One— Once upon a Text: Hysteria from Hippocrates
Many of the ancient writers cited here—for example, Hesiod, Martial, and Plato—are easily accessible in translation. Where no particular edition is specified, the Loeb Classical Library version may be used. This gives the ancient text with an English translation on the facing page.
The medical writers are less readily available to the general reader. In particular, few of the relevant works of the Hippocratic corpus have been translated into English. In the interests of consistency, all texts from the Hippocratic corpus are cited from the standard Greek edition with French translation of E. Littré, Oeuvres completes d'Hippocrate , 10 vols. (Paris: Baillière, 1839-61), abbreviated L. References are given in the form L volume.page number; for example, L 8.34. The specific locations, in the Littré edition, of the texts used, with the abbreviations used in the notes, are as follows:
Airs, Waters, Places , L 2.12-93
Aphorisms , L 4.458-609
Coan Prognoses , L 5.588-733
Diseases of Women , L 8.10-463 = DW
Diseases of Young Girls , L 8.466-471
Epidemics 2, L 3.24-149; 6, L 5.266-357 = Ep .
Generation , L 7.470-484 = Gen .
Glands , L 8.556-575
Nature of the Child , L 7.486-538 = NC
On Joints , L 4.78-339
On the Sacred Disease , L 6.352-397
Prorrhetics 1, L 5.510-577
Nature of Man , L 6.32-69
Nature of Woman , L 7-312-431 = NW
Places in Man , L 6.276-349
Regimen , L 6.466-637
Regimen in Acute Diseases, Appendix , L 2.394-529 = Acut. Sp .
Superfetation , L 8.476-509
Generation and Nature of the Child are available in an excellent English translation by I. M. Lonie, The Hippocratic Treatises "On Generation," "On the Nature of the Child," "Diseases IV " (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1981). Ann Hanson is preparing an edition and English translation of Diseases of Women for the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum series.
The following abbreviations are used for the works of Artistotle:
GA = Generation of Animals
HA = History of Animals
PA = Parts of Animals
MA = Movement of Animals
The text referred to in the notes as "Ps-Aristotle, On Sterility " is found in the Loeb Classical Library as the tenth book of History of Animals . Its authenticity as a work of Aristotle has long been doubted, although it is possible that it was an early work. It may date to the third century B.C . Ps-Aristotle, Problems is something very different, a collection of questions and answers—on matters ranging from why the old have white hair to why man sneezes more than any other animal—brought together perhaps as late as the fifth century A.D . and, with other works wrongly ascribed to Aristotle such as the Masterpiece , highly popular in the early modern era.
Several medical writers of antiquity are cited in the editions of the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum (hereafter CMG) and the Corpus Medicorum Latinorum (hereafter CML). They are referred to in the form CMG volume number, page.line (e.g., CMG vol. 2, p.34-7).
For the works of Galen, the standard edition remains that of C. G. Kuhn, Claudii Galeni Opera omnia , 20 vols. (Hildeheim: Olms, 1964-5 [reprint of the version of 1821-1833]). References to Galen are given in the form K volume.page (e.g., K 14.176).
1. The dates traditionally assigned to Hippocrates are ca. 460-ca. 370 B.C . Despite a tradition, developed several centuries after his death, claiming to give his biography and family tree, little is known of his life and work. The texts associated with his name—the Hippocratic corpus—cover a period far longer than a lifetime, show wide variations in style and content, and in many cases are "multi-author concoctions": see G. E. R. Lloyd, The Revolutions of Wisdom (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1987), 132. On the manuscript tradition and assembly of the various treatises into a "Hippocratic corpus," possibly as late as the tenth century A.D ., see in general J. Irigoin, "Tradition manuscrite et histoire du texte: Quelques problèmes relatifs à la Collection Hippocratique," Revue d'histoire des textes 3 (1973): 1-13, with F. Pfaff, "Die Ueberlieferung des Corpus Hippocraticum in der nachalexandrinischen Zeit," Wiener Studien 50 (1932): 67-82. On the papyri so far found which give fragments of Hippocratic texts, see M.-H. Marganne, Inventaire analytique des papyrus grecs de médecine (Geneva: Centre de recherches d'histoire et de philologie de la IV e section, Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes 3, 12, 1981), updated by A. E. Hanson, ''Papyri of Medical Content," Yale Classical Studies 28 (1985): 25-47. "Genuine Works" comes from the title of Francis Adams's The Genuine Works of Hippocrates (London: Sydenham Society, 1849). Although the search for at least one section of the Hippocratic corpus that can securely be attributed to Hippocrates—the so-called "Hippocratic question," on which see G. E. R. Lloyd, "The Hippocratic Question," Classical Quarterly 25 (1975): 171-192—is no longer the main aim of Hippocratic studies, it still exerts a powerful fascination. Thus, for example, even W. D. Smith, whose discussion in The Hippocratic Tradition (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1979) challenges the dominant paradigm in order to expose the development from the third century B.C . onward of the myth of the life and works of Hippocrates, tries to prove that Regimen is a "genuine work." Shortly after the publication of Smith's Hippocratic Tradition , Mansfeld produced an article arguing the case for another text of the Hippocratic corpus, Airs, Waters, Places —making use of precisely the same evidence as Smith drew on in defense of Regimen . See J. Mansfeld, "Plato and the Method of Hippocrates," Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 21 (1980): 341-362. [BACK]
2. In 1922 Charles Singer described (imagined?) Hippocrates as "Learned, observant, humane . . . orderly and calm . . . grave, thoughtful and reticent, pure of mind and master of his passions"; see his Greek Biology and Greek Medicine (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1922). The social position of the Hippocratic doctor is best handled by Lloyd in Magic, Reason and Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Science, Folklore and Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); and Revolutions of Wisdom . Competition was an important social value in the Greek world, seen as a normal part of human activity; see the poet Hesiod, Works and Days 11-20, where "potter vies with potter." This description of preclassical society could be used to suggest that the Hippocratic doctor (Greek iatros ) would normally be in competition not only with mages, purifiers, begging priests, and quacks (literally "deceivers"): for this list see the Hippocratic text On the Sacred Disease 1 (L 6.354-356). [BACK]
3. Dr. Robb, "Hippocrates on Hysteria," Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin 3 (1892): 78-79. [BACK]
4. E. Slater, "Diagnosis of 'Hysteria,'" British Medical Journal (1965): 1395-1399; quotation is taken from p. 1396. [BACK]
5. I. Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 10. For an appreciation of Veith's considerable contribution to the history of medicine, see Showalter (chap. 4, this volume) and M. Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography: A Review of Past and Present Writings (1)," History of Science 27 (1989): 223-261, here pp. 227-228. [BACK]
6. R. A. Woodruff, D. W. Goodwin, and S. B. Guze, "Hysteria (Briquet's Syndrome)" (1974), in Hysteria , ed. A. Roy (Chichester: John Wiley, 1982), 117-129 (quotation, p. 118); P. B. Bart and D. H. Scully, "The Politics of Hysteria: The Case of the Wandering Womb," in Gender and Disordered Behavior: Sex Differences in Psychopathology , ed. E. S. Gomberg and V. Frank (New York: Brunner/Mazel), 354-380 (quotation, p. 354); S. B. Guze, "The Diagnosis of Hysteria: What Are We Trying to Do?" American Journal of Psychiatry 124 (1967): 491-498 (quotations, pp. 491, 493); see also J. Sauri, "La concepcion Hipocratica de la histeria,'' Actas Luso-Espanolas de Neurologia Psiquitria y Ciencias Afinas 1 [4] (1973): 539-546, esp. p. 539. Veith's control of the Greek material is questioned by H. Merskey, "Hysteria: The History of a Disease: Ilza Veith," British Journal of Psychiatry 147 (1985): 576-579. [BACK]
7. R. Satow, "Where Has All the Hysteria Gone?" Psychoanalytic Review 66 (1979/80): 463-477 (quotation, pp. 463-464). [BACK]
8. Sauri, "Concepcion Hipocratica de la histeria," 539-546, following Veith, attributes the belief in a migratory womb to the ancient Egyptians, who were supposed to have exerted a particularly strong influence on the "Cnidian" texts of the Hippocratic corpus; see esp. pp. 540 and 542. The traditional classification of the corpus into "Cnidian" and "Coan," with its suggestion that the Cnidian texts represent an earlier, prerational strand in opposition to the rational medicine of the school of Cos with which Hippocrates was associated, is increasingly seen as an unnecessary complication in the study of Greek medicine. See further R. Joly, Le niveau de la science hippocratique: Contribution à la psychologie de l'histoire des sciences (Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, 1966); I. M. Lonie, "Cos versus Cnidus and the Historians," History of Science 16 (1978): 42-75, 77-92; A. Thivel, Cnide et Cos? Essai sur les doctrines médicales dans la collection hippocratique (Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, 1981). G. R. Wesley, A History of Hysteria (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1980), 1-8 (which gives Hippocrates "credit for coining this term [hysteria]" but alleges an Egyptian origin for the clinical description; however, by attributing the words of Plato, Timaeus 91c, to the Egyptian Papyrus Ebers he shoots himself in the foot). Lloyd, Science, Folklore and Ideology , 65 n. 21 and 84 n. 100, does not, however, accept the implied link between Egyptian and Greek theories of the wandering womb. See further on this point Hanson, "Papyri of Medical Content," 25-47, and the discussion of the relevant papyri in H. Merskey and P. Potter, "The Womb Lay Still in Ancient Egypt," British Journal of Psychiatry 154 (1989): 751-753, which concludes that "the wandering womb did not come from Egypt." [BACK]
9. E. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie (Paris: Eds Seghers, 1986); see esp. p. 14. [BACK]
10. Adams, Genuine Works of Hippocrates , 50-54; B. Chance, "On Hippocrates and the Aphorisms," Annals of Medical History 2 (1930): 31-46. For criticism, see Smith, Hippocratic Tradition , esp. p. 238. On the importance of the Aphorisms in the late antique tradition and in the Middle Ages, see I. Müller-Rohlfsen, Die Lateinische Ravennatische Übersetzung der hippokratischen Aphorismen aus dem 5./6. Jahrhundert n. chr ., Geistes- und socialwissenschaftliche Dissertation 55, Hartmut Lüdke, Hamburg, 1980, p. xviii; A. Beccaria, "Sulle tracce di un antico canone latino di Ippocrate e di Galeno II. Gli Aforismi di Ippocrate nella versione e nei commenti del primo medioevo," Italia Medioevale e Umanistica 4 (1961), 1-75; P. Kibre, "Hippocrates Latinus: Repertorium of Hippocratic Writings in the Latin Middle Ages: II," Traditio 32 (1976), 257-292. [BACK]
11. A. Rousselle, "Images médicales du corps. Observation féminine et idéologie masculine: Le corps de la femme d'après les médecins grecs," Annales E.S.C . 35 (1980): 1089-1115, esp. p. 1115 n. 27. [BACK]
12. Indeed, it is used in this way by the second-century A.D . writer Aretaeus of Cappadocia, who entitles chapter 11 of his On the Causes and Symptoms of Chronic Diseases , book 4, "Concerning Hysterika " (CMG vol. 2, 79-82). A separate chapter in his work on acute diseases, 2.11, deals with hysterike pnix (CMG vol. 2, pp.32-35). [BACK]
13. Pliny's Natural History gives many examples of these uses: for mustard (Pliny, Natural History 20.87.237), black or white hellebore (25.31.53), and castoreum (beaver-oil, 32.13.28). And cf. the Hippocratic Aphorisms 5.49 (L 6.550). After intercourse, sneezing could cause miscarriage (Pliny, Natural History 7.6.42). [BACK]
14. Pliny, Natural History 20.87.238. Note that "conversion" in this context has none of the later, post-Freudian implications of "hysterical conversion," simply meaning a physical turning. Beaver-oil is also used by Pliny as a fumigation or pessary for women suffering "from their wombs" ( Natural History 32.13.28). In other words, the substances promoting sneezing can expel from above or from below, and from either location can succeed in returning wombs to their correct position. [BACK]
15. Pliny, Natural History 7.52.175; see below page 34 for the use of this case in the literature of hysteria. [BACK]
16. Veith, Hysteria , 10. In Aristotle, On the Generation of Animals 776a11, we are told that woman is the only hysterikon animal; the Loeb translation gives "alone of all animals women are liable to uterine affections," A. L. Peck, Aristotle: Generation of Animals (London: Heinemann, 1942), 467. Cf. the Hippocratic texts Prorrhetics 1.119 (L 5.550) and Coan Prognoses 343 (L 5.658) and 543 (L 5.708). [BACK]
17. Gynaikeia is a word of some complexity, and hence difficult to translate into one English word; literally "women's things," it can mean not only "diseases of women" but also "menstruation," ''lochia," "external female genitalia," and "cures for women's diseases." For examples, see Diseases of Women 1.20 (L 8.58); 1.74 (L 8.156); Nature of Woman 67 (L 7.402); Epidemics 2.1.8 (L 3.88); 6.8.32 (L 5.356); Coan Prognoses 511 (L 5.702); 516 (L 5.704); Ps-Aristotle On Sterility 634b12. [BACK]
18. Robb, "Hippocrates on Hysteria," 78-79. [BACK]
19. Cf. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 14. [BACK]
20. Rousselle, "Images médicales du corps," 1090. [BACK]
21. Adams, Genuine Works of Hippocrates , v. [BACK]
22. Smith, Hippocratic Tradition , 31. [BACK]
23. M.-P. Duminil, "La recherche hippocratique aujourd'hui," History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 2 (1979): 153-181, esp. p. 154 (my translation). [BACK]
24. L 8.275, on Hippocrates's Diseases of Women 2.128 [hereafter DW ]; 8.327, on DW 2.150; 8.309, on DW 2.137. [BACK]
25. Veith, Hysteria , 13. [BACK]
26. Adams, Genuine Works of Hippocrates ; J. Chadwick and W. N. Mann, The Medical Works of Hippocrates (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1950), 166; W. H. S. Jones, Hippocrates IV (Loeb Classical Library, London: Heinemann, and Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1931), 167. [BACK]
27. Cited in Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 272. [BACK]
28. D. W. Abse, Hysteria and Related Mental Disorders , 2d ed. (Bristol: Wright, 1987), 91. [BACK]
29. G. Lewis, Day of Shining Red (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 71-72. [BACK]
30. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 10.
31. Ibid., 274. [BACK]
30. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 10.
31. Ibid., 274. [BACK]
32. R. A. Woodruff, "Hysteria: An Evaluation of Objective Diagnostic Criteria by the Study of Women with Chronic Medical Illnesses," British Journal of Psychiatry 114 (1967): 1115-1119, esp. p. 1119.1 [BACK]
33. Guze, "Diagnosis of Hysteria," 494-495. [BACK]
34. See also Woodruff, Goodwin, and Guze, "Hysteria (Briquet's Syndrome)," in Hysteria , ed. Roy, 122-123. [BACK]
35. H. King, "Sacrificial Blood: The Role of the Amnion in Ancient Gynecology," Helios 13.2 (1987): 117-126 ( = Rescuing Creusa , ed. M. B. Skinner [Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1987]). [BACK]
36. Slater, "Diagnosis of 'Hysteria,'" 1395-1399.
37. Ibid., 1399; E. Slater, "What Is Hysteria?" in Hysteria , ed. Roy, 40. See also H. Merskey, "The Importance of Hysteria," British Journal of Psychiatry 149 (1986): 23-28: "Whenever we are at the margin of our ability to decide on a diagnosis, hysteria is a diagnostic possibility" (p. 24). [BACK]
36. Slater, "Diagnosis of 'Hysteria,'" 1395-1399.
37. Ibid., 1399; E. Slater, "What Is Hysteria?" in Hysteria , ed. Roy, 40. See also H. Merskey, "The Importance of Hysteria," British Journal of Psychiatry 149 (1986): 23-28: "Whenever we are at the margin of our ability to decide on a diagnosis, hysteria is a diagnostic possibility" (p. 24). [BACK]
38. E. Shorter, "Les désordres psychosomatiques sont-ils 'hystériques'? Notes pour une recherche historique," Cahiers internationaux de Sociologie 76 (1984): 201-224, esp. p. 208. [BACK]
39. C. D. Marsden, "Hysteria—A Neurologist's View," Psychological Medicine 16 (1986): 277-288, esp. pp. 282-283. For a general discussion of retrospective diagnosis and its perils, see Micale, "Hysteria and Its Historiography," 43-46. [BACK]
40. Slater, "Diagnosis of 'Hysteria,'" 1396. [BACK]
41. F. Walshe, "Diagnosis of Hysteria," British Medical Journal (1965): 1451-1454, esp. 1452. [BACK]
42. Roy, Hysteria . [BACK]
43. R. Mayou, "The Social Setting of Hysteria," British Journal of Psychiatry 127 (1975): 466-469, here p. 466. [BACK]
44. J. Wright, "Hysteria and Mechanical Man," Journal of the History of Ideas 41 (1980): 233-247, esp. p. 233; W. Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women—A Nineteenth-Century Perspective," Journal of Canadian Studies 21 (1986): 87-105, here p. 92. [BACK]
45. E. Shorter, "Paralysis—The Rise and Fall of a 'Hysterical' Symptom," Journal of Social History 19 (1986): 549-582, here p. 551. [BACK]
46. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 54. [BACK]
47. Risse, "Hysteria at the Edinburgh Infirmary: The Construction and Treatment of a Disease, 1770-1800," Medical History 32 (1988): 1-22. [BACK]
48. Mayou, "Social Setting of Hysteria," 466. [BACK]
49. Marsden, "Hysteria—A Neurologist's View," 279. [BACK]
50. Quoted in Shorter, "Paralysis," 578 n. 51. [BACK]
51. Mayou, "Social Setting of Hysteria," 466-468; Shorter, "Désordres psychosomatiques sont-ils 'hystériques' ?" 205; Shorter, "Paralysis," 550-551; see also Abse, Hysteria and Related Mental Disorders , 23-25. [BACK]
52. Shorter, "Paralysis," 574 and 549; see Shorter, "Désordres psychosomatiques sont-ils 'hystériques'?" 202. [BACK]
53. D.C. Taylor, "Hysteria, Play-acting and Courage," British Journal of Psychiatry 149 (1986): 37-41, defines hysteria as "the laying claim to sickness for which there is no objective evidence" and thus that hysteria is "a commonplace reaction" (p. 40). The "non-verbal language" suggestion is made by E. M. R. Critchley and H. E. Cantor, ''Charcot's Hysteria Renaissant," British Medical Journal 289 (1984): 1785-1788, here p. 1788. [BACK]
54. J. M. N. Boss, "The Seventeenth-Century Transformation of the Hysteric Affection, and Sydenham's Baconian Medicine," Psychological Medicine 9 (1979): 221-234, here p. 221. [BACK]
55. J. Gabbay, "Asthma Attacked? Tactics for the Reconstruction of a Disease Concept," in The Problem of Medical Knowledge: Examining the Social Construction of Medicine , ed. P. Wright and A. Treacher (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1982), 23-48, quotation p. 29. [BACK]
56. Gabbay, "Asthma Attacked?" in Problem of Medical Knowledge , Wright and Treacher, 33.
57. Ibid., 42. [BACK]
56. Gabbay, "Asthma Attacked?" in Problem of Medical Knowledge , Wright and Treacher, 33.
57. Ibid., 42. [BACK]
58. The Hippocratic Places in Man 47 (L 6.344). [BACK]
59. Boss, "Seventeenth-Century Transformation," 221-234. [BACK]
60. W. Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women," 89. [BACK]
61. Boss, "Seventeenth-Century Transformation," 232. [BACK]
65. Cf. H. Landouzy, Traité complet de l'hystérie (Paris and London: Baillière, 1846), with Littré; Landouzy accepts the curative powers of marriage but asks an important question that follows from the Hippocratic recommendation: "Peut-on épouser avec sécurité une hystérique?" (p. 303). See also H. Merskey, The Analysis of Hysteria (London: Baillière Tindall, 1979), 12 ff.; H. Ey, "History and Analysis of the Concept" (1964), in Hysteria , ed. Roy, 3-19. [BACK]
66. Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women," 90. [BACK]
67. F. M. Mai and H. Merskey, "Briquet's Concept of Hysteria: An Historical Perspective," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 26 (1981): 57-63. [BACK]
68. B. C. Brodie, Lectures Illustrative of Certain Local Nervous Affections (London: Longman, 1837), 46. [BACK]
69. Robb, "Hippocrates on Hysteria," 78-79.
70. Ibid., 79. Sauri, "Concepcion Hipocratica de la histeria," 539-546, uses DW 1.7 and 2.123-125; J. Palis, E. Rossopoulos, and L. C. Triarhou, "The Hippocratic Concept of Hysteria: A Translation of the Original Texts," Integrative Psychiatry 3 (1985): 226-228, translate NW 3 (L 7.314-316), 73 (L 7.404), 75 (L 7.404), and 87, with DW 2.123-125, while Veith, Hysteria , p. 10 n. 1, is ''primarily based" on DW 1.7, 1.32, and 2.123-127. [BACK]
69. Robb, "Hippocrates on Hysteria," 78-79.
70. Ibid., 79. Sauri, "Concepcion Hipocratica de la histeria," 539-546, uses DW 1.7 and 2.123-125; J. Palis, E. Rossopoulos, and L. C. Triarhou, "The Hippocratic Concept of Hysteria: A Translation of the Original Texts," Integrative Psychiatry 3 (1985): 226-228, translate NW 3 (L 7.314-316), 73 (L 7.404), 75 (L 7.404), and 87, with DW 2.123-125, while Veith, Hysteria , p. 10 n. 1, is ''primarily based" on DW 1.7, 1.32, and 2.123-127. [BACK]
71. Acut. Sp . 35 (L 2.522). This is an interesting distinction; classical Greek uterine pnix , which so many writers want to identify as "hysteria," is distinguished by normal sensations, yet "hysteria" in later historical periods is supposed to involve "local loss of sensation." See Wright, "Hysteria and Mechanical Man," 233. [BACK]
72. Robb, "Hippocrates on Hysteria," 78-79. [BACK]
73. M. R. Lefkowitz, Heroines and Hysterics (London: Duckworth, 1981), 13. [BACK]
74. The entry of the word "hysteria" into European language is surprisingly late. The French hystérie appears in dictionaries in 1731, and "hysteria" itself in 1801. One conclusion that could be drawn from this is that, because of the very recent origin of "hysteria," the medical profession has sought to give it some respectability by projecting it back into Hippocratic medicine. [BACK]
75. G. Lewis, "A View of Sickness in New Guinea," in Social Anthropology and Medicine , ed. J. B. Loudon (London: ASA Monograph 13, Academic Press, 1976), 88. [BACK]
76. L. Bourgey, Observation et experience chez les médecins de la collection hippocratique (Paris: J. Vrin, 1953), 149-152. [BACK]
77. v. Di Benedetto, Il medico e la malattia: La scienza di Ippocrate (Turin: Einaudi Paperbacks 172, 1986), 18-21, 89-91, 4.
78. Ibid., 21-23. Lloyd, in Revolutions of Wisdom , 203-206, points out that the terminology of classical Greek medicine is characterized by "a certain conceptual vagueness"; ordinary Greek is preferred to technical terms. [BACK]
77. v. Di Benedetto, Il medico e la malattia: La scienza di Ippocrate (Turin: Einaudi Paperbacks 172, 1986), 18-21, 89-91, 4.
78. Ibid., 21-23. Lloyd, in Revolutions of Wisdom , 203-206, points out that the terminology of classical Greek medicine is characterized by "a certain conceptual vagueness"; ordinary Greek is preferred to technical terms. [BACK]
79. C. M. T. Clologe, Essai sur l'histoire de la gynécologie dans l'antiquité grecque jusqu' à la collection Hippocratique (Bordeaux: Arnaud, 1905), 63: "Les anciens s'étaient beaucoup occupés de la menstruation." [BACK]
80. DW 1.1 (L. 8.10-12); Greek ischyros, stereos, pyknos . See W. A. Heidel, Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941), 91; P. Manuli, "Donne mascoline, femmine sterili, vergini perpetue: La ginecologia greca tra Ippocrate e Sorano," in Madre Materia , by S. Campese, P. Manuli, and G. Sissa (Turin: Boringhieri, 1983), 147-192, here p. 188. See A. E. Hanson, "Anatomical Assumptions in Hippocrates Diseases of Women 1.1," paper delivered at the APA, 1981, and R. Parker, Miasma (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 230, on the sheepskin analogy; the latter points out that the powers of absorption of the fleece account for its use in rituals of purification. In Superfetation 34 (L 8.506), sheepskin is used in therapy. A young girl who does not menstruate alternates among hunger, thirst, fever, and vomiting excess fluid. The remedy, warm lambskins placed on her abdomen, may be intended to draw out the excess fluid which should have come out as menstrual blood. [BACK]
81. Aristotle, GA 728a17 ff. and 737a; S. R. L. Clark, Aristotle's Man (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975); M. C. Horowitz, "Aristotle and Woman," Journal of the History of Biology 9 (1976): 183-213; L. Dean-Jones, "Menstrual Bleeding According to the Hippocratics and Aristotle," Transactions of the American Philological Association 119 (1989): 177-192. [BACK]
82. Hesiod, Works and Days , 45-105 and 373-375; idem, Theogony , 594-602; N. Loraux, "Sur la race des femmes et quelques-unes de ses tribus," Arethusa 11 (1978): 43-87. [BACK]
83. Plato, Timaeus 90e-91a. [BACK]
84. P. DuBois, Sowing the Body: Psychoanalysis and Ancient Representations of Women (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); N. Loraux, "Le lit, la guerre," L'Homme 21 (1981): 37-67; King, "Sacrificial Blood," 117-126 ( = Rescuing Creusa , Skinner). [BACK]
85. E.g., Airs, Waters, Places 10 (L 2.44 and 2.50); Nature of the Child 15 (L 7.494); Glands 16 (L 8.572). [BACK]
86. In Greek, strephontai hai metrai , close to the Latin converto . [BACK]
87. Younger women have the most blood, due to "the growth of the body and the diet." Diseases of Young Girls (L 8.466); confirmed in DW 2.111 (L 8.238-240). [BACK]
88. Castoreum and fleabane ( konyza ) appear together on many occasions; e.g., DW 2.128 (L 8.274); 2.200 (L 8.382); 2.201 (L 8.384). [BACK]
89. Bandages around the body occur in 2.127 (L 8.272) and 2.129 (L. 8.278). [BACK]
90. A translation of this text was given in my Ph.D. thesis, From Parthenos to Gyne: The Dynamics of Category , University of London, 1985. I am taking the Greek stomachos here to mean "mouth of the womb" rather than "mouth," although it can have many anatomical meanings and occurs in 2.203 (L 8.388) with the meaning "mouth." This is clearly not a "paint by numbers" format: if the reader tries to carry out the instructions in the order given, the jar will be sealed before the garlic and seal oil go in. Similar warnings about the possibility of exhaustion in the patient occur at DW 2.181 (L 8.364), 3.230 (L 8.442), and 3.241 (L 8.454). The vegetable substances used in scent therapy are discussed in S. Byl's ''L'odeur végétale dans la thérapeutique gynécologique du Corpus hippocratique," Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 67 (1989): 53-64. [BACK]
91. DW 2.126 (L 8.272); cf. 2.203 (L 8.390). [BACK]
92. E.g., DW 2.131 (L 8.278), where the substances to be used are not specified. [BACK]
93. NW 87 (L 7.408) reads, "In suffocation caused by movement [of the womb], light up the wick of a lamp then snuff it out, holding it under the nostrils so that she draws in the smoke. Then soak myrrh in perfume, dip wool in [so it is thoroughly impregnated] and insert. Also give her a drink of resin dissolved in oil." [BACK]
94. B. Simon, Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1978), 238. [BACK]
95. I. M. Lewis, Ecstatic Religion (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1971), and Mayou, "Social Setting of Hysteria," 467. [BACK]
96. Simon, Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece , 242, 251.
97. Ibid., 243. [BACK]
96. Simon, Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece , 242, 251.
97. Ibid., 243. [BACK]
98. Fourteen is the ideal age of menarche in medical writers (D. W. Amundsen and C. J. Diers, "The Age of Menarche in Classical Greece and Rome," Human Biology 41 [1969]: 125-132); for age at marriage, see W. K. Lacey, The Family in Classical Greece (London: Thames & Hudson, 1968), 162, and M. L. West, Hesiod: The Works and Days (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 327. [BACK]
99. DW 2.126 (L 8.270-272); DW 2.130 (L 8.326); DW 2.203 (L 8.386-392). [BACK]
100. DW 2.128 (L 8.274); DW 2.129 (L 8.276); DW 2.131 (L 8.278-280). [BACK]
101. Ps-Aristotle, Problems 30; Simon, Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece , 222. [BACK]
102. Marriage and childbirth are recommended therapies in many Hippocratic texts outside the hysteria tradition; e.g., DW 1.37 (L 8.92), 2.115 (L 8.250), 2.119 (L 8.260), 2.128 (L 8.276), 2.133 (L 8.302), Gen . 4 (L 7.476). [BACK]
103. DW 2.150 (L 8.326), 2.201 (L 8.384). [BACK]
104. DW 3.222 (L 8.430). [BACK]
105. Di Benedetto, Il medico e la malattia , 4. [BACK]
106. A. Rousselle, Porneia: On Desire and the Body in Antiquity (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1968), 69. [BACK]
107. D. Gourevitch, Le mal d'être femme: La femme et la médecine dans la Rome antique (Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, 198.4), 119. [BACK]
108. Hanson, "Anatomical Assumptions in Hippocrates"; Manuli, "Donne mascoline, femmine sterili" in Madre Materia , by Campese, Manuli, and Sissa, 157. [BACK]
109. E.g., DW 2.146 (L 8.322), 3.214 (L 8.414-416), 3.219 (L 8.424), 3.230 (L 8.440); Superfetation 25 (L 8.488-490); NW 96 (L 7.412-414); Aphorisms 5.59 (L 4.554). [BACK]
110. L 8.310: Greek ano/kato . [BACK]
111. DW 2.123 (L 8.266), 2.154 (L 8.330), a description of a "wild" womb, translated by Littré as "irritated"; 2.201 (L 8.384), a discussion of pnix . See Byl, "L'odeur végétale," 56-58. [BACK]
112. DW 2.125 (L 8.268), 2.137 (L 8.310), 2.143 (L 8.316), 2. 145 (L 8.320). [BACK]
113. C. M. Turbayne, "Plato's 'Fantastic' Appendix: The Procreation Model of the Timaeus," Paideia , special issue, 1976: 125-140, quotation from p. 132.
114. Ibid., 140 n. 11. [BACK]
113. C. M. Turbayne, "Plato's 'Fantastic' Appendix: The Procreation Model of the Timaeus," Paideia , special issue, 1976: 125-140, quotation from p. 132.
114. Ibid., 140 n. 11. [BACK]
115. F. Kudlien, "Early Greek Primitive Medicine," Clio Medica 3 (1968): 305-336, quotations from p. 330. See also S. Byl and A. F. De Ranter, "L'étiologie de la stérilité féminine dans le Corpus hippocratique," 303-322, in La maladie et les maladies dans la Collection hippocratique (Actes du VI e Colloque hippocratique), ed. P. Potter, G. Maloney, and J. Desautels (Quebec: Eds du Sphinx, 1990), 321. [BACK]
116. Aretaeus, 2.11 (CMG vol.2, pp.32.28-33.1); the relevant passage reads "and the sum of the matter is that the womb in the female is hokoion ti zoon en zooi ." [BACK]
117. DW 1.7 (L 8.32). [BACK]
118. Ann Hanson, pers. comm.; F. Adams, The Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta , vol. I (London: Welsh, 1834), 458, suggests that the Timaeus passage "ought perhaps not to be taken in too literal a sense, considering that philosopher's well-known propensity to mystification." [BACK]
119. Soranus of Ephesus, Gynecology 3.29 (CMG vol. 4, P.113.3-6); O. Tem-kin, Soranus' Gynecology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956), translates, "For the uterus does not issue forth like a wild animal from the lair, delighted by fragrant odors and fleeing bad odors: rather it is drawn together because of the stricture caused by the inflammation." "Wild animal" is the Greek therion , in contrast to Aretaeus's more neutral zoon , "living thing." [BACK]
120. Based on R. E. Siegel, Galen on the Affected Parts (Basel and New York: S. Karger, 1976), 187, translating On the Affected Parts 6.5(K 8.425-426), the Latin version of which reads: "Haec dicente Platone, quidam addiderunt, uterum, quum ita per corpus errans ad septum transversum pervenerit, respirationem interturbare. Alii errare ipsum veluti animal non dicunt, sed ubi suppressa sunt menstrua, exiccatum ac humectari cupientem ad viscera usque ascendere; quum vero ascendendo nonnunquam septum transversum contingat, idcirco animal respiratione privari." [BACK]
121. D. F. Krell, "Female Parts in Timaeus," Arion 2 (1975): 400-421, esp. p. 404. [BACK]
122. Plato, Timaeus 70e: Greek hos thremma agrion .
123. Ibid., 89b-c.
124. Ibid., 71a; 91a-b. [BACK]
122. Plato, Timaeus 70e: Greek hos thremma agrion .
123. Ibid., 89b-c.
124. Ibid., 71a; 91a-b. [BACK]
122. Plato, Timaeus 70e: Greek hos thremma agrion .
123. Ibid., 89b-c.
124. Ibid., 71a; 91a-b. [BACK]
125. Not hoion zoon , but zoon epithymetikon enon tes paidopoiias (91c). [BACK]
126. Aristotle, PA 666a 20-23 and 666b 16-17; MA 703b 21-26; see S. Byl, Recherches sur les grands traités biologiques d'Aristotle: Sources écrites et préjugés (Brussels: Palais des Académies, 1980), 124. [BACK]
127. Plato, Timaeus 73c ff. [BACK]
128. Gen . (L 7.473-474); Nature of Man 11 (L 6.58). [BACK]
129. L 7.478-480. [BACK]
130. Shorter, "Paralysis," 574 and 549. [BACK]
131. Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 16. [BACK]
132. E.g., DW 1.2 (L 8.32), use of he gyne , "the woman." [BACK]
133. Pnigei, DW 2.201 (L 8.384); DW 2.124 (L 8.266). [BACK]
134. Mitchinson, "Hysteria and Insanity in Women," 91. [BACK]
135. E. Jorden, A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: J. Windet, 1603). [BACK]
136. See Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 7. [BACK]
137. L 8.326. [BACK]
138. See Trillat, Histoire de l'hystérie , 33; Abse, Hysteria and Related Mental Disorders , 2. [BACK]
139. Places in Man 47 (L 6.344); cf. "the cause of numberless diseases," L 9.396. [BACK]
140. Proton ergon , Soranus, Gynecology 3.6. [BACK]
141. Nature of the Child 15 (L 7.494), the translation given is that of I. M. Lonie, The Hippocratic Treatises "On Generation," "On the Nature of the Child," "Diseases IV " (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1981), 8; the original Greek literally means "her original nature.'' [BACK]
142. Ep . 7.123 (L 5.468). [BACK]
143. Ep . 6.8.32 (L 5.356); DW 3.230 (L 8.444). [BACK]
144. L 7.476. [BACK]
145. Aristotle, PA 650a 8ff.; GA 775a 14-20; Horowitz, "Aristotle and Woman," 183-213. [BACK]
146. Plutarch, Moralia 650a-651e. [BACK]
147. Aristotle, PA 648a 28-30; GA 765b 19. [BACK]
148. L 8.12-14. [BACK]
149. L 6.512. [BACK]
150. Greek kaminos ; Aristotle, GA 764a 12-20. [BACK]
151. Herodotus, 5.92. [BACK]
152. Artemidorus, Oneirocritica: The Interpretation of Dreams , trans. R.J. White (Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press, 1975), 2.10. [BACK]
153. Gen . 4 (L 7.474-476); NC 12 (L 7.486)—Greek en thermoi eousa , trans. Lonie, Hippocratic Treatises , 6— NC 30 (L 7.536). [BACK]
154. Greek paue, pnigeran legeis (line 122). [BACK]
155. The use of similar imagery does not end in the classical Greek period. Around A.D . 1565, Teresa of Avila suffered symptoms that, in the nineteenth century, were retrospectively diagnosed as hysteria. These included contractive spasms, sweating and chills, as well as feeling "like a person who has a rope around his neck, is being strangled and trying to breathe" (C. M. Bache, "A Reappraisal of Teresa of Avila's Supposed Hysteria," Journal of Religion and Health 24 (1985): 300-315, esp. pp. 310 and 305). [BACK]
156. M.-P. Duminil, "Recherche hippocratique aujourd'hui," 156; D.J. Furley and J. S. Wilkie, Galen on Respiration and the Arteries (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984), 22. A similar difficulty exists between the Latin con-ceptio , meaning retention of the male seed, and our "conception," meaning the fertilization of the ovum by the sperm; see the Budé edition of Soranus (ed. P. Burguiére, D. Gourevitch, and Y. Malinas, 1988), p. xcv. [BACK]
157. Empedocles in H. Diels and W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker I (Berlin: Weidmannsche, 1951), fragment 31 B 100; Furley and Wilkie, Galen on Respiration , 3-5. [BACK]
158. Plato, Timaeus 76b1-e9, discussed by Furley and Wilkie, Galen on Respiration , 7-8. [BACK]
159. On Aristotle, see above, n. 150; the quotations are from Galen, On the Usefulness of Breathing , chap. 3 (K 4.492 and 4.508), using the Furley and Wilkie edition, Galen on Respiration , 109 and 131. [BACK]
160. Galen, On the Affected Parts (K 8.415). [BACK]
161. See discussion in M. D. Grmek, "Les Indicia mortis dans la médecine gréco-romaine," in La mort, les morts et l'au-delà dans le monde greco-romaine , ed. F. Hinard (Caen: Centre des Publications de l'Université, 1987), 129-144, and A. Debru, "La suffocation hystérique chez Galien et Aetius: Réécriture et emprunt de 'je,'" in Tradizione e ecdotica dei testi medici tardoantichi e bizantini (Atti del Convegno Internazionale Anacapre 29-31 ottobre 1990), ed. A. Garzya (Napoli: M. D'Auria, 1992), 79-89. [BACK]
162. Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers 8.61. The remaining fragments of Apnous or Peri tes apnou (On the absence of breath, also known as On the causes of disease) are given in the edition of the fragments of Heracleides edited by F. Wehrli, Die Schule des Aristoteles: Heft VII, Herakleides Pontikos (Basel: Schwabe, 1953). On Empedocles as a "showman" among early cosmogonists, see Lloyd, Revolutions of Wisdom , 101. [BACK]
163. Pliny, Natural History 7.52.175; Latin exanimis , "without breath," can also mean "without life." The editio princeps of Pliny was published in 1469, but abridgments and extracts circulated throughout the Middle Ages: see M. Chibnall, "Pliny's Natural History and the Middle Ages" in Silver Latin II , ed. T. A. Dorey (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975), 57-78; book 7 was certainly in circulation from the early ninth century A.D .; see L. D. Reynolds, ed., Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 307-316. [BACK]
164. Literally conversio volvae . The Budé edition of Pliny gives a "medical" translation, "la rétroversion," while the Loeb uses the rather vague "distortion." [BACK]
165. Pieter van Foreest (1522-1597), Observationum et curationum medicinalium, liber vigesimus-octavus, de mulierum morbis (Leyden: Plantin, 1599), Obs. 27, 167-168; the story is also given by Nicolas de la Roche (fl. 1542) in De morbis mulierum curandis (Paris: V. Gaultherot, 1542), 65 r-v . [BACK]
166. Origen, Against Celsus 2.16, 402: Heracleides frag. 78 Wehrli. [BACK]
167. Soranus, Gynecology 3.4.29 (CMG 4.112.18-23); trans. O. Temkin, 153. [BACK]
168. J. Longrigg, "Superlative Achievement and Comparative Neglect: Alexandrian Medical Science and Modern Historical Research," History of Science 19 (1981): 155-200; P. Potter, "Herophilus of Chalcedon: An Assessment of His Place in the History of Anatomy," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 50 (1976): 45-60; H. von Staden, Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). [BACK]
169. Manilas frag. 11: Soranus, Gynecology 3.4.29 (CMG IV p.112.22-23); von Staden, Herophilus , 517-518. On the effects of these discoveries on medical writing, see D. Gourevitch, "Situation de Soranos dans la médecine antique," in Soranos d'Ephèse: Maladies des femmes 1.1 , Budé ed. (Paris: Eds Belles Lettres, 1988), xxxiv-xxxv. [BACK]
170. Marganne, Inventaire analytique des papyrus grecs , no. 155, PP. 283-286; P. Ryl. 3.531 ( = PACK 2 2418). On the huge therapeutic repertory of Hippocratic gynecology, see Di Benedetto, Il medico e la malattia , 17. It is possible that the remedies that occur only once in the medical corpus simply represent the attempt of a healer to think of something entirely new in order to impress the patient. See the descriptions of the competitive social context of early medicine in G. E. R. Lloyd's Magic, Reason and Experience (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), Science, Folklore and Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), and Revolutions of Wisdom , 68-69 and 96 on the importance of innovation in Hippocratic medicine, and 103-104 on rivalry. [BACK]
171. Marganne no. 93, PP. 168-169; P. Hibeh 2.191 ( = PACK 2 2348). [BACK]
172. Marganne, Inventoire analytique des papyrus grecs , no. 8, pp. 16-17; B K T 3.33-34 ( = PACK 2 2394). [BACK]
173. Latin vulva ; Celsus 4.27, CML vol. 1, pp. 180-181. [BACK]
174. DW 1.77 (L 8.172), in which blood is let at the ankle in order to ease a long and difficult labor; P. Brain, Galen on Bloodletting (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 113-114. [BACK]
175. Soranus, Gynecology 3.28.4 (CMG vol. 4, p.111.8); Galen, On Venesection against the Erasistrateans in Rome (K 11.201; Brain, Galen on Bloodletting , 45); it is recommended that this be done at the ankle, to encourage the flow of blood away from the womb ( On Treatment by Venesection , K 11.283, 11.302-303; Brain, Galen on Bloodletting , 93). [BACK]
176. See in general M. H. Green, The Transmission of Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease through the Early Middle Ages , Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1985, with M. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1978), 11-15, and the discussion of the rediscovery of Hippocratism in V. Nutton, "Hippocrates in the Renaissance," in Die hippokratischen Epidemien , ed. G. Baader and R. Winau, Sudhoffs Archiv Beiheft 27 (Stuttgart, 1990), 420-439. [BACK]
177. On the content of Aretaeus see O. Temkin, "History of Hippocratism in Late Antiquity: The Third Century and the Latin West," in The Double Face of Janus and Other Essays in the History of Medicine , by O. Temkin (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 167-177, esp. p. 170. Aretaeus uses the word hymenes for these membranes; see 2.11.5 (CMG vol. 2, P.33.29), 4.11.9 (CMG vol. 2, p.81.28), and 6.10.1 (CMG vol. 2, p.139.27). Scent therapy is discussed in a separate section on remedies for hysterical suffocation, at 6.10.3 (CMG vol. 2, p.140.17-19). It is worth noting here that the discussion of Aretaeus in Veith's Hysteria , 22-23, wrongly asserts that he gives a "brief reference to male hysteria." In fact, although he mentions an unnamed condition, described as having some symptoms in common with suffocation of the womb, and affecting both sexes, in his discussion of satyriasis in 2.12.4 he explicitly denies that suffocation of the womb can affect men, since men do not have wombs (CMG vol. 2, P.35.11-12). [BACK]
178. In his discussion of epilepsy itself, Aretaeus includes the symptom of " pnix as if strangled"; see 1.5.6 (CMG vol. 2, P.4.27). [BACK]
179. 2.11.4 (CMG vol. 2, P.33.15-17); I translate phlebes as "channels." [BACK]
180. "High-sailing" is akroploos , 2.11.5 (CMG vol. 2, P.33.29); the membranes around the womb are "like the sails of a ship" in 4.11.9 (CMG vol. 2, p.81.31) and 6.10.1 (CMG vol. 2, p.140.3-4). [BACK]
181. Aretaeus goes beyond Aphorisms 5.35, and says that sneezing, when accompanied by pressure on the nostrils, can make the womb return to its place; 6.10.5 (CMG vol. 2, p.141.7-9). [BACK]
182. Venesection occurs at 6.10.3 (CMG vol. 2, p.140.14) and 6.10.6 (CMG vol. 2, p.141.14-15) where the removal of hairs is also discussed. [BACK]
183. Smith, Hippocratic Tradition . [BACK]
184. Gourevitch, "Situation de Soranos," in Soranos d'Éphèse , Budé ed., xxxi. On the establishment of the text of Soranus, see P. Burguière, "Histoire du texte," in Soranos d'Éphèse , Budé ed., xlvii-lxv. On Caelius Aurelianus, see M. F. Drabkin and I. E. Drabkin, Caelius Aurelianus: Gynaecia fragments of a Latin version of Soranus's Gynaecia from a thirteenth-century manuscript (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1951), and J. Pigeaud, "Pro Caelio Aureliano," Mémoires du Centre Jean Palerne 3: Médecins et Médecine dans l'Antiquité (Université de Saint-Etienne, 1982), 105-117. [BACK]
185. In general see P. Manuli, "Elogia della castità: La Ginecologia di Sorano," Memoria 3 (1982): 39-49; Gourevitch, "Situation de Soranos," in Soranos d'Éphèse , Budé ed., vii-xlvi; p. xiii discusses the correct terms for the three conditions of the body. On the difficulty in reading our main source for the "sects," see O. Temkin, "Celsus' 'On Medicine' and the Ancient Medical Sects," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 3 (1935): 249-264; W. D. Smith, "Notes on Ancient Medical Historiography," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 63 (1989): 73-109; Lloyd, Revolutions of Wisdom , 158-171. See also M. Frede, "The Method of the So-called Methodical School of Medicine," in Science and Speculation , ed. J. Barnes, J. Brunschwig, M. Burnyeat, and M. Schofield (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1821), 1-23. [BACK]
186. Gourevitch, "Situation de Soranos," in Soranos d'Éphèse , Budé ed., xlv. [BACK]
187. O. Temkin, Soranus' Gynecology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956), 9; Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 34; Lloyd, Revolutions of Wisdom (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987), 164-165. [BACK]
188. Soranus, Gynecology 3.29.5 (CMG vol. 4, P.113.5-6).
189. Ibid. (CMG vol. 4, P.113.3-5), trans. Temkin, 153.
190. Ibid., 3.28.4 (CMG vol. 4, P.111.8); the acute and chronic forms are distinguished at 3.28.1 (CMG vol. 4, P.110.22). [BACK]
188. Soranus, Gynecology 3.29.5 (CMG vol. 4, P.113.5-6).
189. Ibid. (CMG vol. 4, P.113.3-5), trans. Temkin, 153.
190. Ibid., 3.28.4 (CMG vol. 4, P.111.8); the acute and chronic forms are distinguished at 3.28.1 (CMG vol. 4, P.110.22). [BACK]
188. Soranus, Gynecology 3.29.5 (CMG vol. 4, P.113.5-6).
189. Ibid. (CMG vol. 4, P.113.3-5), trans. Temkin, 153.
190. Ibid., 3.28.4 (CMG vol. 4, P.111.8); the acute and chronic forms are distinguished at 3.28.1 (CMG vol. 4, P.110.22). [BACK]
191. P. Diepgen, Die Frauenheilkunde der Alten Welt: Handbuch der Gynäkologie XII , 1 (Munich: Bergmann, 1937), 233. On the identity of the short treatise De gynaeciis liber, hoc est de passionibus mulierum , attributed to Galen and including references to hysterical suffocation, together with scent therapy, see M. H. Green, "The De Genecia Attributed to Constantine the African," Speculum 62 (1987): 299-323, esp. p. 30 n. 9. There also exists an Arabic commentary on Diseases of Women 1.1-11, which is attributed to Galen; Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 118-119 n. 5, argues that this attribution merits further investigation, since Galen wrote that he planned a commentary on this text. [BACK]
192. Galen, On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.414-437). [BACK]
193. On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.414). See T. C. Allbutt, Greek Medicine in Rome (London: Macmillan, 1921), 344. [BACK]
194. E. Trillat, "Trois itinéraires à travers l'histoire de l'hystérie," Histoire des Sciences médicales 21 (1987): 27-31, esp. p. 28. [BACK]
195. On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.424), use of ton hysterikon legomenon symptomaton ; see also the commentary on Aphorism 5.35, K17B.824. [BACK]
196. On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.417); the English translation given here is that of Siegel, which is not always to be trusted: p. 184. [BACK]
197. K 8.426 and K 8.430, trans. Siegel, p.189. Galen himself wrote a treatise called "On the Anatomy of the Uterus," which, like On the Affected Parts , was translated into Arabic; see M. Ullmann, Die Medizin im Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1970), 35-68. [BACK]
198. See in particular the Hippocratic text Generation : Lonie, Hippocratic Treatises , esp. pp. 1-5. For the writer of these texts, female seed is weak and thin, male strong and thick. On Soranus and the context of his work see Gourevitch, "Situation de Soranos," in Soranos d'Éphèse , Budé ed., xix. [BACK]
199. On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.420, 424, and 432-433). [BACK]
200. On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.421-424). [BACK]
201. Sympaschei , K 8.424; adelphixia, On joints 57 (L 4.246); in the sixteenth century, the Latin communitas is the preferred term. [BACK]
202. Further discussion of the mechanism by which these symptoms are produced may be found in On the Method of Healing, to Glaucon 1.15 (C. Daremberg, Oeuvres anatomiques, physiologiques, et médicales de Galien [Paris: Baillière, 1854-6], Vol. II, p. 735), where the seed becomes wet and cold, chilling the body. [BACK]
203. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 50-52. Scent therapy too is described in On the Method of Healing, to Glaucon 1.15 (Daremberg, Oeuvres anatomiques , Vol. II, p. 735), and also in On Compound Medicines according to Site 9.10 (K 13.320). [BACK]
204. On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.420); cf. DW 2.201 (L 8.384) on rubbing aromatics into the groin and inner thighs. [BACK]
205. PGM VII 260-272; K. Preisendanz and A. Henrichs, Papyri Graecae Magicae 2 (Stuttgart: Teubner, 1974). The translation is that of J. Scarborough, in The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation , by H. D. Betz (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 123-124. [BACK]
206. Pandora is created with a kyneos noos , the mind of a bitch (Hesiod Works and Days 67). On the sexuality of the dog, see for example Aristotle, HA 540a 24 and 574b 27. Kuon , dog, can mean the genitals of either sex. [BACK]
207. Marcellus Empiricus, fl. A.D . 395; see De medicamentis liber , chap. 1.25 (CML vol. 5, pp.60.35-61.3). The editio princeps of Cornarius was printed in 1536; p. 32 has a note in the margin by this passage saying suffocatio de vulva (J. Cornarius, De medicamentis empiricis, physicis, ac rationabilibus liber [Basel: Froben, 1536]). [BACK]
208. On encyclopedism, see P. Lemerle, Byzantine Humanism: The First Phase , Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, Byzantina Australiensa 3, Canberra 1986, chap. 10; medical treatises receive only a brief mention on p. 341. [BACK]
209. See M. Meyerhof and D. Joannides, La Gynécologie et l'Obstétrique chez Avicenne (Ibn Sina) et leurs rapports avec celles des Grecs (Cairo: R. Schindler, 1938), 6. A reassessment of the period is given by V. Nutton, "From Galen to Alexander, Aspects of Medicine and Medical Practice in Late Antiquity," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38 (1984), 1-14 ( = V. Nutton, From Democedes to Harvey [London: Variorum Reprints, 1988], chap. 10, 2-3). [BACK]
210. J. Kollesch, Untersuchungen zu den pseudogalenischen Definitiones Medicae (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1973), 14; J. Duffy, "Byzantine Medicine in the Sixth and Seventh Centuries: Aspects of Teaching and Practice," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38, ed. Scarborough, 21-27. [BACK]
211. J. Duffy, "Byzantine Medicine in the Sixth and Seventh Centuries: Aspects of Teaching and Practice," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38, ed. Scarborough, 21-27; here 21-22. [BACK]
212. N. G. Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium (London: Duckworth, 1983), 48, and see also 85-86. [BACK]
213. Oribasius, Collectiones medicae 24.31 (CMG vol. 6.2,1, pp.41-46). [BACK]
214. Oribasius, Synopsis 9.45 (CMG vol. 6.3, p.305.10-28), trans. C. Daremberg, in Oeuvres d'Oribase , ed. U. Bussemaker and C. Daremberg, 6 vols. (Paris: Impr. Nationale, 1851-1876), vol. 6, pp. 539-540. Philumenos of Alexandria was the author of a work on gynecology, and another on venomous animals and remedies for their stings and bites (see Allbutt, Greek Medicine in Rome ). The latter is available as CMG vol. 10.1.1. Philumenos uses the same remedies for certain poisons as for hysterike pnix (pp. 14.19 and 22), thus echoing Galen's view that retained seed and menses acted like a poison on the body. About Philumenos himself little is known; even his date is variously given as the first century A.D ., ca. A.D . 180, or the third century A.D . He does not explicitly use Galen—which lends support to the earliest date but the above reference to hysterike pnix may imply knowledge of Galen's theories. [BACK]
215. Oribasius, Synopsis 9.41 (CMG vol. 6.3, p.301). [BACK]
216. G. Baader, "Early Medieval Latin Adaptations of Byzantine Medicine in Western Europe," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38, ed. Scarborough, 251-259, esp. p. 252; Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium , 57-58; Duffy, "Byzantine Medicine," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38, ed. Scarborough, 21-27, esp. 25-27. [BACK]
217. Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium , 142-143. [BACK]
218. 16.68; while the completion of the CMG Aetius is awaited, Book 16 appears only in the unsatisfactory edition of S. Zervos, Aetii sermo sextidecimus et ultimus (Leipzig: Mangkos, 1901), of which see pp. 95 ff.; Soranus is cited on p. 97.26. An English translation is available in J. V. Ricci, Aetios of Amida: The Gynecology and Obstetrics of the Sixth Century A.D . (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1950), where the relevant sections may be found on pp. 70-76. See also A. Garzya, "Problèmes relatifs à l'édition des livres IX-XVI du Tétrabiblon d'Aétios d'Amida," Revue des Etudes Anciennes 86 (1984): 245-257. [BACK]
219. Zervos, Aetii sermo , p.96. 1-3. [BACK]
220. Galen, On the Affected Parts 6.5 (K 8.415). [BACK]
221. Zervos, Aetii sermo , P.97.14. See further J. M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1992), 92-97. Riddle argues that Aetius "displayed a knowledge of contraceptives and abortifacients greater than anyone else in antiquity, except Soranus and Dioscorides" (92).
222. Ibid., p.97.26-28.
223. Ibid., p.98.1. Debru argues that the use of the first person in other people's stories is characteristic of this genre; see Debru, "La suffocation hystérique." Note that this readiness to turn a general story into a personal experience is evident even in the writings of one person; Nutton shows that the stories Galen had read or heard thirty years before were transformed into his own eye-witness accounts in his later writings. See V. Nutton, "Style and Context in the Method of Healing ," in Galen's Method of Healing , ed. F. Kudlien and R.J. Durling (Leiden: Brill, 1991), 1-25; see pp. 12-13. [BACK]
221. Zervos, Aetii sermo , P.97.14. See further J. M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1992), 92-97. Riddle argues that Aetius "displayed a knowledge of contraceptives and abortifacients greater than anyone else in antiquity, except Soranus and Dioscorides" (92).
222. Ibid., p.97.26-28.
223. Ibid., p.98.1. Debru argues that the use of the first person in other people's stories is characteristic of this genre; see Debru, "La suffocation hystérique." Note that this readiness to turn a general story into a personal experience is evident even in the writings of one person; Nutton shows that the stories Galen had read or heard thirty years before were transformed into his own eye-witness accounts in his later writings. See V. Nutton, "Style and Context in the Method of Healing ," in Galen's Method of Healing , ed. F. Kudlien and R.J. Durling (Leiden: Brill, 1991), 1-25; see pp. 12-13. [BACK]
221. Zervos, Aetii sermo , P.97.14. See further J. M. Riddle, Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1992), 92-97. Riddle argues that Aetius "displayed a knowledge of contraceptives and abortifacients greater than anyone else in antiquity, except Soranus and Dioscorides" (92).
222. Ibid., p.97.26-28.
223. Ibid., p.98.1. Debru argues that the use of the first person in other people's stories is characteristic of this genre; see Debru, "La suffocation hystérique." Note that this readiness to turn a general story into a personal experience is evident even in the writings of one person; Nutton shows that the stories Galen had read or heard thirty years before were transformed into his own eye-witness accounts in his later writings. See V. Nutton, "Style and Context in the Method of Healing ," in Galen's Method of Healing , ed. F. Kudlien and R.J. Durling (Leiden: Brill, 1991), 1-25; see pp. 12-13. [BACK]
224. Zervos, Aetii sermo , p.98.1-8; P.99.18-22.
225. Ibid., p.100.7; p.101.1-3 (= Oribasius, Synopsis 9.45.6). [BACK]
224. Zervos, Aetii sermo , p.98.1-8; P.99.18-22.
225. Ibid., p.100.7; p.101.1-3 (= Oribasius, Synopsis 9.45.6). [BACK]
226. 3.71 (CMG vol. 9.1, p.288.8-289.21). This is translated into English in Adams, The Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta , 345-346. [BACK]
227. CMG vol. 9.1, p.288.8; Greek anadrome . [BACK]
228. CMG vol. 9.1, p.288.19-20. [BACK]
229. CMG vol. 9.1, p.288.24-27; cf. Zervos, Aetii sermo , P.97.12-14. [BACK]
230. CMG vol. 9.1, p-289.6-8; Zervos, Aetii sermo , p.99.8-10 gives the same three substances. [BACK]
231. CMG vol. 9.1, p.289.16; cf. Soranus, Gynecology 3.28.1 (CMG vol. 4, p.110.22). [BACK]
232. G. Del Guerra, Il libro di Metrodora (Milan: Ceschina, 1953), 41, and "La medicina bizantina e il codice medico-ginecologica di Metrodora," Scientia Veterum 118 (1968): 67-94:89. [BACK]
233. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 135 and 174-175 nn. 5 and 6. [BACK]
234. Baader, "Early Medieval Latin Adaptations of Byzantine Medicine," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38 (1984): 251-252. [BACK]
235. Muscio should be consulted in the V. Rose edition of Sorani Gynaeciorum vetus translatio Latina (Leipzig: Teubner, 1882), 4.26-29 (pp. 58-61); compare with M. F. Drabkin and I. E. Drabkin, Caelius Aurelianus . The added phrase is ascendente sursum ad pectus matrice , and it occurs at Rose p.58.9-10 and Drabkin p.76.367-368. [BACK]
236. V. Rose, Theodori Prisciani Euporiston Libri III (Leipzig: Teubner, 1894), 228-230. On Theodorus Priscianus, see O. Temkin, "History of Hippocratism in Late Antiquity: The Third Century and the Latin West," in Double Face of Janus , by Temkin, 174. [BACK]
237. V. Rose, Cassii Felicis De Medicina ex Graecis Logicae Sectae Auctoribus Liber Translatus (Leipzig: Teubner, 1879), chap. 77, PP. 187-189. See Temkin, "History of Hippocratism," in Double Face of Janus , by Temkin, 228; and Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 167. [BACK]
238. Rose, Sorani Gynaeciorum , 131-139; Baader, "Early Medieval Latin Adaptations of Byzantine Medicine," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38, ed. Scar-borough, 251. [BACK]
239. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 153. [BACK]
240. For criticism of the view that Hippocratic writings were unknown in the West before the fifteenth century, see P. Kibre, "Hippocratic Writings in the Middle Ages," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 18 (1945): 373-412, and "Hippocrates Latinus," Traditio 36 (1980): 347-372, esp. p. 347 n. 1. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 142, 146-147; Latin manuscripts such as the early ninth-century Paris BN 11219, which contains DW 1.7-38, can be traced to Ravenna. On Ravenna, see Müller-Rohlfsen, Die Lateinische Ravennatische . [BACK]
241. See further I. Mazzini and G. Flammini, De conceptu (Bologna: Patron Editore, 1983); M. E. Vazquez Bujan, El de mulierum affectibus del corpus Hippocraticum: Estudio y edición critica de la antigua traducción latina (Compostela: Universidad de Santiago, 1986); Irigoin, "Tradition manuscrite," 1-13. [BACK]
242. For a translation of this commentary, see N. Palmieri, "Un antico commento a Galeno della scuola medica di Ravenna," Physis 23 (1981): 197-296, esp. 288-289, discussed in Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 153-153. [BACK]
243. Green, " De genecia Attributed to Constantine," 311; I. Mazzini, "Ippocrate latino dei secolo V-VI: tecnica di traduzione," in I Testi di Medicina Latini Antichi: Problemi Filologici e Storici , I. Mazzini and F. Fusco, Atti del I Convegno Internazionale, Università di Macerata, Bretschneider, 1985, 383-387, esp. p. 385. [BACK]
244. Beccaria, "Antico canone latino di Ippocrate," 36 and 38-39; Kibre, "Hippocrates Latinus," 280-282; J. Agrimi, "L' Hippocrates Latinus nella tradizione manoscritta e nella cultura altomedievali," in I Testi di Medicina Latini Antichi , Mazzini and Fusco, 391-392. On the relationship between the Epistula ad Maecenatem and Vindicianus, see M. E. Vazquez Bujan, "Vindiciano y el tratado De natura generis humani," Dynamis 2 (1982): 25-56. [BACK]
245. P. Diepgen, "Reste antiker Gynäkologie im frühen Mittelalter," Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften 3 (1933): 226-242, esp. 228-229; G. Walter, "Peri Gynaikeion A of the Corpus Hippocraticum in a Latin Translation," Bulletin of the Institute of the History of Medicine 3 (3935): 599-606. [BACK]
246. M. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1978), 8. The terms Arabic medicine and Islamic medicine are misleading; many of those whose work is considered here were not Muslims or were not of Arab origin. The reader should take warning. Veith, Hysteria , 94-97, pays little attention to the Arab world, saying merely that "the three leading Muslim physicians [Ibn Sina, Rhazes and Haly Abbas] did not write much about hysteria." The difficulty in studying the fortunes of the hysteria tradition in the Arab world is the paucity of texts available in European languages; however, since many of these works were translated into Latin, it is at least possible for the scholar without Arabic to make some preliminary comments. [BACK]
247. Irigoin, "Tradition manuscrite," 1-13; D. Lippi and S. Arieti, "La ricezione del Corpus hippocraticum nell'Islam," in I Testi di Medicina Latini Antichi , Mazzini and Fusco, 399-402; Meyerhof and Joannides, Gynécologie et l'Obstétrique chez Avicenne , 6; Ullmann, Islamic Medicine , 11; M. Meyerhof, "New Light on Hunain Ibn Ishaq and His Period," Isis 8 (1926): 685-724. [BACK]
248. R. J. Durling, "A Chronological Census of Renaissance Editions and Translations of Galen," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 24 (1961): 230-305, esp. p. 232. See also Lippi and Arieti, "Ricezione del Corpus hippocraticum ," in I Testi di Medicina Latini Antichi , by Mazzini and Fusco, 401. [BACK]
249. M. Ullmann, "Zwei spätantike Kommentare zu der hippokratischen Schrift 'De morbis muliebribus'," Medizinhistorisches Journal 12 (1977): 245-262; Green, " De genecia Attributed to Constantine," 303 n. 15, 305 n.22; Ullmann, Islamic Medicine , 11-12. [BACK]
250. On al-Tabari, see M. Meyerhof, "Ali at-Tabari's 'Paradise of Wisdom,' One of the Oldest Arabic Compendiums of Medicine," Isis 16 (1931): 6-54, esp. 13-15; 5; E.G. Browne, Arabic Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921), 37-40. [BACK]
251. Firdaws 2.1, chap. 16; A. Siggel, "Gynäkologie, Embryologie und Frauenhygiene aus dem 'Paradies der Weisheit Über die Medizin' des Abu Hana 'Ali b. Sahl Rabban at-Tabari nach der Ausgabe von Dr. Zubair as-Siddiqi, 1928," Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin 8 (1941): 216-272, esp. p. 242. [BACK]
252. Firdaws 4.9, chap. 17; Siggel, "Gynäkologie, Embryologie," 244-245. [BACK]
253. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine , 43. [BACK]
254. Chap. 87, De praefocatione matricis; I am using the edition of 1534, Rhasis Philosophi Tractatus nonus ad regem Almansorem, de curatione morborum particularium (Paris: Simon de Colines, 1534). [BACK]
255. Kamil I 9.39; A. A. Gewargis, Gynäkologisches aus dem Kamil as-Sina'a at-Tibbiya des 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Magusi , Inaugural dissertation, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen-Nürnberg, 1980, 43. On al-Majusi, see Browne, Arabic Medicine , (1921), 53-57, and Meyerhof and Joannides, Gynécologie et l'Obstétrique chez Avicenne , 7. [BACK]
256. Kamil II 8.12; Gewargis, Gynäkologisches , 76. [BACK]
257. Gewargis, Gynäkologisches , 18; see further, U. Weisser, Zeugung, Vererbung und Pränatale Entwicklung in der Medizin des arabisch-islamischen Mittelalters (Erlangen: Lülung, 1983), 146-147, and U. Weisser, "Das Corpus Hippocraticum in der arabischen Medizin," in Die hippokratischen Epidemien , ed. G. Baader and R. Winau, Sudhoffs Archiv Beiheft 27 (1990): 377-408. [BACK]
258. Gewargis, Gynäkologisches , 44 and 80, picking up Aetius (Zervos p. 97.13) on the susceptibility of the young to suffocation. See also Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 114, and 'Arib ibn Sa'id, Le Livre de la Génération du Foetus et le Traitement des Femmes enceintes et des Nouveau-nés , edited and translated by H. Jahier and N. Abdelkader (Algiers: Librairie Ferraris, 1956). [BACK]
259. Gewargis, Gynäkologisches , 77. [BACK]
260. On Ibn al-Jazzar, see J. Schönfeld, "Die Zahnheilkunde im 'Kitab Zad al-musafir' des al-Gazzar,'' Sudhoffs Archiv 58 (1974): 380-403; R. Jazi, "Millénaire d'Ibn al-Jazzar, pharmacien maghrébin, médecin des pauvres et des déshérités," Revue d'Histoire de la Pharmacie 33 (1986): 5-12, 108-120; idem, "Aphrodisiaqu es et médicaments de la reproduction chez Ibn al-Jazzar, méde-cin et pharmacien maghrébin du x e siècle," Revue d'Histoire de la Pharmacie 34 (1987): 155-170, 943-959; M. W. Dols, Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwan's Treatise 'On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt ' (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1973), 67-69. [BACK]
261. Here I am using the Latin translation of the Viaticum given in Opera Ysaac (Lyons: B. Trot & J. de Platea, 1515), an abbreviated form of the Arabic text; the Viaticum version of this chapter is conveniently given by Green in Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 249. [BACK]
262. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine , 46; on Avicenna in the West, see N. Siraisi, Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987). [BACK]
263. Qanun III 21.4.16-19. I am using the ed. Libri in re medica omnes (2 vols.), 949-943 (Venice: Valgrisi, 1564). Meyerhof and Joannides, Gynécologie et l'Obstétrique chez Avicenne , p. 66, argue that rubbing aromatic oil into the mouth of the womb to imitate copulation, as recommended by Avicenna, is absent from Greek medicine—yet it is present not only in Galen but also in the Hippocratic corpus. [BACK]
264. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 75-76 and 119-120, nn. 9-10. [BACK]
265. Diseases of Young Girls , also known as On Virgins , L 8.466-470; Ullmann, Die Medizin im Islam , 32. [BACK]
266. Diagnoses of hysteria in E. T. Withington, "The Asclepiadae and the Priests of Asclepius," in Studies in the History and Method of Science , ed. C. Singer, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921), 192-905, esp. p. 200; Diepgen, Die Frauenheilkunde der Alten Welt , 194; W. D. Smith, "So-called Possession in Pre-Christian Greece," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 96 (1965): 403-426 esp. p. 406; B. Simon, Mind and Madness in Ancient Greece , 243; Lefkowitz, Heroines and Hysterics , 14; Manuli, "Donne mascoline, femmine sterili," in Madre Materia , Campese, Manuli, and Sissa (Turin: Boringhieri, 1983), 147-192, esp. p. 161. For discussion of the text and its probable context of menarche, see H. King, "Bound to Bleed: Artemis and Greek Women," in Images of Women in Antiquity , ed. A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt (London: Croom Helm, 1983), 109-127; H. King, From Parthenos to Gyne: The Dynamics of Category , Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1985, 175-182. [BACK]
267. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 132-133. [BACK]
268. J. L. Heiberg, Pauli Aeginetae libri tertii interpretatio Latina antiqua (Leipzig: Teubner, 1912), xiii, cited by Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 184, n. 82. [BACK]
269. F. P. Egert, Gynähologische Fragmente aus dem frühen Mittelalter nach einer Petersburger Handschrift aus dem VII-IX Jahrhundert (Berlin: Ebering, 1936).
270. Ibid., I 26.
271. Ibid., II 16; see discussion on p. 54.
272. Ibid., III 23. [BACK]
269. F. P. Egert, Gynähologische Fragmente aus dem frühen Mittelalter nach einer Petersburger Handschrift aus dem VII-IX Jahrhundert (Berlin: Ebering, 1936).
270. Ibid., I 26.
271. Ibid., II 16; see discussion on p. 54.
272. Ibid., III 23. [BACK]
269. F. P. Egert, Gynähologische Fragmente aus dem frühen Mittelalter nach einer Petersburger Handschrift aus dem VII-IX Jahrhundert (Berlin: Ebering, 1936).
270. Ibid., I 26.
271. Ibid., II 16; see discussion on p. 54.
272. Ibid., III 23. [BACK]
269. F. P. Egert, Gynähologische Fragmente aus dem frühen Mittelalter nach einer Petersburger Handschrift aus dem VII-IX Jahrhundert (Berlin: Ebering, 1936).
270. Ibid., I 26.
271. Ibid., II 16; see discussion on p. 54.
272. Ibid., III 23. [BACK]
273. H. Schipperges, "Die Assimilation der arabischen Medizin durch das lateinische Mittelalter," Sudhoffs Archiv Beiheft 3 (Wiesbaden, 1964); Green, " De genecia Attributed to Constantine," 299-323; G. Baader, "Early Medieval Latin Adaptations of Byzantine Medicine," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38 (1984), 259; Durling, "Renaissance Editions and Translations of Galen," 233; on Constantinus Africanus, see P.O. Kristeller, ''The School of Salerno: Its Development and Its Contribution to the History of Learning," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 17 (1945): 138-194. [BACK]
274. Green, "Constantinus Africanus and the Conflict between Religion and Science," in The Human Embryo: Aristotle and the Arabic and European Traditions , ed. G. R. Dunstan (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1990), 47-69, esp. pp. 49 and 62 n. 7. [BACK]
275. Ullmann, Islamic Medicine , 53-54; Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 220. [BACK]
276. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 234. On the school of Salerno, see Kristeller, "School of Salerno," 138-194; G. Baader, "Die Schule von Salerno," Medizinhistorisches Journal 13 (1978): 124-145. [BACK]
277. S. de Renzi, Collectio Salernitana II (Naples: Filiatre-Sebezio, 1853), 338-339; Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 263-266, and Monica Green, pers. comm. 16.11.91. [BACK]
278. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 267-268.
279. Ibid., 303 nn. 49 and 50, 306 n. 68, 310 n. 90; S. M. Stuard, "Dame Trot," Signs 1 (1975): 537-542; J. F. Benton, "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 59 (1985): 30-53. Monica Green is currently editing the Trotula manuscripts. [BACK]
278. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 267-268.
279. Ibid., 303 nn. 49 and 50, 306 n. 68, 310 n. 90; S. M. Stuard, "Dame Trot," Signs 1 (1975): 537-542; J. F. Benton, "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 59 (1985): 30-53. Monica Green is currently editing the Trotula manuscripts. [BACK]
280. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 274-275.
281. Ibid., 285 and n. 91; the text is also given in n. 91.
282. Ibid., 316. [BACK]
280. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 274-275.
281. Ibid., 285 and n. 91; the text is also given in n. 91.
282. Ibid., 316. [BACK]
280. Green, Ancient Theories of Female Physiology and Disease , 274-275.
281. Ibid., 285 and n. 91; the text is also given in n. 91.
282. Ibid., 316. [BACK]
283. On its date see D. W. Peterson, "Observations on the Chronology of the Galenic Corpus," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 51 (1977): 484-495; on Renaissance editions, see Durling, "Renaissance Editions and Translations of Galen," 243. [BACK]
284. Kibre, "Hippocratic Writings in the Middle Ages," 380; but see Nutton, "Hippocrates in the Renaissance," in Hippokratischen Epidemien , by Baader and Winau: p. 437 points out that the Paracelsian Petrus Antonius Severinus rejected the Aphorisms as part of his recasting of Hippocrates in a Paracelsian mold. [BACK]
285. P. O. Kristeller, "Bartholomaeus, Musandinus and Maurus of Salerno and Other Early Commentators of the 'Articella,' with a Tentative List of Texts and Manuscripts," Italia Medioevale e Umanistica 19 (1976): 57-87, esp. pp. 59 and 65. [BACK]
286. A. Beccaria, "Sulle tracce di un antico canone latino di Ippocrate e di Galeno II: Gli Aforismi di Ippocrate nella versione e nei commenti del primo medioevo," Italia Medioevale e Umanistica 4 (1961): 1-75, esp. p. 23. [BACK]
287. Müller-Rohlfsen, Die Lateinische Ravennatische , xviii-xix and 72. [BACK]
288. I am using the first edition of 1476, published by N. Petri at Padua. On the Articella , see Kibre, "Hippocratic Writings in the Middle Ages," 382-384; Baader, "Early Medieval Latin Adaptations of Byzantine Medicine," in Dumbarton Oaks Papers 38, ed. Scarborough, 259; Nutton, "Hippocrates in the Renaissance,'' in Hippokratischen Epidemien , ed. Baader and Winau, 420-439; Kristeller, "Other Early Commentators of the 'Articella,'" 57-87; on the translation of Aphorisms used, see pp. 66-67. [BACK]
289. De sternutatione, p. xliiii r ; De membris generationis in femellis, p. xlviii r . [BACK]
290. See Nutton, "Hippocrates in the Renaissance," in Hippokratischen Epidemien , ed. Baader and Winau: pp. 425-426 discuss how the "unity between Galen and Hippocrates was reinforced by the power of print." [BACK]
291. Galen, In Hippocratis Aphorismi , K 17B.824. [BACK]
292. The 1493 edition does not give the aphorisms themselves in full: see Ugo Benzi, Senensis super aphorismos Hypo. et super commentus Gal. eius interpretis (Ferrara: Laurentium de Valentia et Andrea de Castro Novo, 1493). For the full version, see Expositio Ugonis Senensis super aphorismos Hypocratis et super commentum Galieni (Venice: B. Locatellus, 1498), p. 125 r . See D. P. Lockwood, Ugo Benzi: Medieval Philosopher and Physician 1376-1439 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 35-36 and 217-219. Benzi tidies up the translation, giving the correct form, molestatur , in place of the molestat or molestant of other versions. [BACK]
293. Lorenzo Laurenziani, In Sententias Hippocratis praefatio (Florence: Antonius Miscominus), 1494. [BACK]
294. Niccolò Leoniceno, Commentum Nicoli super aphorismos (Bononie: Benedictum Hectoris, 1522). [BACK]
295. Antonio Musa Brasavola, In octo libros aphorismorum Hippocratis et Galeni, Commentaria et Annotationes (Basel: Froben, 1541), 828. On Brasavola, see Nut-ton, "Medicine, Diplomacy and Finance: The Prefaces to a Hippocratic Commentary of 1541," in New Perspectives on Renaissance Thought: Essays in the History of Science, Education and Philosophy in Memory of Charles B. Schmitt , eds. J. Henry and S. Hutton (London: Duckworth, 1990), 230-243. [BACK]
296. Leonhart Fuchs, In Hippocratis Coi septem Aphorismorum libris commentaria (Paris: Roigny, 1545), 412-413; the discussion of lunga versus pniga is on pp. 414-415. [BACK]
297. Guillaume Plancy, Galen in Aphorismi Hippocratis commentarius (Lyons: Roville, 1552), 340. [BACK]
298. Claude Champier, Aphorismi ex nova Claudii Campensii interpretatione (Lyons: C. Ravot, 1579), 120; Jacques Houllier, In Aphorismos Hippocratis commentarii septem (Paris: Jacques de Puys, 1582), 284-285. [BACK]
299. I. M. Lonie, "The 'Paris Hippocratics': Teaching and Research in Paris in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century," in The Medical Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century , ed. A. Wear and R. K. French (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 155-174, esp. pp. 158-160. [BACK]
300. The Whole Aphorismes of Great Hippocrates (trans. S. H.) (London: H. L. for Richard Redmer, 1610), 93. [BACK]
301. B. L. Sloane ms. 2811, p. 23. [BACK]
302. B. L. Sloane ms. 2117, p. 23 v and p. 281 r . [BACK]
303. See for example the thirteenth-century work of Walter Agilon in P. Diepgen, Gualteri Agilonis, Summa medicinalis: Nach den Münchener Cod. lat. Nr 325 und 13124 erstmalig ediert mit einer vergleichenden Betrachtung älterer medizinischer Kompendien des Mittelalters (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1911), chap. 42 of which, on suffocation of the womb, is heavily dependent on Ibn Sina, and includes a version of the woman who lay as if dead, in which Galen becomes the hero-narrator (p. 149). Also from the thirteenth century is the De naturis rerum of Thomas of Brabant; chap. 59 on the womb discusses suffocation. See C. Ferckel, Die Gynäkologie des Thomas von Brabant: Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der mittelalterlichen Gynäikologie und ihrer Quellen (Munich: Carl Kühn, 1912). The De proprietatibus rerum of Bartholomeus Anglicus (d. 1260) also includes suffocation in a general chapter on the womb, in Book 5 chap. 49 (Strasbourg: G. Husner, 1485); so does the thirteenth-century work of Joannes Actuarius, Methodi Medendi libri sex , in Book 4 chap. 8 (Venice: Gualterio Scoto, 1554). The material is thus copied from text to text, becoming increasingly familiar—an essential section in any work claiming the status of encyclopedia. For its appearance in a more specialized work, see also the fifteenth-century Middle English text given by M.-R. Hallaert, The 'Sekenesse of wymmen': A Middle English Treatise on Diseases in Women , Scripta 8 (Brussels: OMIREL, UFSAL, 1982), in which lines 375-482, describe "suffocation of the mother" (i.e., of the womb). [BACK]
304. Pieter van Foreest, Observationum et curationum medicinalium, liber vigesimusoctavus, de mulierum morbis (Leyden: Plantin, 1599).
305. Ibid., 154-155.
306. Ibid., 167: Hysterica vitulo se simulat esse marito.
307. Ibid., 167: Et hoc est verum. [BACK]
304. Pieter van Foreest, Observationum et curationum medicinalium, liber vigesimusoctavus, de mulierum morbis (Leyden: Plantin, 1599).
305. Ibid., 154-155.
306. Ibid., 167: Hysterica vitulo se simulat esse marito.
307. Ibid., 167: Et hoc est verum. [BACK]
304. Pieter van Foreest, Observationum et curationum medicinalium, liber vigesimusoctavus, de mulierum morbis (Leyden: Plantin, 1599).
305. Ibid., 154-155.
306. Ibid., 167: Hysterica vitulo se simulat esse marito.
307. Ibid., 167: Et hoc est verum. [BACK]
304. Pieter van Foreest, Observationum et curationum medicinalium, liber vigesimusoctavus, de mulierum morbis (Leyden: Plantin, 1599).
305. Ibid., 154-155.
306. Ibid., 167: Hysterica vitulo se simulat esse marito.
307. Ibid., 167: Et hoc est verum. [BACK]
308. Jorden, A Briefe Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother . [BACK]
309. T. Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press, 1990), 99; for a more optimistic view of the relationship between science and experience in this period see D. Jacquart and C. Thomasset, Sexuality and Medicine in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Polity Press in association with Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), 46. [BACK]
310. Jorden, Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother , 10 v . [BACK]
311. Guillaume de Baillou, De virginum et mulierum morbis (Paris: J. Quesnel, 1643), 206. [BACK]
312. Thomas Laycock, A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women (London: Longman, 1840), 317-318; based on Daniel Le Clerc, Histoire de la Médecine , p. 85 of the edition of 1702. [BACK]
313. Leigh Hunt, A Legend of Florence (London: Edward Moxon, 1840). [BACK]
314. Durling, "Renaissance Editions and Translations of Galen," 245; Geo wargis, Gynäkologisches , 6. [BACK]
315. M. F. Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages: The Viaticum and Its Commentaries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 292 n. 6. [BACK]