1. Quoted in Edwin G. West, “The Benthamites as Educational Engineers: The Reputation and the Record,” History of Political Economy 24, 3 (1992), pp. 595–621. [BACK]

2. Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 127). [BACK]

3. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 64. [BACK]

4. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, pp. 102, 104. [BACK]

5. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, pp. 68, 74–75. [BACK]

6. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 175. [BACK]

7. Charles C. Adams, Islam and Modernism in Egypt (New York: Russell & Russell, 1968), p. 167. [BACK]

8. Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, 3rd ed., vol. 1 (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1899), pp. 584–85. On the relationship between Social Darwinism and imperialism, see Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and Social Reform (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960), ch. 2. [BACK]

9. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, p. 717. [BACK]

10. Herbert Spencer, “National Education,” in his Social Statics (1850; rpt., New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1892), pp. 156–87; and “State-Education,” in his Facts and Comments (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1902), pp. 82–93. [BACK]

11. Spencer, “State-Education,” p. 82. [BACK]

12. Neil J. Smelser, Social Paralysis and Social Change: British Working-Class Education in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). [BACK]

13. James Heyworth-Dunne, An Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt (London: Luzac & Co., 1938), p. 153. [BACK]

14. Yacoub Artin, quoted in Ibrahim Salama, L'Enseignement islamique en Egypte: Son evolution, son influence sur les programmes modernes (Cairo: Imprimerie Nationale, Boulaq, 1939), p. 207. [BACK]

15. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education, pp. 152–57. [BACK]

16. For first-rate discussions of this system, see Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, and Messick, The Calligraphic State. [BACK]

17. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education, p. 157. [BACK]

18. ‘Abd al-Karim, Tarikh al-ta‘lim fi ‘asr Muhammad ‘Ali (Cairo: Maktaba al-nahda al-Misriyya, 1938), pp. 176–80. [BACK]

19. ‘Abd al-Karim, Tarikh al-ta‘lim, pp. 180–81. [BACK]

20. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education, pp. 195–97, 210–17. [BACK]

21. John Bowring, “Report on Egypt and Candia,” Parl. Pap., 1840, vol. 21, p. 121. [BACK]

22. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education, pp. 223–33. [BACK]

23. Fritz Steppat, “National Education Projects in Egypt Before the British Occupation,” in Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century, ed. William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp. 289, 295. [BACK]

24. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education, p. 373. [BACK]

25. Octave Sachot, “Rapport adresse a Son Excellence Monsieur Victor Duruy, Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, sur l'état des sciences, des lettres, et de l'instruction publique in Egypte dans la population indigène et dans la population Européenne” (Paris: n.p., 1868), p. 1. Translation mine. [BACK]

26. And they operated with a foreign curriculum, as well. High school students learned little of local or Islamic history, instead studying “The Awakening of Learning in Europe,” “The Expansion and Spread of the Western Nations,” “The War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War,” etc. See Donald M. Ried, “Turn-of-the-Century Egyptian School Days,” Comparative Education Review 27 (1983), pp. 374–93. [BACK]

27. “Further Correspondence Respecting Reorganization in Egypt,” Parl. Pap., 1883, vol. 83, p. 88. [BACK]

28. See Roger Owen, “The Influence of Lord Cromer's Indian Experience on British Policy in Egypt, 1883–1907,” in Middle Eastern Affairs, ed. Albert Hourani (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 109–39. [BACK]

29. Bill Williamson, Education and Social Change in Egypt and Turkey (London: The Macmillan Press, 1987), p. 74. [BACK]

30. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, vol. 137, p. 571. [BACK]

32. This policy was changed during the tenure of Sa‘d Zaghlul—one of Egypt's most famous nationalist leaders—as minister of public instruction. [BACK]

33. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1902, vol. 130, p. 744. [BACK]

34. The switch to an emphasis on reading, writing, and arithmetic came at the behest of parents. As the Newcastle Commission reported in 1861,

The general principle upon which almost every one who for the last half century has endeavoured to promote popular education has proceeded, has been that a large portion of the poorer classes of the population were in a condition injurious to their own interests, and dangerous and discreditable to the rest of the community; that it was the duty and the interest of the nation at large to raise them to a higher level, and that religious education was the most powerful instrument for the promotion of this object. The parents, on the other hand, cannot be expected to entertain the same view of the moral and social condition of their own class, or to have its general elevation in view. They act individually for the advantage of their respective children; and though they wish them to be imbued with religious principles, and taught to behave well, they perhaps attach a higher importance than the promoters and managers of schools to the specific knowledge which will be profitable to the child in life. It is of some importance in estimating the conduct of the parents to keep this difference of sentiment in view. (Quoted in David Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture: England, 1750–1914 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989], p. 86)

35. Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture, pp. 73–74. [BACK]

36. Spencer, Principles of Sociology, vol. 3, p. 274. The image of the church and the school either as homologues or analogues has been often repeated, e.g., by Durkheim in Moral Education, p. 155; by more recent theorists like Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture (London: Sage, 1977), p. 64; and Eric Hobsbawm, “Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870–1914,” in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 271. [BACK]

37. Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture, p. 75. [BACK]

38. Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture, p. 76. [BACK]

39. Quoted in Phillip McCann, “Popular Education, Socialization, and Social Control: Spitalfields, 1812–1824,” in Popular Education and Socialization in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Phillip McCann (London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1977), p. 1. [BACK]

40. Vincent, Literacy and Popular Culture, p. 76. [BACK]

41. Lord Dufferin to the earl of Granville, “Further Correspondence Respecting Reorganization in Egypt,” Parl. Pap., 1883, vol. 83, p. 96. [BACK]

42. Alfred Milner, England in Egypt (New York: Macmillan & Co., 1892), p. 390. The perception of Islam as fanaticism and bigotry was not, of course, confined to Egypt. In Aden, the next geographical stepping-stone on the way from England to India, plans were made in 1856 to start a school to train Arab boys for the civil service and “to attach our bigoted neighbors to us by the community of feelings and interests which must follow in the wake of a sound education.” “If it were possible to give these boys a solid education in their language and ours,” wrote the concerned British official,

the influence for good they may exercise on the next generation is beyond calculation, by it we should instruct them in our system, and attach them by a link which would not be easily severed. Commerce would increase, we should hear no more of stoppage of the roads, and of the frequent paltry squabbles which having their origin in ignorance and bigotry, would cease with the spread of knowledge amongst the people. (Quoted in Z. H. Kour, The History of Aden, 1839–72 [London: Frank Cass & Co., Ltd., 1981], p. 101)

43. Cromer often commented on the incomprehensibility of the Eastern mind.

The ethnologist, the comparative philologist, and the sociologist would possibly be able to give explanations as regards many of the differences between the East and the West. As I am only a diplomatist and an administrator, whose proper study is also man, but from the point of view of governing him rather than from that of scientific research into how he comes to be what he is, I content myself with noting the fact that somehow or other the Oriental generally acts, speaks, and thinks in a manner exactly opposite to the European. (Modern Egypt, vol. 2 [New York: The Macmillan Co., 1908], p. 164)

44. The physical conditions of rural—and urban—popular schools in Egypt and in England were described by contemporaries in strikingly similar Dickensian detail. Compare, for example, Cromer in “Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms,” Parl. Pap., 1896, vol. 97, p. 1010; with Macaulay in his speech on “Education,” delivered in the House of Commons on 19 April 1847. In The Works of Lord Macaulay, vol. 8, pp. 395–96. [BACK]

45. James A. St. John, Egypt and Nubia (London: Chapman and Hall, 1845), pp. 31–32. [BACK]

46. Viz., the educational theories of Jeremy Bentham, beloved of Foucauldian analysts. In Panopticon, Bentham effused of the possibilities of the Inspection-House as a school, in which “All play, all chattering—in short, all distraction of every kind, is effectually banished.” The Works of Jeremy Bentham, vol. 4, ed. John Bowring (1838–43; rpt., New York: Russell & Russell, 1962), p. 63. [BACK]

47. Amir Boktor, School and Society in the Valley of the Nile (Cairo: Elias' Modern Press, 1936), p. 130. [BACK]

48. Bowring, “Report on Egypt and Candia,” p. 136. [BACK]

49. Florence Nightingale, Letters from Egypt: A Journey on the Nile, 1849–50, ed. Anthony Sattin (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1987), p. 26. [BACK]

50. W. Basil Worsfold, The Redemption of Egypt (London: George Allen, 1899), p. 54. [BACK]

51. Sachot, “Rapport,” p. 4. Translation by Anna Laura Jones. [BACK]

52. Milner, England in Egypt, p. 366. [BACK]

53. Emile Durkheim, Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912; rpt., New York: Free Press, 1965), p. 15. [BACK]

54. R. R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion (London: n.p., 1914), p. xxxi. [BACK]

55. Salama, L'Enseignement islamique, p. 300. [BACK]

56. For a fuller discussion of European attitudes toward the Egyptian body, see Gregory Starrett, “The Hexis of Interpretation: Islam and the Body in the Egyptian Popular School,” American Ethnologist 22, 4 (November 1995), pp. 953–69. [BACK]

57. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 86. [BACK]

58. Messick, The Calligraphic State, p. 17. [BACK]

59. See Trygve R. Tholfsen, “Moral Education in the Victorian Sunday School,” History of Education Quarterly 20 (1980), pp. 77–99; and Thomas W. Laqueur, Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working Class Culture, 1780–1850 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976). [BACK]

60. “I heartily rejoice that the life, the words, and works, and death of the Divine Saviour of the world should be read by children. But that is not the teaching of religion, unless the true meaning and the due intrinsic worth of all these things be taught. But this would perforce be doctrinal Christianity, prohibited by law.” Cardinal Archbishop Henry Edward, “Is the Education Act of 1870 a Just Law?” The Nineteenth Century 12 (December 1882), p. 960. [BACK]

61. William Edward Hartpole Lecky, Democracy and Liberty, vol. 2. (New York: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1896), p. 70. [BACK]

62. Joseph Lancaster, Improvements in Education as It Respects the Industrious Classes of the Community, 3rd ed. (1805; rpt., Clifton, N.J.: Augustus M. Kelley Publishers, 1973), pp. 155–56. [BACK]

63. H. Cunynghame, “The Present State of Education in Egypt,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, n.s., 19 (1887), p. 232. [BACK]

64. Bowring, “Report on Egypt and Candia,” p. 137. [BACK]

65. Milner, England in Egypt, p. 365. [BACK]

66. Macaulay, “Education,” p. 387. [BACK]

67. The quote from Adam Smith, “The more [the inferior ranks of people] are instructed, the less liable they are to the delusions of enthusiasm and superstition, which, among ignorant nations, frequently occasion the most dreadful disorders,” is from the first chapter of book 5 of The Wealth of Nations (New York: Random House, 1965), p. 740. [BACK]

68. Macaulay, “Education,” p. 388. [BACK]

69. Macaulay, “Education,” pp. 388–89. [BACK]

70. Macaulay, “Education,” p. 390. [BACK]

71. W. Basil Worsfold, The Redemption of Egypt (London: George Allen, 1899), p. 143. Apropos the association of schools and prisons, Lord Dufferin had written to the earl of Granville in February of 1883 noting that “the consensus of foreign opinion in this country” supported a statement by an Egyptian leader, “that order in Egypt can only continue to exist under the combined discipline of a couple of foreign schoolmasters and the domestic “courbash,” ”a view with which, it should be acknowledged, he disagreed personally. “Further Correspondence Respecting Reorganization in Egypt,” Parl. Pap., 1883, vol. 83, p. 88. [BACK]

72. Cromer, “Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms,” Parl. Pap., 1884–85, vol. 89, p. 15. [BACK]

73. Cromer, “Reports,” Parl. Pap., 1884–85, p. 14. [BACK]

74. Cromer, “Reports,” Parl. Pap., 1884–85, p. 13. [BACK]

75. Cromer, “Reports,” Parl. Pap., 1884–85, p. 14. [BACK]

76. Cromer, “Reports,” Parl. Pap., 1884–85, p. 13. [BACK]

77. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, p. 1137. [BACK]

78. Kitchener, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1912, vol. 121, p. 31. [BACK]

79. Kitchener, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1913, vol. 81, p. 35. [BACK]

80. See Nathan Brown, “Who Abolished Corvée Labour in Egypt and Why?” Past and Present, no. 144 (August 1994), pp. 116–37. [BACK]

81. Quoted in Ministry of Education, Egypt, Report of the Elementary Education Commission and Draft Law to Make Better Provision for the Extension of Elementary Education (Cairo: Government Press, 1919), p. 7. [BACK]

82. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1899, vol. 112, p. 961. [BACK]

83. J. Scott's memorandum to Cromer, in “Report on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt and the Progress of Reforms,” Parl. Pap., 1897, vol. 102, p. 536. This idea has had great longevity. As recently as 1943, H. E. Neguib el-Hilali Pasha, the Egyptian minister of education, wrote,

If we take into account the fact that compulsory education begins in England at the age of five and that bodily growth is quicker in Egypt owing to the climate, we see that it is only natural that the compulsory age [of schooling] should begin in this country one year earlier than it actually does, that is, at the end of the sixth year, and end at 13. (Report on Educational Reform in Egypt [Cairo: Government Press, Boulaq, 1943], p. 49)

84. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1903, vol. 87, p. 1014. [BACK]

85. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, vol. 102, p. 1150. [BACK]

86. Allenby, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1921, vol. 42, p. 74. See Margaret May, “Innocence and Experience: The Evolution of the Concept of Juvenile Delinquency in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,” Victorian Studies 18 (1973), pp. 7–30; for a contemporary view of the subject of reformatories, see Lord Norton's article, “Schools as Prisons and Prisons as Schools,” The Nineteenth Century 21 (January 1887), pp. 110–18. Statistics were reported annually on the utilization of the Giza Reformatory, including the number of boys and girls confined there, and the disciplinary measures invoked. A typical example (from Gorst's Annual Report for the year 1910): “During the year 3,631 juveniles were whipped (2,589 in 1909). The number of juveniles on the 31st December at the reformatory was 715 (726 in 1909), 647 being boys and 68 girls. The daily average throughout the year being 764.” Parl. Pap., 1911, vol. 103, p. 41. [BACK]

87. “Further Correspondence Respecting Reorganization in Egypt,” Parl. Pap., 1883, vol. 83, p. 89. [BACK]

88. “Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Egypt,” Parl. Pap., 1884–85, vol. 88, p. 230. [BACK]

89. Lord Dufferin to the earl of Granville, “Further Correspondence Respecting Reorganization in Egypt,” Parl. Pap., 1883, vol. 88, p. 93. It is of course instructive to contrast this view with that of Egypt's own educated elite. On 8 October 1866 Nubar Pasha, a future prime minister of the Egyptian government after the British Occupation, had written, “Our parliament is a school, by means of which the government, more advanced than the population, instructs and civilises the population.” Quoted in Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 75. [BACK]

90. Cromer, “Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms,” Parl. Pap., 1896, vol. 97, p. 1010. [BACK]

91. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, vol. 103, p. 1165. [BACK]

92. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, pp. 1010–11. [BACK]

93. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, pp. 1010–11. [BACK]

94. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, p. 1166. [BACK]

95. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, p. 1166; also Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1899, vol. 112, p. 1007. [BACK]

96. Cromer, “Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms,” Parl. Pap., 1898, vol. 107, p. 665. [BACK]

97. Cromer, “Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms,” Parl. Pap., 1896, vol. 97, p. 1011. [BACK]

98. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1903, vol. 87, p. 1009. [BACK]

99. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1906, vol. 138, pp. 569–70. The following year, “4,432 pupils were able to recite from memory the whole of the Koran, 3,833 more than three-quarters, 4,594 more than one-half, and 7,362 more than one-quarter, whilst 52,893 pupils had reached various stages in the first quarter of the sacred text.” And this at a time when “the total number of children who had reached the age of 13 years was less than 3,000.” Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1903, vol. 100, p. 714. Of the 46,762 students who attended 1913's annual inspection of kuttabs under the control of the Provincial Councils, “1,193 of the pupils were able to recite the whole of the Koran by heart, and 1,212 others at least one-half of the sacred text.” Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1914, vol. 101, p. 44. [BACK]

100. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, vol. 103, p. 1165. [BACK]

101. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1906, vol. 137, p. 570. [BACK]

102. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1906, p. 74. [BACK]

103. Gorst, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1909, vol. 105, p. 3. Gorst was extremely sensitive to the political expediency of education. In the same report, he notes that “it is…wise to avoid measures which run counter to the wishes or prejudices of the people until they have been educated up to them” (p. 28), but that the change cannot be rushed, despite those in the country who “believed that, by means of a rapid extension of public instruction, deficiencies which are the inheritance of centuries of ignorance can be made good in a comparatively short time” (p. 38). [BACK]

104. Ministry of Education, Report of the Elementary Education Commission. The members of the commission were: His Excellency Ali Gamal el Din Pasha, mudir of Sharqiya; H. E. Mohammed Allam Pasha, mudir of Asyut; Mr. Patterson, director general of accounts, Ministry of Finance; Mr. Betts, director of the Municipalities and Local Commissions Department, Ministry of the Interior; Mr. McLean, chief engineer of the same department; Mr. Aldred Brown, controller of administrative service, and Mr. Robb, subcontroller of elementary education, both of the Ministry of Education; Mohammed Ali el Maghrabi Bey, the controller of elementary education in the ministry; Mohammed Aatef Barakat Bey, the principal of the Cadis' College; Sheikh Mohammed Cherif Selim, principal of the Nasria Training College, and Hussein Kamel Bey, director of administrative service of the Ministry of the Interior. Adly Yeghen himself was a long-time enthusiast of British causes, having been elected in 1903 as president of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, an organization imported to Egypt in the 1890s. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1904, vol. 111, p. 250. [BACK]

105. Cromer, Modern Egypt, vol. 2, pp. 534–35. Quoted in the commission's Report on p. 5. [BACK]

106. Nathan Brown, Peasant Politics in Modern Egypt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). [BACK]

107. Quoted in Carter Jefferson, “Worker Education in England and France, 1800–1914,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 4 (1964), p. 355. [BACK]

108. Jefferson, “Worker Education,” p. 346. Vincent provides another example from a British educational manifesto of 1839:

The sole effectual means of preventing the tremendous evils with which the anarchical spirit of the manufacturing population threatens the country is, by giving the working people a good secular education, to enable them to understand the true causes which determine their physical condition and regulate the distribution of wealth among the several classes of society. (P. 83)

The notion that teaching political economy and social science to the masses was a remedy for labor unrest was current in the United States as late as the 1870s; see Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), p. 47. [BACK]

109. Andrew Porter, “Scottish Missions and Education in Nineteenth-Century India: The Changing Face of Trusteeship,” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 16 (1988), p. 44. [BACK]

110. Kitchener, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1912, vol. 121, p. 3. For the same idea in Britain, see Agnes Lambert, “Thrift among the Children,” The Nineteenth Century 19 (April 1886), p. 548. [BACK]

111. Kitchener, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1912, vol. 121, p. 4. [BACK]

112. Ministry of Education, Report of the Elementary Education Commission, p. 26. [BACK]

113. Ministry of Education, Report of the Elementary Education Commission, p. 26. Such training would complement the natural proclivities of the Egyptian student, who

is deficient in inventive capacity, acts from impulse, is wayward and changeable in mind, and…is stunted as to his reasoning faculties, [although]…not without other compensating advantages. He has a vivid imagination, quick perception, and a power of intuitively sympathizing with others. He is therefore by nature more or less of an artist. (Cunynghame, “The Present State of Education in Egypt,” p. 232)

114. On the interchangeability of the domestic worker and the colonial subject, and the consequent spread of “adapted education” projects throughout the empire, from Nigeria to New Zealand, see David Ruddell, “Class and Race: Neglected Determinants of Colonial “Adapted Education” Policies,” Comparative Education 18 (1982), pp. 293–303; and John M. Barrington, “Cultural Adaptation and Maori Educational Policy: The African Connection,” Comparative Education Review 20 (1976), pp. 1–10. [BACK]

115. Villiers Stuart, “Reports…Respecting the Progress of Reorganization in Egypt since the British Occupation in 1882,” Parl. Pap., 1895, vol. 109, pp. 943, 961. [BACK]

116. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1904, vol. 111, p. 267. Quoted also in Williamson, Eduction and Social Change, pp. 81–82. [BACK]

117. Quoted in Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1904, vol. 111, p. 267; also in Modern Egypt, vol. 2, p. 535n. Lecky, though little-known today, was at the time a major figure in the minds of educated Britons; he was, for example, one of the most frequently cited authorities in Darwin's discussion of ethics and society in The Descent of Man. Gertrude Himmelfarb, Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution (New York: Norton, 1962), p. 375. [BACK]

118. Ministry of Education, Report of the Elementary Education Commission, p. 7. [BACK]

119. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1904, vol. 111, p. 269. [BACK]

120. Worsfold, The Redemption of Egypt, p. 195. [BACK]

121. Heyworth-Dunne, Introduction to the History of Education, p. 132. [BACK]

122. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1906, vol. 137, p. 570. [BACK]

123. The Rev. James Johnston, F. S. S., ed., Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of the World (London: James Nisbet & Co., 1889), p. 19. [BACK]

124. Johnston, Report of the Centenary Conference, p. 23. [BACK]

125. Alfred Cunningham, To-Day in Egypt (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1912), p. 221. [BACK]

126. Cunningham, To-Day in Egypt, pp. 221–22. [BACK]

127. Kitchener, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1914, vol. 101, p. 37. [BACK]

128. Cromer, Annual Report, Parl. Pap., 1905, vol. 103, pp. 1168–69. [BACK]

129. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), p. 151. [BACK]

130. Sergei P. Poliakov, Everyday Islam: Religion and Tradition in Central Asia, trans. Anthony Olcott (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), pp. 66–67. [BACK]

131. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 171. [BACK]

132. Ahmad Abdalla, The Student Movement and National Politics in Egypt, 1923–1973 (London: Al-Saqi Books, 1985). [BACK]

133. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 79. [BACK]

134. Raymond Williams, The Sociology of Culture (New York: Schocken Books, 1981), p. 110. [BACK]

135. Christopher Herbert, Culture and Anomie: Ethnographic Imagination in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 26. [BACK]

136. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 74. For a detailed critique of Mitchell's portrayal of the model school's novelty and importance, see pp. 30–40 in my “Our Children and Our Youth: Religious Education and Political Authority in Mubarak's Egypt,” Ph.D. diss., Department of Anthropology, Stanford University, 1991. [BACK]

137. Mitchell asserts, rather oddly, that “there is no need to recount in detail the way in which these practices failed, or the devastation they caused,” Colonising Egypt, p. 42. [BACK]

138. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, p. 107. [BACK]

139. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, pp. 101–2. [BACK]

140. Williams, Marxism and Literature, p. 110. [BACK]

141. Wayne Shaefer, “The Responsibility of Berber School Policy for the Troubles of a Franco-Moroccan School,” The Maghreb Review 14 (1989), p. 188. [BACK]

142. William Lancaster, The Rwala Bedouin Today (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 102–3. [BACK]