. Liebig to Gerhardt, 15 August 1839 and 1 March 1840, in Edouard Grimaux and Charles Gerhardt, Jr., Charles Gerhardt: Sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance 1816-1856 (Paris: Masson, 1900), pp. 38 and 42-43. This is hereafter cited simply as "Grimaux."

9. Ibid., pp. 46-62. [BACK]

8. Liebig to Gerhardt, 15 August 1839 and 1 March 1840, in Edouard Grimaux and Charles Gerhardt, Jr., Charles Gerhardt: Sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance 1816-1856 (Paris: Masson, 1900), pp. 38 and 42-43. This is hereafter cited simply as "Grimaux."

9. Ibid., pp. 46-62. [BACK]

10. Gerhardt, "Recherches sur la classification chimique des substances organiques," C.r. , 15 (1842), 498-500; ibid., Revue scientifique , 10 (1842), 145-218; Grimaux, pp. 63-68, 317-332, and 456-457; Marc Tiffeneau, ed., Correspondance de Charles Gerhardt , 2 vols. (Pads: Masson, 1918-1925) (hereafter cited as "Tiffeneau"), 2 , 19-29. [BACK]

11. Gerhardt, "Considérations sur les équivalents de quelques corps simples et composés," Ann. chim. , [3] 7 (1843), 129-143, 8 , 238-245. [BACK]

12. Grimaux, pp. 65-68. [BACK]

13. On Gerhardt's change of heart toward Laurent, see Grimaux, pp. 83-85, 147, 342-345, 451-452, and 459; and Tiffeneau, 1 , i-ii, and 2 , 11 and 38. The religion of Laurent is not known. Wurtz stated that Gerhardt and Laurent "were of the same race" ("Éloge" [see n. 37], p. 2). He may have been privy to oral information that Laurent was a Jew or of Jewish descent since the word "race" would not have been appropriate to express common nationality . Extant biographical details about Laurent and his parentage are notably sketchy and inconsistent. [BACK]

14. Laurent to Gerhardt, December 1844, 25 March and 9 April 1845, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 11, 31, and 34. [BACK]

15. Grimaux, pp. 117-167; Tiffeneau, 1 , 83-88, 115-131, and 137; Liebig, Annalen , 57 (1846), 93-118. [BACK]

16. Tiffeneau, 1 , 355-356.

17. Ibid., pp. 117-123. [BACK]

16. Tiffeneau, 1 , 355-356.

17. Ibid., pp. 117-123. [BACK]

18. Laurent, "Sur les combinaisons organiques azotées," C.r. , 20 (1845), 850-855; "Recherches sur les combinaisons azotées," Ann. chim. , [3] 18 (1846), 266-298 (on pp. 267-268 and 294); Tiffeneau, 1 , 13-14, 25, 31, 61, 76, 81-82, 92, 95, 99, 101, and 105. [BACK]

19. Tiffeneau, 1 , 19-23, 36-61; Laurent, Méthode de chimie (Pads: Mallet

& Bachelier, 1854, p. xiii. See J. H. Brooke, "Laurent, Gerhardt, and the Philosophy of Chemistry," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 6 (1975), 405-429; and N. W. Fisher, "Organic Classification Before Kekulé," Ambix , 20 (1973), 106-131, 209-233 (on pp. 215-217). [BACK]

20. Laurent, "Observations sur le Précis de chimie organique de M. Gerhardt" (unpublished Ms), in Tiffeneau, 1 , 270-288; Gerhardt to Drion, 15 May 1856, in Grimaux, p. 340. [BACK]

21. Laurent to Gerhardt, 6 June and 1 July 1846, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 201-202 and 204. [BACK]

22. Laurent, "Recherches" (see n. 18), p. 296. [BACK]

23. Laurent to Gerhardt, 2 February 1847, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 222-225.

24. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 4 May 1847, ibid., p. 232.

25. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 30 May 1847, ibid., p. 239. [BACK]

23. Laurent to Gerhardt, 2 February 1847, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 222-225.

24. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 4 May 1847, ibid., p. 232.

25. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 30 May 1847, ibid., p. 239. [BACK]

23. Laurent to Gerhardt, 2 February 1847, in Tiffeneau, 1 , 222-225.

24. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 4 May 1847, ibid., p. 232.

25. ibid. Laurent to Gerhardt, 30 May 1847, ibid., p. 239. [BACK]

26. Seymour Mauskopf, Crystals and Compounds: Molecular Structure and Composition in Nineteenth Century French Science (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1976); Robert Fox, "The Rise and Fall of Laplacian Physics," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences , 4 (1974), 89-136. [BACK]

27. Grimaux, pp. 168-195. [BACK]

28. Gerhardt to Jane Gerhardt, 27 March 1848, in Grimaux, p. 174.

29. Ibid., 2 April and 19 April 1848, pp. 175-180.

30. Ibid., 7 April and 13 June 1849, pp. 192-195; Gerhardt to Chancel, 2 February 1851, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 112, describing Laurent's illness. [BACK]

28. Gerhardt to Jane Gerhardt, 27 March 1848, in Grimaux, p. 174.

29. Ibid., 2 April and 19 April 1848, pp. 175-180.

30. Ibid., 7 April and 13 June 1849, pp. 192-195; Gerhardt to Chancel, 2 February 1851, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 112, describing Laurent's illness. [BACK]

31. Gerhardt to Liebig, 18 October 1850, in Grimaux, pp. 202-203.

32. Ibid., p. 210; Liebig to Hofmann, 27 October 1850, in Brock, LHB , p. 100. [BACK]

31. Gerhardt to Liebig, 18 October 1850, in Grimaux, pp. 202-203.

32. Ibid., p. 210; Liebig to Hofmann, 27 October 1850, in Brock, LHB , p. 100. [BACK]

33. Charles Friedel, "Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Charles-Adolphe Wurtz," Bulletin de la Société Chimique , [2] 43 (1885), i-lxxx (also issued separately, Pads, 1885); A. W. Hofmann, "Erinnerungen an Adolph Wurtz," Berichte , 20 (1887), 815-996, reprinted in Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde (Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1888), 3 , 171-431; J. H. Brooke, DSB , 14 , 529-532; J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry , 4 (London: Macmillan, 1964), 477-488. Friedel misdates Wurtz' stay in Giessen, an error that has been propagated throughout much of the secondary literature. [BACK]

34. For example, by Hofmann, who should have known better: Erinnerung , p. 408 (see previous note). [BACK]

35. Grimaux, pp. 13-15; Tiffeneau, 2 , 302. [BACK]

36. Grimaux, pp. 76-77; Tiffeneau, 2 , 303; Hofmann, Erinnerung , p. 218. Gerhardt, trans. Wurtz, Grundriss der organischen Chemie , 2 vols. (Strasbourg, 1844-1846). [BACK]

37. Wurtz, "Éloge de Laurent et de Gerhardt," Moniteur scientifique , 4 (1862), 482-513; undated separate, p. 3. [BACK]

38. Wurtz, "Ueber die Constitution der unterphosphorigen Säure," Annalen , 43 (1842), 318-334; "Sur l'hydrure de cuivre," Ann. chim. , [3] 11 (1844), 250-252. [BACK]

39. Wurtz, "Recherches sur l'acide sulfophosphorique et le chloroxyde de phosphore," C.r. , 24 (1847), 288-290 (290); extended paper, same title, Ann. chim. , [3] 20 (1847), 472-481 (on pp. 480-481). [BACK]

40. Wurtz, "Recherches sur les éthers cyaniques et sur le cyanurate de méthylene," C.r. , 27 (1848), 241-243. [BACK]

41. Wurtz, "Sur une série d'alcalis organiques homologues avec l'ammoniaque," C.r. , 28 (1849), 223-226; Wurtz, "Recherches sur les ammoniaques composées," C.r. , 29 (1849), 169-172. [BACK]

42. Hofmann, Erinnerung , pp. 217-218.

43. Ibid., pp. 341-342; Wurtz, "Sur une série . . ."; Liebig, "Organische Basen," in Handwörterbuch , 1 , 697-699. This fascicle appeared in 1840, not 1837 as Partington states (see n. 33, p. 437). [BACK]

42. Hofmann, Erinnerung , pp. 217-218.

43. Ibid., pp. 341-342; Wurtz, "Sur une série . . ."; Liebig, "Organische Basen," in Handwörterbuch , 1 , 697-699. This fascicle appeared in 1840, not 1837 as Partington states (see n. 33, p. 437). [BACK]

44. Liebig to Hofmann, 23 April 1849, in Brock, LHB , p. 84.

45. ibid. Liebig to Hofmann, 8 December 1849 and 17 January 1850, ibid., pp. 88-89. The transcription "den Feind Herrn Wurtz" should read "den Freund Herrn Wurtz." [BACK]

44. Liebig to Hofmann, 23 April 1849, in Brock, LHB , p. 84.

45. ibid. Liebig to Hofmann, 8 December 1849 and 17 January 1850, ibid., pp. 88-89. The transcription "den Feind Herrn Wurtz" should read "den Freund Herrn Wurtz." [BACK]

46. Hofmann, Erinnerung , pp. 226-243; Hofmann to Liebig, undated but securely datable by internal references between 23 February and 12 April 1850, in Brock, LHB , p. 93. Curiously, in his biography Hofmann gives the year as 1851. [BACK]

47. J. B. Dumas, "Rapport sur un mémoire de M. Wurtz, relatif à des composés nouveaux analogues à l'ammoniaque," C.r. , 29 (1849), 203-206; Grimaux, pp. 197-198 and 379-380; Tiffeneau, 2 , 303-304. Gerhardt Jr. (Grimaux, pp. 197-198) goes so far as to accuse Wurtz of lacking integrity. Gerhardt Jr. was in general an excellent biographer for his father, but he was understandably partisan in his opinions. [BACK]

48. Gerhardt to Chancel, 1 October 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 130. [BACK]

49. Wurtz, "Mémoire sur une série d'alcaloides homologues avec l'ammoniaque," Ann. chim. , [3] 30 (1850), 443-507, esp. 444-446 and 495-503. He first used the word "structure" in 1859: "Mémoire sur les glycols ou alcools diatomiques," Ann. chim . [3] 55 , 400-478 (on p. 478). [BACK]

50. Grimaux, pp. 201-204, 208-254, 259, 264-265, 285-286, and 432-435. [BACK]

51. Williamson to Gerhardt, 16 August 1851, in Grimaux, p. 220. On Williamson's syntheses and their significance, see Partington (see n. 33), pp. 444-460; J. Harris and W. H. Brock, "From Giessen to Gower Street: Towards a Biography of Alexander Williamson," Annals of Science , 31 (1974), 95-130; and A. J. Rocke, Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century (Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press, 1984), pp. 215-229. Williamson's work is described in greater detail in chap. 6. [BACK]

52. Gerhardt and G. Chancel, "Sur la constitution des composés organiques," Comptes rendus des travaux de chimie , 7 (1851), 65-84; Gerhardt, Traité de chimie organique , 4 vols. (Paris, 1853-1856). [BACK]

53. Gerhardt, "Recherches sur les acides organiques anhydres," C.r. , 34 (1852), 755-758 and 902-905; Ann. chim. , [3] 37 (1853), 285-342. [BACK]

54. Grimaux, pp. 229-241 and 403-409; Gerhardt to Chancel, 19 June 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 119-121 and 123. [BACK]

55. Gerhardt to Chancel, 19 June 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 124. [BACK]

56. Grimaux, p. 241; Chancel to Gerhardt, 22 May 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 121. [BACK]

57. Grimaux, p. 247. Gerhardt later told Hofmann in glowing terms about

the warmth of this reception: Hofmann, "The Life-Work of Liebig," Erinnerung , 1 , 195-305 (on p. 290). [BACK]

58. Gerhardt to Chancel, 28 November 1852, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 131. In the event, all mention of Berzelius was omitted from the title page and spine. [BACK]

59. Tiffeneau, 2 , 141; Liebig to Eduard Vieweg, 12 December 1853, in Margarete and Wolfgang Schneider, eds., Justus von Liebig: Briefe an Vieweg (Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1986), pp. 267-268. [BACK]

60. Gerhardt to Cahours, 24 February 1856, and Gerhardt to Wurtz, 6 April 1856, in Tiffeneau, 2 , 57 and 312. [BACK]

61. Grimaux, pp. 416-435; Gerhardt to Williamson, 24 June and 8 November 1853, Harris Collection, Archives, Univ. College London. [BACK]

62. Gerhardt, Traité , 1 , i-iii. [BACK]

63. Gerhardt and Chiozza, "Recherches sur les amides," C.r. , 37 (1853), 86-90; Wurtz, "Histoire des doctrines chimiques depuis Lavoisier," in Wurtz, ed., Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée , 1 (Paris: Hachette, 1868), pp. i-xciv (on p. liv). [BACK]

64. Wurtz, "Sur les dédoublements des éthers cyaniques," C.r. , 37 (1853), pp. 180-183; ibid., "Sur la théorie des amides," pp. 246-250. [BACK]

65. Wurtz, "Sur les dédoublements," p. 182n. [BACK]

66. Auguste Scheurer-Kestner, "Charles Gerhardt, Laurent, et la chimie moderne," Revue alsacienne , August 1884; cited in Grimaux, p. 198. [BACK]

67. Gerhardt, "Note sur la théorie des amides," C.r. , 37 (1853), 281-284. [BACK]

68. Wurtz, "Nouvelles observations sur la théorie des amides," C.r. , 37 (1853), 357-361.è [BACK]

69. Wurtz, Leons de chimie professées en 1863 (Paris: Hachette, 1864), p. 93. [BACK]

70. A. W. Williamson, "Sur la théorie de l'étherification," Ann. chim. , [3] 40 (1854), 98-114. For Williamson's work on etherification, see Harris and Brock, "From Giessen to Gower Street" (see n. 51). [BACK]

71. Wurtz to Williamson, 18 April 1854, Harris Collection. This is the earliest correspondence between Wurtz and Williamson of which I am aware. [BACK]

72. Williamson, "On the Constitution of Salts," Chemical Gazette , 9 (1851), 334-339, reprinted in Papers on Etherification and on the Constitution of Salts (Edinburgh: Alembic Club Reprint no. 16, 1902), pp. 42 and 45-46.è [BACK]

73. Wurtz, "Éloge" (1862), pp. 25-26; Leons (1864), p. 88; Cours de philosophie chimique (Paris, privately publ., 1864), pp. 30-31; Traité élémentaire de chimie médicale , 2 vols. (Paris: Masson, 1864-1865), 2 , 54-55. In another letter to Williamson (27 May 1863, Harris Collection), Wurtz spoke of "la grande influence" that Williamson's work had exercised on the science.è [BACK]

74. Wurtz, "Théorie des combinaisons glycériques," Ann. chim. , [3] 43 (1855), 492-496, esp. p. 493. In Wurtz' "Histoire générale des glycols," in Leons de chimie professées en 1860 (Paris: Hachette, 1861), pp. 103-105, he was even more explicit regarding his debt to Williamson for the ideas in this paper. [BACK]

75. Wurtz, "Sur une nouvelle classe de radicaux organiques," Ann. chim. , [3] 44 (1855), 275-313, esp. 300-313. [BACK]

76. Wurtz, "Sur un nouveau mode de formation de l'éther carbonique,"

C.r. , 32 (1851), 595-596; Wurtz, "Sur l'alcool butylique," C.r. , 35 (1852), 310-312. [BACK]

77. For details, see Rocke, Chemical Atomism , passim. [BACK]

78. R. Anschütz, August Kekulé , 2 vols. (Berlin: Verlag Chemie, 1929), 2 , 61-62. [BACK]

79. Williamson to H. E. Roscoe, 5 December 1853, Roscoe Collection. [BACK]

80. Wurtz to Liebig, 3 February 1858, Liebigiana IIB. [BACK]