The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa "nsd0e7328"

10— A Nation Divided? The Swazi in Swaziland and the Transvaal, 1865–1986

1. Accounts of the 'land deal' negotiations can be found in The Land Dispute: Incorporating Swaziland?, DSG/SARS Publication 7 (Johannesburg, 1982), pp.1-28, and in Forced Removals in South Africa: The Surplus Peoples Project Reports, Vol. 5, Transvaal (Cape Town, 1983), pp.76-88. See also Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1982 ( SRRSA ) (Johannesburg, 1983), pp.375-9, and SRRSA 1983 (Johannesburg, 1984), pp.326-7, 343-4. [BACK]

2. According to SRRSA 1984, p.184, the population of KaNgwane in 1984 was estimated at 377,898. See also Report on the 1976 Swaziland Population Census (Mbabane, n.d. [1980]), Vol. 1, p.48. [BACK]

3. P. Bonner, Kings, Commoners and Concessionaires: The Evolution and Dissolution of the Nineteenth-Century Swazi State (Cambridge, 1983), p.212. [BACK]

4. D. Ziervogel, A Grammar of Swazi (siSwati), Bantu Grammatical Archives, C.M. Doke, ed. (Johannesburg, 1952), pp.xix-xxi; D. Ziervogel, 'A Swazi translation of 1846', African Studies, IX (1950), pp.167-84. [BACK]

5. N. Garson, 'The Swaziland question and the road to the sea', Archives Year Book, Vol. 2 (Pretoria, 1957), pp.271-87; J.S.M. Matsebula, A History of Swaziland (Cape Town, 1972), pp.49-67. [BACK]

6. bid., pp.53-5. [BACK]

7. Bonner, Kings, Commoners and Concessionaires, pp.164-81. [BACK]

8. D. Forbes, My Life in South Africa, a Narrative of Seventy Years Pioneering in continue

Mid-East Africa (London, 1938), pp. 30-33; Minutes of Evidence of the Eastern Transvaal Native Lands Committee (Stubbs Committee), UG-32, 1918, evidence of C. Griffith, Resident Magistrate, Ermelo, and W.R. Collins, Member of the Legislative Assembly, Ermelo, 7 Jan. 1918, pp.166, 168. [BACK]

9. Report of the Native Land Commission (Beaumont Commission Report), UG-22, 1916, Vol. 2, p.258, evidence of Gen. Tobias Smuts.

10. Ibid ., p.309. [BACK]

9. Report of the Native Land Commission (Beaumont Commission Report), UG-22, 1916, Vol. 2, p.258, evidence of Gen. Tobias Smuts.

10. Ibid ., p.309. [BACK]

11. Evidence of the Eastern Transvaal Natives Land Committee, evidence of J. Gosland, Pretoria, 6 Feb. 1918, p.165. [BACK]

12. Report of the Native Land Commission, Vol. 1, Appendix III, p.7. [BACK]

13. J. van Warmelo, Preliminary Survey of the Bantu Tribes of South Africa, Department of Native Affairs, Ethnological Publications, No. 5 (Pretoria, 1935), pp.45, 86; Report of the Transvaal Labour Commission (Johannesburg, 1903), evidence of J. Hulley, 26 Aug. 1903, para. 9618. [BACK]

14. M. Lacey, Working for Boroko: The Origins of a Coercive Labour System in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1981), pp.30-31, 389. [BACK]

15. Results of a Census of the Transvaal and Swaziland taken on the night of Sunday, 17th April, 1904 (Johannesburg, 1906), Vol. 1, p.20, and Plate 32. [BACK]

16. R. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion (London, 1972), p.8; Garson, The Swaziland Question, pp.346-72. [BACK]

17. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion, pp.8-9. [BACK]

18. A. Miller to D. Malcolm (private secretary to Lord Selborne), 21 Dec. 1906, in Miller Papers, File 113, MS. 429, Killie Campbell Africana Library, Durban, South Africa. [BACK]

19. A.G. Marwick, The Attitude of the Swazi Towards Government and its Causes (Mbabane, 1955), pp.31-3; Financial and Economic Situation in Swaziland, Dominions No. 135 (Pim Report), pp.25-6, 30, 120. [BACK]

20. J.S. Crush, 'The colonial division of space: the significance of the Swaziland land partition', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 13 (1980), pp.81-2, quoting the SelboRNe Memorandum, 3 Feb. 1908, in Public Record Office, London (PRO) C.O. 417/456/71. [BACK]

21. H. Kuper, The Uniform of Colour (Johannesburg, 1947), pp.3-11. [BACK]

22. E.g., Swaziland National Archives (SNA), S 13, D, 'Memorandum of proceedings at first public exhibition of Ngwane, King of Swaziland', 5 Sept. 1890, speech of Nococo. Queen Labotsibeni did attempt to intervene on behalf of Mswati's widow at Mbhuleni when she was threatened with eviction for the first time in 1906. See F.E. Moony, Resident Commissioner, Swaziland, to Secretary for Native Affairs, Transvaal, 12 March 1906, and subsequent correspondence in Transvaal Archives Depository, Pretoria, Secretary of Native Affairs, File 834/06. [BACK]

23. SNA RCS 732/13, transcript of meeting on 17 Oct. 1913, in Abantu-Batho, 19 Dec. 1913. [BACK]

24. Native Land Commission Report, Vol. 2, p.403, evidence of J.G. Sutherland. [BACK]

25. SNA RCS 819/14, 'Report on attendance by chiefs at meeting of 19 October 1914', by A.C. Ross-Garner, Native Commissioner, Pigg's Peak, to Resident Commissioner, 20 Nov. 1914. [BACK]

26. Kuper, The Uniform of Colour, p. 1; Native Land Commission Report, Vol. 2, p.403. An example of ethnic ambiguity was, however, offered by Chief Sithambe who lived in the Piet Relief district but had many followers in Swaziland. He was the only Transvaal chief to attend meetings of the Swazi Nation in connection with the land partition of 1914 but told the Stubbs Committee in 1917 that he was 'a chief of the Zulu'. Ethnic ambiguity would appear to be a continuing feature of the Piet Relief and Wakkerstroom districts. Mourners at the funeral in 1983 of Saul Mkhize, the murdered leader of the people of the Driefontein 'black spot' who were under the threat of relocation to the KaNgwane and KwaZulu Bantustans, told the press that they did not know whether they were Swazi or Zulu. Minutes of Evidence of the continue

Eastern Transvaal Natives Land Committee, evidence of Chief Sithambe, 31 Dec. 1917; SNA RCS 819/14, report by H.M. Carter, Native Commissioner, Hlatikulu, to Resident Commissioner, 7 Dec. 1914; Drum Magazine (Johannesburg), June 1983. For the history of Driefontein, see 'Driefontein—exception or rule?', in Work in Progress, 27 (Johannesburg, 1983), pp.25-33, and Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal pp.110, 188-93. The Driefontein 'black spot' is title-deed land bought by the South African Native Farmers' Association in 1913 under the leadership of Pixley Seme. [BACK]

27. Kuper, The Uniform of Colour, pp.1-2. [BACK]

28. H.M. Jones, Report on the 1966 Swaziland Population Census (Mbabane, 1968), pp.122-4; A.R. Booth, 'The development of the Swazi labour market', South African Labour Bulletin, 7 (1982), p.44. A Native Recruiting Corporation office was established at Mbabane in 1913. [BACK]

29. Quoted by Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion, p.79. [BACK]

30. SNA RCS 51/26, C.S. Mabaso, manager, Abantu-Batho Ltd., to Financial Secretary, Swaziland, 15 Aug. 1927; W.T. Hall, liquidator, Abantu-Batho Ltd., to Resident Commissioner, Swaziland, 24 Jan. 1929. [BACK]

31. My interpretation differs, but see P. Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa: the African National Congress, 1912-52 (London, 1970), p.33. [BACK]

32. S. Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa (London, n.d. (1916)), p.183; Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism, p.205; SNA RCS 842/13, A.G. Marwick, Mbabane district reports, 21 April 1913 and 8 May 1914. [BACK]

33. T. Couzens, 'Irish traders, cricket scores and Paul Kruger's dreams: the search for Grendon', unpublished typescript, pp.50-52, quoting 'Mafukuzela in Swaziland', by 'Incognitus' (Robert Grendon), in Ilanga lase Natal, 7 May 1915; letter (in Zulu) from P. KaI. Seme to the editor, Abantu-Batho, 15 April 1915, copy in SNA RCS 23/15; The African World, 20 Feb. 1915. [BACK]

34. H. Kuper, Sobhuza II, Ngwenyama and King of Swaziland (London, 1978), pp.50-1. [BACK]

35. 1bid., p. 101. [BACK]

36. SNA RCS 66/18, Queen Regent Labotsibeni to Resident Commissioner, 24 Jan. 1918.

37. Ibid ., High Commissioner (Buxton) to Resident Commissioner, 4 March 1918. [BACK]

36. SNA RCS 66/18, Queen Regent Labotsibeni to Resident Commissioner, 24 Jan. 1918.

37. Ibid ., High Commissioner (Buxton) to Resident Commissioner, 4 March 1918. [BACK]

38. Minutes of Evidence of the Eastern Transvaal Natives Land Committee, UG-18, p.205, evidence of the delegation of the Ermelo district branch of the South African Natives National Congress, 8 Jan. 1918. [BACK]

39. Report of the Eastern Transvaal Native Land Committee, quoted in General Hertzog's Solution to the Native Question, Johannesburg Joint Council Memorandum, No. 1 (Johannesburg, n.d. (1927)), p.23. [BACK]

40. Lacey, Working for Boroko, pp.90-1. [BACK]

41. SNA RCS 304/19, petition dated 19 April 1919.

42. Ibid ., Resident Commissioner (Honey) to Queen Regent and Chiefs, 8 Jan. 1920; Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.76-82, refers to further petitions of 29 Aug. 1921 and 30 May 1922 and quotes the High Commissioner (Prince Arthur of Connaught) to Resident Commissioner, 12 Dec. 1921. [BACK]

41. SNA RCS 304/19, petition dated 19 April 1919.

43. SNA RCS 202/20, S.M. Makgato, President, SANNC, to Resident Commissioner, Swaziland, 25 March 1920, and to Government Secretary, Swaziland, 24 April 1920, enclosing J. Vilakazi for Queen Labotsibeni to J. Hlubi, 31 March 1919 and J.M. Hlubi to S.M, Makgato, n.d.; J. Vilakazi for Queen Labotsibeni to Resident Commissioner, Swaziland, 27 April 1920; Resident Commissioner to Queen Regent, 10 July 1920; Secretary for Native Affairs, South Africa, to Government Secretary, Swaziland, 6 July 1920; and Government Secretary to Secretary for Native Affairs, 17 Aug. 1920. [BACK]

44. H. Kuper, 'A royal ritual in a changing political context', Cahiers d'études africaines, 21 (1972), p.596; Kuper, Sobhuza II, p.81. break [BACK]

45. A.C. Myburgh (edited in cooperation with the author by P.G.J. Koornhof), Die Stamme van die Distrik Carolina, Ethnological Publications No. 34 (Pretoria, 1956), p. 108. [BACK]

46. Lacey, Working for Boroko, Appendix A, pp.382-8; W.M. Macmillan, Complex South Africa (London, 1930), pp.232-54. [BACK]

47. Lacey, Working for Boroko, pp.155-80; Macmillan, Complex South Africa, pp.251-4. [BACK]

48. The Powers of the Supreme Chief under the Native Administration Act, 1927, Original Machinery of the African Native Government and Native Social Life (Johannesburg, 1928), p.2. [BACK]

49. H.J. and R.E. Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa (Harmondsworth, 1969), pp.345-6; Lacey, Working for Boroko, pp.94-5, 84-119, passim, [BACK]

50. SNA RCS 276/25, Government Secretary, Swaziland, to Secretary for Native Affairs, Pretoria, 27 Aug. 1925, and Secretary for Native Affairs (J.F. Herbst) to Government Secretary, 15 Sept. 1925; minutes of meeting of Resident Commissioner and Paramount Chief, Sobhuza II, 12 Oct. 1925; minutes of a meeting of the Resident Commissioner, Government Secretary, Ndvunankhulu Mandanda Mthetwa, Chief Mhola, et al., 5 April 1926. [BACK]

51. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion, p. 107, quoting Athlone to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 7 Nov. 1924, in PRO C.O. 417/709/5868. [BACK]

52. SNA RCS 276/25, J.F. Herbst to Government Secretary, 15 Sept. 1925.

53. Ibid ., Minutes of meeting of Resident Commissioner and Paramount Chief, 12 Oct. 1925. [BACK]

52. SNA RCS 276/25, J.F. Herbst to Government Secretary, 15 Sept. 1925.

53. Ibid ., Minutes of meeting of Resident Commissioner and Paramount Chief, 12 Oct. 1925. [BACK]

54. Evidence to Natives Economic Commission (typescript), p. 504. [BACK]

55. SNA RCS 276/25, J.F. Herbst to Bede Clifford, Imperial Secretary, 4 Nov. 1926. [BACK]

56. Evidence to Natives Economic Commission, pp.494, 503-4.

57. Ibid ., pp.495, 504; A.C. Myburgh, The Tribes of the Barberton District, Department of Native Affairs Ethnological Publications, No. 25 (Pretoria, 1947), p.33. [BACK]

56. Evidence to Natives Economic Commission, pp.494, 503-4.

57. Ibid ., pp.495, 504; A.C. Myburgh, The Tribes of the Barberton District, Department of Native Affairs Ethnological Publications, No. 25 (Pretoria, 1947), p.33. [BACK]

58. Evidence to Natives Economic Commission, p.504. [BACK]

59. H. Bradford, '"A taste of freedom": capitalist development and response in the Transvaal countryside', in B. Bozzoli, ed., Town and Countryside in the Transvaal (Johannesburg, 1983), pp.136-40; Workers Herald, 12 Jan. 1927, 17 May 1927, and 12 May 1928. I am grateful to Helen Bradford for the latter references and translations from the original Zulu. See V. Brittain, Testament of Friendship (London, 1939), p.214, and Workers Herald, 12 May 1928, for references to Norman Nxumalo. [BACK]

60. Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.99-101; Simons and Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, pp.428-9; Walshe, The Rise of South African Nationalism, pp.230-31. Two of the most prominent chiefs in the ANC at the time had Swazi connections. Chief Mandlesilo Nkosi was a Swazi chief in the Wakkerstroom district, probably at Daggaskraal, and Chief Stephen Mini, of the Edendale 'Amakholwa', had acted as secretary to King Mbandzeni in the 1880s and had owned a mineral concession in Swaziland in his own right. See T.D. Mweli Skota, African Yearly Register (Johannesburg, n.d (1932), pp.200, 227, 231, 422, 427. [BACK]

61. C. Kadalie, My Life and the ICU (London, 1970), p.222; G. Carter and T. Karis, eds., From Protest to Challenge (Stanford, 1972), Vol. 1, p.335, quoting from a pamphlet entitled Blood and Tears . See also S. Marks, The Ambiguities of Dependence in South Africa: Class, Nationalism and the State in Twentieth Century Natal (Baltimore and Johannesburg, 1986), pp.74-109. [BACK]

62. Walshe, The Rise of African Nationalism, p.213, quoting The Cape Times, 13 Feb. 1934. [BACK]

63. Carter and Karis, From Protest to Challenge, Vol. 1, pp.313-15. [BACK]

64. W. Ballinger and M. Hodgson, 'Swaziland', 7 March 1931, copy of an unpublished report in the Charles Roden Buxton papers, Rhodes House, Oxford. Brit. Emp. S continue

405/1, f.72; Sir Brian Marwick, interview with the author, Castletown, Isle of Man, 3 Oct. 1983.

65. Ibid . [BACK]

64. W. Ballinger and M. Hodgson, 'Swaziland', 7 March 1931, copy of an unpublished report in the Charles Roden Buxton papers, Rhodes House, Oxford. Brit. Emp. S continue

405/1, f.72; Sir Brian Marwick, interview with the author, Castletown, Isle of Man, 3 Oct. 1983.

65. Ibid . [BACK]

66. SNA RCS 331/30, A.G. Marwick to Resident Commissioner, 1 June 1930, encloses draft of the 'Swazi National Constitution', not nowin file. Kuper, Sobhuza II, p. 103, refers to a request from T. Ainsworth Dickson, Resident Commissioner, 18 June 1929, for a memorandum on the 'forms and procedures of his councils, executive and general . . .'. See A.G. Marwick, The Attitude of the Swazi towards Government, 89ff. for lengthy extracts from this document. [BACK]

67. Pim report, pp.115-17. [BACK]

68. SNA RCS 152/30, "Minutes of meeting of Native intelligentsia with H.H. the R.C.', 30 Jan. 1930, and copy of draft constitution; RCS 300/30, copy of draft constitution of 'Bantu and Coloured Peoples Welfare Association', with comments from Assistant Commissioners. [BACK]

69. Sir Brian Marwick, interview with author, 3 Oct. 1983; Kuper, Sobhuza II, p.171; Kuper, The Uniform of Colour, pp.137-8; J. Halpern, South Africa's Hostages (Harmondsworth, 1965), p.369; SNA Secretariat File 1479, minute on Swazi Commercial Amadoda by Government Secretary, 16 June 1948, with comments by District Commissioners; also in SNA, unfiled, two draft constitutions of the Swazi Commercial Amadoda. See also Kuper, Sobhuza II, p.171. [BACK]

70. Pim report, p.66; Swaziland Government, Report on Education, 1932, by H.J.E. Dumbrell, dated 4 July 1933, p.30-1. [BACK]

71. Pim report, p.67. [BACK]

72. 'Memorandum upon Native Education by the Paramount Chief of Swaziland', n.d. (1933), in the Institute of Race Relations Papers, 'Ibutho' file, University of the Witwatersrand Library, Johannesburg. [BACK]

73. Swaziland, Report on Education, 1932, p.31; SNA RCS 503/35, A.G. Marwick to Col. R. Rey, Resident Commissioner, Bechuanaland Protectorate, 13 Nov. 1935; Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.2-10; B. Marwick, The Swazi (Cambridge, 1940), pp.271-5, includes long extracts from the memorandum by Mrs A.W. Hoernlé and Dr I. Schapera entitled 'Joint report on the advisability and possibility of introducing the Ibuto system of the Swazi people into the educational system', n.d. (1934). There is a copy of this memorandum in SNA RCS 503/35. [BACK]

74. Hoernlé and Schapera memorandum, pp.1-11; A.G. Marwick to Alfred Hoernlé, 19 Dec. 1934, in Malinowski papers. File 545. [BACK]

75. SNA RCS 503/35, 'Minutes of a Meeting of the Committee Appointed by the Board of Advice on Native Education to Consider the Possible Amalgamation of the Ibutho and Pathfinders Systems', 22 Feb. 1935, para. 13; Ibid ., 'Report on the "Ibuto" System of the Swazi National School', by T. Keen, Principal, 20 Sept. 1938.

76. Ibid ., and Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.138-41; Interview with J.S.M. Matsebula by Lee Nichols, Voice of America, Conversations with African Writers, Tape 46, 1976. [BACK]

77. B. Sundkler, Zulu Zion and some Swazi Zionists (London, 1976), pp.206-38; Kuper, Sobhuza II, p.104; Halpem, South Africa's Hostages, pp.348-50; personal knowledge. [BACK]

78. H. Kuper, interview with the author, Los Angeles, 14-15 April 1983. [BACK]

79. Report on Education, 1932, p.28. [BACK]

80. D. Ziervogel, A Grammar of Swazi (Pretoria, 1952). [BACK]

81. Swaziland, Annual Report of the Director of Education, 1953, para. 64; 'A Swazi Orthography' in African Teachers Journal, 10 (Mbabane, May 1954), pp.22-3; 'Proposed Swazi Orthography' in African Teachers Journal, 18 (May 1956), pp.10-12. [BACK]

82. D. Ziervogel and E. Mabuza, A Grammar of the Swati Language (Pretoria, 1976); Bantu (organ of the Bantu Affairs Department), 25 (Nov. 1977), pp. 11, 19. [BACK]

83. Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.101, 105, 175, 190, 192; Kuper, Uniform of Colour, p.21; personal knowledge. break [BACK]

84. The Petition of the Swazi Tribes of the Eastern Transvaal to the Union Parliament (Newcastle, Natal, 1932), with preface by P. kal. Seme, p.2. In view of later developments, it is interesting to note that four of these ten 'Swazi' chiefs were marginally Swazi, having a probable majority of 'Shangaan' followers, and later claimed, or were alleged to be, 'Shangaan'. [BACK]

85. SNA RCS 604/36, reference to reply dated 12 April 1934 (Secretary for Native Affairs, File 247/308) in draft petition, Aug. 1936, encl. in Seme to Resident Commissioner, Swaziland, 3 Sept. 1936; RCS 258/39, D.L. Smit (Secretary for Native Affairs) to Resident Commissioner, 28 July 1939; RCS 604/36, Minutes of meeting of Resident Commissioner, A. G. Marwick, with Paramount Chief, 6 July 1936; Seme to Resident Commssioner, 13 July 1936; Resident Commissioner to Seme, 16 July 1936; Paramount Chief to Resident Commissioner, 23 July 1936, enclosing Seme to Paramount Chief, 13 July 1936. [BACK]

86. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion, p. 161. [BACK]

87. SNA RCS 258/39, Paramount Chief to Secretary for Native Affairs, 13 Feb. 1939, in Paramount Chief to Resident Commissioner, 12 Feb. 1939; Secretary for Native Affairs to Resident Commissioner, 28 July 1939. [BACK]

88. Hyam, The Failure of South African Expansion, pp.159 and 163-71; D. Reitz, No Outspan (London, 1943), pp.244, 249. Reitz met the Duke of Devonshire on 24 Oct. 1939. [BACK]

89. SNA RGS 258/39, Reitz and Van der Merwe, attorneys, Pretoria, to Secretary for Native Affairs, 27 October 1939. [BACK]

90. SNA Secretariat File 651, Secretary for Native Affairs (South Africa) to Administrative Secretary, High Commissioner's Office, 26 April 1947.

91. Ibid ., minutes of meeting of First Assistant Secretary (Swaziland) with Native Authority, 9 May 1947; Acting Administrative Secretary, High Commissioner's Office, to Secretary for Native Affairs, 6 June 1947. [BACK]

90. SNA Secretariat File 651, Secretary for Native Affairs (South Africa) to Administrative Secretary, High Commissioner's Office, 26 April 1947.

92. SNA RCS 454/40, T. Ramsay, Native Commissioner, Bushbuckridge, to Resident Commissioner, Swaziland, 1 Aug. 1940, and subsequent correspondence. [BACK]

93. Myburgh, Die Stamme van die Distrik Carolina, p.147. [BACK]

94. Summary of the Report of the Commission for the Socio-Economic Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa, UG 61: 1955, p. 182. [BACK]

95. Statement by Dr H. Verwoerd in the House of Assembly, 4 May 1959, reprinted in Bantu, Sept. 1959, pp.59-62. [BACK]

96. Extract from The Times of Swaziland, n.d., reproduced in J. Daniel, G.N. Simelane, and V.M. Simelane, eds., Politics and Polity in Swaziland, UBLS Readings, Vol. 3, 1975, from S.S. Ndwandwe, Politics in Swaziland (Johannesburg, 1968). [BACK]

97. A.J. van Wyck, Swaziland, a Political Study (Pretoria, 1969), p. 50. [BACK]

98. Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.384-93; Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.134-179.

99. Ibid ., pp.202-222; Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.338-43. [BACK]

98. Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.384-93; Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.134-179.

99. Ibid ., pp.202-222; Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.338-43. [BACK]

100. Sir Brian Marwick, 'A farewell message to the Ngwenyama and his people . . . 20th April 1964', copy in author's possession; M. Fransman, 'Labour, capital and the state in Swaziland', South African Labour Bulletin, 8, 6 (April 1982), p.66; Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Causes and Circumstances of the Strike which Took Place in the Big Bend Area during March 1963 (Mbabane, 1963), pp.39-41, 47. [BACK]

101. Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.227-8; Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.343, 357, 359-61. [BACK]

102. Marwick, 'A farewell message'; Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp. 363-4. [BACK]

103. J. Daniel, "The political economy of colonial and post-colonial Swaziland', South African Labour Bulletin, 7, 6 (1982), pp.103-5; I. Winter, "The post-colonial state and the forces and relations of production: Swaziland', Review of African Political Economy, 9 (1978), pp. 39-42. [BACK]

104. Kuper, 'A royal ritual in a changing political context', pp.608-9; S. Zwane, "The continue

future of English: some perspectives in Swaziland', paper presented at the Conference on English in Southern Africa, Lusaka, Zambia, 1-5 Dec. 1983, p. 3. [BACK]

105. Kuper, Sobhuza II, p.238; Stevens, Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, p.240. [BACK]

106. SNA Secretariat File 2041A, Minute by Acting Government Secretary, J. Stebbing, 21 Feb. 1949 and subsequent correspondence; Hughes, Swazi Land Tenure, p.66; Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.215-16; SNA Secretariat File 3043, Minutes of meeting of Pigg's Peak District Immigration Board, 3 Sept. 1963; District Commissioner, Pigg's Peak, to Government Secretary, 9 May 1963. [BACK]

107. Report of the Committee on Foreign Labour (Pearce Report) (Mbabane, 1966), pp.2-3, 6-7; Lord Hailey, The Republic of South Africa and the High Commission Territories (London, 1963), pp. 107-14; Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.236-9, 420-5; Report of the Localization Committee (Mbabane, 1966), paras. 3 and 9; Swaziland, House of Assembly Official Report, 2nd session, 6th meeting, 12 Nov. 1969, speech by Leo Lovell; Halpern, South Africa's Hostages, pp.346. [BACK]

108. Swaziland, House of Assembly Official Report, 2nd session, 6th meeting, 174, 12 Nov. 1969; 224, 12 Nov. 1969, speeches by Prince Bhekimpi. [BACK]

109. Kuper, Sobhuza II, pp.321-37. [BACK]

110. The Citizenships Order, King's Order in Council, 22 of 1974, 3 Sept. 1974, Swaziland Government Gazette, 1974, paras. 10-16. [BACK]

111. The Star, 2 March 1982. [BACK]

112. Carter and Karis, From Protest to Challenge, Vol. 4, Political Profiles, p.140; M. Benson, The Struggle for a Birthright (Harmondsworth, 1966), pp.114-16. [BACK]

113. 'Petition by Swazi Chiefs, Indunas, Community leaders of South Africa and their followers for the unification of Swazis of South Africa and those of the kingdom of Swaziland', n.d. (1983), compiled by Swazi Council of Chiefs of South Africa, D. Lukhele, Secretary; E.J. Mabuza, 'KaNgwane—the road ahead', copy of a speech at the University of Potchefstroom, 14 April 1983; D. Lukhele, 'Brief summary and background', n.d. (1974); D. Lukhele, 'Political development among the Republic Swazis vs. relations with Swaziland', n.d. (1973). [BACK]

114. C. Desmond, The Discarded People (Harmondsworth, 1971), pp.178-9; Kangwane Economic Review 1978, pp.26-8; A. Zwi, 'Cholera in South Africa', South African Outlook (Nov. 1981), pp.172-6; idem, 'Cholera: a tropical disease?'. Work in Progress, 16 (March 1981), pp.21-33. [BACK]

115. 'Petition of Swazi Chiefs', p.27. [BACK]

116. SRRSA, 1973, pp.154-5; Forced Removals, Vol. 4, Natal, pp.l60, 162-3. [BACK]

117. The Land Dispute: Incorporating Swaziland?, p.7; Kangwane Economic Review 1978, p.9. [BACK]

118. D. Lukhele, 'Kusile maSwazi' ('Dawn of the Swazis'), Africa South (official organ of the Official African Political Parties of South Africa), 5, 4 (1970), pp.12-18 (in Zulu); idem, 'Political development among the Republican Swazis', pp.1-5; 'Swazi National Council of South Africa Manifesto', n.d. (1974). [BACK]

119. Lukhele, 'Summary and background', p.2. [BACK]

120. Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, pp.73, 187. [BACK]

121. The Land Dispute: Incorporating Swaziland?, p.6; The Swazi Observer (Mbabane), 18 Sept. 1982; 'Petition of Swazi Chiefs', p.22; Mabuza, 'KaNgwane—the road ahead',pp.11-14. [BACK]

122. Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, p.66. [BACK]

123. Rand Daily Mail, 6 June 1978. [BACK]

124. 'Petition of Swazi Chiefs', p.24. I have seen no other reference to this petition, and the date may be inaccurate. [BACK]

125. News from Swaziland (issued by the Swaziland Information Department), 10 March 1980, 15 March 1983; The Citizen, 19 Oct. 1983; The Star, 9 Nov. 1977. [BACK]

126. Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, pp.73, 187-8; Myburgh, Die Stamme van die Distrik Carolina, p.80. break [BACK]

127. Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, p.66; Times of Zambia, 12 Jan. 1984, and Zambia Daily Mail, 13 Jan. 1984, quoting Reuter reports. See also 'Memorandum submitted to the Secretary, Land Commission (Mr Myburgh) on the possible incorporation of the Embhuleni valley into the KaNgwane area by Chief Mkolishi Diamini of the Embhuleni Swazi', 2 March 1984, copy in author's possession. [BACK]

128. Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, p.67. [BACK]

129. Mabuza, 'KaNgwane—the road ahead', pp.5-9. [BACK]

130. Informa, April 1981, p.1; Africa News, 11 Oct. 1982; Rand Daily Mail, 11 Oct. 1979; The Star, 21 May 1981. The latter three references are to interviews with Enos Mabuza. [BACK]

131. Informa, April 1981, pp.3, 5, 12-13; Rand Daily Mail . 2 June 1978. [BACK]

132. 'Petition of Swazi Chiefs', p.27. [BACK]

133. The Land Dispute: Incorporating Swaziland?, p.6; Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, pp.76-9. [BACK]

134. E. da Silva, 'Mozambican nationalism and the Nkomati Accord', Work in Progress, 32 (1984), p.18; Times of Zambia, 20 June 1984; The Commission of Enquiry into Kangwane (Rumpff Commission), In Re the Matter of the Cession of Kangwane to Swaziland. Brief of the Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights under Law, United States of America as Amicus Curiae, 13 March 1984; copy in author's possession. [BACK]

135. Mabuza, 'KaNgwane—the road ahead', pp. 5-9.

136. Ibid ., pp.18-19. [BACK]

135. Mabuza, 'KaNgwane—the road ahead', pp. 5-9.

136. Ibid ., pp.18-19. [BACK]

137. 'Petition of Swazi Chiefs', pp.34-7. Allegationsas to the non-Swazi composition of the KaNgwane Legislative Assembly were made even more forcibly in a 'Petition to the Honourable Prime Minister Mr P.W. Botha of the Republic of South Africa by the Swazi Council of Chiefs of South Africa', dated 13 Aug. 1984 and signed by Chief J.M. Dhlamini and Mr D. Lukhele. The petition, which was written after the South African government's evident reversal of policy on the land deal included the statement:

It appears that the South African government is forcing us Swazis to be ruled by other national groups in our own homeland, the South African government is forcing us to be ruled by Shangaans.

At the same time, several chiefs were petitioning to secede from KaNgwane on the grounds that they were not Swazi but Shangaan. 'Petition of Chiefs of Mbambisi Mkatshwa and Mandhinda Mkatshwa', n.d. (February 1984), copies of petitions in author's possession.

138. Forced Removals, Vol. 5, Transvaal, pp.59-89, 181-7, 245-59. [BACK]

139. The Black Who's Who of South Africa Today (Johannesburg, 1979). [BACK]

140. The Land Dispute: Incorporating Swaziland?, p.16. [BACK]

141. 'Swaziland, South Africa's willing captive', Work in Progress, 27 (1983), p.22; 'The continuing power struggle in Swaziland', Southern African Dossier, Centre of African Studies, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique, 4 Oct. 1983. [BACK]

142. SRRSA, 1982, p.86. [BACK]

143. Stats, July 1981, p.101, gives the number of cattle in KaNgwane as 72,000. Swaziland: An Economic Survey and Businessman's Guide (Mbabane, 1981) gives the cattle population of Swaziland as 660,000, of which 525,000 were on Swazi Nation land and 135,000 on title deed land. [BACK]

144. A. Luthuli, Let My People Go (London, 1962), p.144. break [BACK]