1. H. Johnson and H. Bernstein, eds., Third World Lives of Struggle (London, 1982), p.262. [BACK]

2. For comparative studies in southern Africa see B. Willan, 'An African in Kimberley: Sol T. Plaatje, 1894-1898', and P. Bonner, 'The Transvaal Native Congress, 1917-1920: the radicalization of the black petty bourgeoisie on the Rand', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone, eds., Industrialization and Social Change in South Africa (London, 1982), pp.238-58 and 270-313, respectively; S. Thornton, 'The struggle for profit and participation by an emerging African petty bourgeoisie in Bulawayo, 1893-1933', Societies of Southern Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Vol. 9 (London, 1977-1978), pp.63-85; D. Keet, 'An overview of Portuguese colonialist native policies with special reference to the "civilized" population of Angola to the middle of the 20th century', unpublished African History Seminar paper, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, May 1982. [BACK]

3. The changing tenor of the refrain 'We are all Portuguese' can be followed in: O Africano, 25 Dec. 1908; Brado Africano, 27 Sept. 1919, 14 Nov. 1925, 29 Jan. 1927; Voz Africans, 30 Dec. 1933. [BACK]

4. There were also Chopi and Makua elite groupings linked (respectively) with American Board Mission or American Methodist Episcopal religious traditions, and with English language or Islamic/Arabic and Swahili language educational traditions. Much more research is necessary adequately to place these groups in the struggle considered here, but for a limited analysis of interplay amongst all the elite groups see Jeanne continue

Marie Penvenne, 'A history of African labour in Lourenço Marques, 1877 to 1950', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1982, pp. 151-67, and Brado Africano, 20 June 1931. [BACK]

5. There are several versions of who formed the original Grêmio and when it was formed. See Clamor Africano, 10 Dec. 1932; Brado Africano, 24 Dec. 1939, 30 Dec. 1939, 12 Dec. 1946, and 24 Dec. 1948; Interviews with Joaquim da Costa and Roberto Tembe, 16 June 1977 and with Da Costa, Tembe and Guilherme de Brito, 5 July 1977, all Port Authority, Maputo (Tapes G, M, and N); and Raul Bernardo Manuel Honwana, Memorias: Histórias Ouvidas e Vivadas dos Homens e da Terra (Maputo, 1985), p.61. Professor A. Isaacman kindly allowed me to read the Honwana MS. [BACK]

6. For specific assimilation legislation see the following: Portaria Provincial (PP) 317, 9 Jan. 1917; PP 1,041, 18 Jan. 1919; Decreto 7,151, 19 Nov. 1920; Portaria 58, 2 Aug. 1921; Portaria 352, 20 July 1923; Dec. Lei 12,533, art. 3 of 23 Oct. 1926; Dip. Leg . 36 of 12 Nov. 1927. For a revealing discussion of the political importance of the categories indígena and assimilado, see Actas do Conselho do Governo, 17 Aug. 1927 to 30 Sept. 1927. [BACK]

7. Tito de Carvalho, Les Colonies Portugaises au Point de Vue Commercial (Paris, 1900), pp.115-16; Penvenne, 'A history of African labour', pp.17-28; Gregory Roger Pirio, 'Commerce, industry and empire: the making of modern Portuguese colonialism in Angola and Mozambique, 1890-1914', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1982, pp.172-4; G. Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, 1825-1975: A Study in Economic Imperialism (Manchester, 1985), Chapter 4. [BACK]

8. The slave trade between Mozambique and Brazil, however, continued to have an impact into the last quarter of the century. See Pirio, 'Commerce, industry and empire', pp.172-99; J. Capela, As Burguesias Portuguesas e a Abolição do Tráfico da Escravatura, 1810-1842 (Porto, 1979), pp.117-92; De Carvalho, Les Colonies, pp.58-61, 100-101, 115-16, 125-26; Patrick Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique to South Africa; with special reference to the Delagoa Bay hinterland, c. 1862 to 1897', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1983, Chapter 8. [BACK]

9. De Carvalho, Les Colonies, Chapter 3; Capela, As Burguesias Portuguesas, pp.174-5; Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', pp.40, 76, 96; E. de Noronha, O Distrito de Lourenço Marques e a Africa do Sul (Lisbon, 1895), p.188. [BACK]

10. De Carvalho, Les Colonies, pp.42-3; L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique: A Study of Quelimane District (London and Minneapolis, 1981), pp.58-63. [BACK]

11. England controlled 57 per cent and France 20 per cent. See De Carvalho, Les Colonies, pp.61-2; J. P. Oliveira Martins, Portugal em Africa—A Questão Colonial—O Conflito Anglo-Portuguez (Porto, l981), p.19. [BACK]

12. Portugal, Pautas das Alfándegas da Província de Moçambique: Comprehendando as de Lourenço Marques e Cabo Delgado: Aprovados por Decreto de 29 de Dezembro de 1892 (Lisbon, 1893), p.5. [BACK]

13. De Carvalho, Les Colonies, p.122. [BACK]

14. De Noronha, O Distrito de Lourenço Marques, pp.132-43. [BACK]

15. Vail and White, Capitalism and Colonialism, pp.131-7. [BACK]

16. De Carvalho, Les Colonies, p.96. [BACK]

17. Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', pp.287, 294; De Noronha, O Distrito de Lourenço Marques, pp.59, 132; A. Enes, Relatório Apresentado ao Govêrno por Antênio Enes (Lisbon, 3rd ed., 1946), p.45; J.H. Bovill, Natives under the Transvaal Flag (London, 1900), p.67. [BACK]

18. A.A. Freire d'Andrade, Colonisação de Lourenço Marques (Porto, 1897), p.30; O Commérçio de Lourenço Marques, 26 Nov. 1892; O Futuro, 20 April 1895; Diório de Notíciais, 10 April 1906. [BACK]

19. A.J. Araujo, Les Colonies Portugaises d'Afrique: Colonisation, Emigration, continue

Deportation (Lisbon, 1900), Vol. 2, p.218. [BACK]

20. For biographical data on these men see the following sources: Diocleciano Fernandes das Neves, Itinerório de uma Caça dos Elephantes (Lisbon, 1878); General Ferreira Martins, João Albasini e a Colonia de S. Luís: Subsídio para a História da Província de Moçambique e as suas Relações com o Transvaal (Lisbon, 1957), pp.107-8; Alfredo Pereira da Lima, História dos Caminhos de Ferro de Moçambique (Lourenço Marques, 1971), Vol. I, pp.24-5; Julião Quintinha e Francisco Toscano, A Derrocado do Império Vátua e Mousinho d'Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1935), 3rd ed., Vol. I, pp.65 and 74n, 96-100; Letters by António Gabriel Gouveia and João Albasini dating from 1847 to 1862 in Códice 1317 Annexe, Manuscritos Ultramarinos da Biblioteca Pública Municipal do Porto (BPMP), Oporto, Portugal. [BACK]

21. Biographical information on the black elite of Lourenço Marques has been culled from a great many sources, but principal among them are the following: Assimilation records contained in Secretaria de Negócios Indígenas (SNI—Native Affairs Department), Documents 3-141 and 3-408 and Administração de Concelho de Lourenço Marques (ACLM), Document 1517/1, all now housed at the Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique (AHM), Maputo; Social news in O Africano and O Brado Africano ; Interviews conducted in Maputo, Mozambique, June to November 1977, see especially Tapes G, M, and N; C. Santos Reis, A População de Lourenço Marques em 1894 (Um Censo Inédito) (Lisbon, 1973); Quintinha and Toscano, A Derrocado do Império Vatua, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp.79-130. [BACK]

22. Tentent Mário Costa, Cartas de Moçambique; de Tudo um Pouco (Lisbon, 1934), p.211; O Chocarreiro, 3 Sept. 1910; Santos Reis, Censo Inédito; O Progresso, July to Dec. 1907 under heading 'Para todos Lerem'; Lourenço Marques Guardian, 8 July 1907; Brado Africano, 7 July 1928. [BACK]

23. A. Lobato, 'Lourenço Marques: Xilunguine, Pequena Monografia da Cidade', Boletim Municipal (Lourenço Marques), 3 (Dec. 1968), p.12. [BACK]

24. See, for example, correspondence of António Gabriel de Gouveia, 21 Sept. 1864, to unknown, Códice 1317 Annexo (BPMP). [BACK]

25. Quote from Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique'. This point is also well documented in S.J. Young, ' "What have they done with the rain?": twentieth century transformation in Southern Mozambique with particular reference to rain prayers', unpublished paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual Conference, 2 Nov. 1978; idem, 'Fertility and famine: women's agricultural history in Southern Mozambique', in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1977 and James Currey, 1988), pp.66-81; and R. Pélissier, Naissance du Mozambique (Orgeval, 1984), Vol. 2, Chapter 7. [BACK]

26. Correspondence in Códice 1317, Annexo BPMP, Oporto; J.J. Machado, 'Lourenço Marques à Pretória', Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, 11/12 (1885), pp.663-5. [BACK]

27. Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', pp.172-6, and Pélissier, Naissance du Mozambique, Vol. 2, Chapter 7. [BACK]

28. Actas do Conselho do Governo, 28 Oct. 1914, testimony by Egas Coelho, p.814; Noronha, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, p.168; articles on Roberto Ndevo Mashaba in Brado Africano, 8 Sept. 1934, 7 Sept. 1935, and 27 May 1939; Pélissier, Naissance du Mozambique, Vol. 2, Chapter 7. [BACK]

29. Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', p.214. [BACK]

30. Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', Chapters 1 to 3. [BACK]

31. Ferreira Martins, João Albasini, pp.27-31; Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', passim . [BACK]

32. This process is discussed in detail in Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', especially Chapters 3 and 6. break [BACK]

33. Santos Reis, Censo Inédito, p.21; 'Mappas Estatisticas', ACLM document 11/12, A.H.M., Maputo. [BACK]

34. Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', pp.17-48; S.E. Katzenellenbogen, South Africa and Southern Mozambique: Labour, Railways and Trade in the Making of a Relationship (Manchester, 1982), Chapter 2. [BACK]

35. Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', pp.17-168; Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', Chapter 5. [BACK]

36. Costa, Cartas de Moçambique, pp.38-40, 196-203, 205, 211; Pereira de Lima, História dos Caminhos de Ferro, Vol. 1, pp.24-25, 162. [BACK]

37. 'Festa dos Pioneiros', O Progresso, 3 Oct. 1917; 'Os Pioneiros de Lourenço Marques', O Africana (Almanach) (1913), pp.104-5; Costa, Cartas de Mozçmbique, pp.196-203, 205, 211; Brado Africano, 21 March 1925. [BACK]

38. Lobato, 'Lourenço Marques: Xilunguine', p.12. [BACK]

39. Note the cases of Paulino Fornasini and the Albasinis in Santos Reis, Censo Inédito, unpaginated census sheets. [BACK]

40. See the example of the Fornasini children 'Para todos lerem', in O Progresso, Sept. to Dec. 1907. [BACK]

41. Santos Figueiredo, 'A vida social', p.9; Anuário Estatístico (1940), pp.236-7; Voz Africano, 30 Jan. 1934. [BACK]

42. Santos Reis, Censo Inédito, p.21; 'Mappa Estatística', ACLM, Doc. 15/16, AHM, Maputo. [BACK]

43. 'Mappa Estatística', ACLM, Doc. 15/16, AHM, Maputo. [BACK]

44. Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', pp.17-76. [BACK]

45. S. Gool, Mining Capitalism and Black Labour in the Early Industrial Period in South Africa: A Critique of the New Historiography (Lund, 1983), Chapter 4; R. First et al., Black Gold: The Mozambican Miner, Proletarian and Peasant (New York, 1983), pp.xx, 16. [BACK]

46. See, for example, O Progresso, 27 June, 30 Sept., 3 and 17 Oct. 1907; and A Tribuna, 15, 23-28 Aug. 1907. [BACK]

47. The penetration of British Indian traders into this area is detailed in the following: Pirio, 'Commerce, industry and empire', pp.174-84; Harries, 'Labour migration from Mozambique', Chapter 8; Clarence-Smith, Third Portuguese Empire, Chapter 4; Andrade, Colonização de Lourenço Marques, p.30. [BACK]

48. 'Mappa Estatística', ACLM Doc. 15/16, AHM, Maputo. [BACK]

49. The lobbying effort can be followed in: Relatórios da Direcção de Associação Commercial de Lourenço Marques and Relatorios, Cámara de Comércio de Lourenço Marques; Actas do Conselho do Governo and licensing correspondence for Verba 47 and 49 in uncatalogued files, ACLM archive. See also the press campaign, for example, in A Tribuna, July to Aug. 1907. [BACK]

50. A. F. Nogueira, A Raça Negra (Lisbon, 1881), p.7.

51. Ibid., pp.12, 206-9, 228-9, 231-2.

52. Ibid., p.10.

53. Ibid., p.209. [BACK]

50. A. F. Nogueira, A Raça Negra (Lisbon, 1881), p.7.

51. Ibid., pp.12, 206-9, 228-9, 231-2.

52. Ibid., p.10.

53. Ibid., p.209. [BACK]

50. A. F. Nogueira, A Raça Negra (Lisbon, 1881), p.7.

51. Ibid., pp.12, 206-9, 228-9, 231-2.

52. Ibid., p.10.

53. Ibid., p.209. [BACK]

50. A. F. Nogueira, A Raça Negra (Lisbon, 1881), p.7.

51. Ibid., pp.12, 206-9, 228-9, 231-2.

52. Ibid., p.10.

53. Ibid., p.209. [BACK]

54. An anonymous letter to Jornal de Commércio (Lisbon) of 21 Feb. 1861, probably written by Oliveira Martins, advocated exploiting Africans, just as one would exploit buffalo or dromedary to 'grub out' Africa's wealth. Quoted in António José de Seixas, A Questão Colonial Portugueza em Presença das Condições de Existéncia da Metropole (Lisbon, 1881). [BACK]

55. Enes, Moçambique, p.69. [BACK]

56. A.A. Freire de Andrade, Relatórios sôbre Moçambique, 2nd edition (Lourenço Marques, 1907-1910), Vol. 1, p.74. [BACK]

57. Text reprinted in Comissão Organizadora das Comemorações do Premeiro Centenário de Mouzinho de Albuquerque em Moçambique, Mouzinho; Governador de Lourenço Marques, 25 de Setembro de 1890 - 4 de Janeiro de 1892: Compilação continue

de Documentos Offciais do Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique (Lourenço Marques, 1956), p.202. [BACK]

58. David Hemson, 'Class consciousness and migrant workers: dock workers of Durban', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Warwick, 1979, pp.75, 110. [BACK]

59. Quotes from O Simples, 6 Feb. 1911 and O Progresso, 18 Feb. 1909. See also analysis in J. Capela, O Movimento Operário em Lourenço Marques, 1898-1927 (Oporto, 1983), pp. 9-10, 37-52. [BACK]

60. See Note 5 above and O Progresso, 26 March 1908; O Simples, 5 Sept. 1911; O Africano (Almanach), 1913, p.27; O Voz do Operário, 13 March 1922, O Africano, quoting from A Vanguard, 30 Jan. 1934. [BACK]

61. O Progresso, 18 Feb. 1909. [BACK]

62. O Africano (Almanach), 1914, pp.14-18, 44. [BACK]

63. O Voz do Operário, 13 March 1922. [BACK]

64. O Africano, 22 Aug. 1917.

65. Ibid . [BACK]

64. O Africano, 22 Aug. 1917.

65. Ibid . [BACK]

66. 'Peste em Lourenço Marques, 10 December 1907', Relatórios e Informações (1908). [BACK]

67. A similar process was occurring at the very same time on the Witwatersrand. See C. van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, Vol. 2: New Nineveh (New York, 1982), p.138. [BACK]

68. L. Vail and L. White, 'Plantation protest: the history of a Mozambican song', Journal of Southern African Studies, 5 (1978), pp.1-25. [BACK]

69. Many eloquent and penetrating critiques were published in O Africano and O Brado Africano . For some of the best, see: O Africano, 13 May and 1 June 1909, 7 and 21 Nov. 1912, series 'Vozes de Burro' in 1913, and O Brado Africano, series 'A Tal Portaria', throughout 1919. [BACK]

70. This is broadly evident throughout the press, but see especially O Africano, 1 March 1909 and Brado Africano, 25 Dec. 1918, 4 Jan. and 12 July 1919. [BACK]

71. O Africano was at that time subtitled 'defender of the natives of Moçambique'. [BACK]

72. See especially O Africano, 13 May 1909, but also 13 July 1913, 9 May 1914, 14 April 1915, 10 Jan. and 22 Aug. 1917. [BACK]

73. Quote from Brado Africano, 17 May 1924, but see also 16 June 1923, 18 Aug. 1923, and 16 Feb. 1924. [BACK]

74. Quote from J. Lonsdale, 'States and social processes in Africa: a historiographical survey', African Studies Review, 14, 2/3 (1981), p.142. [BACK]

75. Lonsdale, drawing on F. Cooper, in ibid., p.182. [BACK]

76. The Gremiê 's most comprehensive statement of such attitudes is contained in their series "The future and those who work', O Africano, 17 and 28 Sept., 6 July and 17 Oct. 1912. [BACK]

77. O Africano, 13 May and 31 July 1909, 29 Aug. 1912, 30 Sept. 1911, and 5 Dec. 1914. [BACK]

78. Composited from O Africano, 22 May 1909, 31 July 1909, 29 Aug. 1912, 14 Jan. 1914, 27 Feb. and 30 Sept. 1917; Brado Africano, 10 May and 12 July 1919, and 18 Aug. 1923. [BACK]

79. This is an ironic pun. Portugal's nineteenth century map which showed her idealized African coast-to-coast empire stretching from Angola to Mozambique was painted pink and the expression mappa côr de rosa had a similar connotation to the English expression'Cape to Cairo'. O Africano, 30 Sept. 1911. [BACK]

80. Brado Africano, 16 Feb. 1924. [BACK]

81. The term mesa de funcionalismo is from Costa, Cartas de Moçambique, p.91 and the Grêmio self-promotional tactics are broadly evident in: O Africano, 24 April 1909, 8 March 1912, 13 Feb. 1913, 30 June 1915, 24 Jan. 1917, 2 Jan. 1918, and 8 Nov. 1919; Brado Africano, 27 March 1920, 16 April 1921, Sept. to Dec. 1921, 21 July 1923, 13 June 1925, 13 Nov. 1926, 22 Jan. 1927, 17 March 1928, 12 Jan. 1929 and 13 Oct. 1934. break [BACK]

82. For example, O Progresso, 18 Feb. 1909; O Africano, 24 April 1909, 22 May 1909, 16 Aug. 1909, 5 Sept. 1909, 23 Dec. 1909, 14 Nov. 1912, and 9 May 1917; Brado Africano, 20 Feb. 1925 and 27 Nov. 1927. [BACK]

83. See, for example, O Progresso, 30 Sept. 1907, 17 Oct. 1907, 12 Dec. 1907, 2 Jan. 1908, and 18 Feb. 1909; Os Simples, 6 Feb. and 5 Sept. 1911; O Emancipador, spring of 1922. See also, Capela, O Movimento Operário, Introduction and Chapter 1. [BACK]

84. O Africano, 7 April 1909. [BACK]

85. Lonsdale, 'States and social processes', p.139. [BACK]

86. Quote from Quintinha and Toscano, Derrocado do Império Vátua, 3rd edition, Vol. 1, p.98. Compare with homage to Estácio Dias in Brado Africano, 13 Feb. and 30 Oct. 1937. [BACK]

87. Brado Africano, 14 Oct. 1922. [BACK]

88. J. Hay and M. Wright, eds., African Women and the Law (Boston, 1982), p.x. [BACK]

89. Governor, Distrito de Lourenço Marques to Secretaria Geral do Governador de Moçambique, 22 Dec. 1902, 'Confidencial, 88', Moçambique, Primeira Repartição, Caixa 16, Arquivo Histórico du Ultramar (AHU), Lisbon, Portugal. [BACK]

90. Formal statements of Grêmio concerns appeared in: O Africano, 25 Dec. 1908; Brado Africano, 24 Dec. 1918, 27 Sept. 1919, 11 Aug. 1922, and 17 Sept. 1932. [BACK]

91. For details see Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', pp.76-168. [BACK]

92. O Africano, 25 Dec. 1908, 26 April and 23 Dec. 1909. [BACK]

93. Jeanne Penvenne, 'Labor struggles at the port of Lourenço Marques, 1900-1933', Review, 8, 2 (1984), pp.255-64; ACLM, 'Relatório', 21 May 1909, in SNI, Caixa 104, AHM. [BACK]

94. Penvenne, 'Labor struggles at the port of Lourenço Marques', pp.255-64. [BACK]

95. 'Petition by merchants and forwarding agents' to ACLM, enclosed in ACLM to Governor, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, 6 Sept. 1911; ACLM to Intendéncia de Negócios Indígenes e Emigração, 20 Dec. 1911, both in SNI, Caixa 249, AHM. [BACK]

96. See especially, O Africano, 22 Aug. 1912. [BACK]

97. ACLM, 'Relatório', 21 May 1909, in SNI, Caixa 104, AHM.

98. Ibid . [BACK]

97. ACLM, 'Relatório', 21 May 1909, in SNI, Caixa 104, AHM.

98. Ibid . [BACK]

99. 'ACLM Relatório', 21 May 1909 and Brado Africano, 1 Feb. 1919. [BACK]

100. Legislation for this period is as follows: Portaria Provincial (PP) 1198 of 10 Sept. 1913; Dec . 951 of 14 Oct. 1914 authorized in Mozambique by PP 18 Sept. 1915; Dec . 312 of 4 Dec. 1922 and PP 352 of 30 Jan. 1923. See O Africano, 22 Aug. 1912, 20 Sept. and 11 Oct. 1913, 11 March 1914, 22 Sept. 1915, and 26 Feb. 1916; Brado Africano, 10 Nov. 1923 and 'Informação', 2 March 1916. SNI, Caixa 249, AHM. [BACK]

101. The original assimilation legislation is PP 317 of 9 Jan. 1917, but it was subsequently modified in various ways by PP 1041 of 18 Jan. 1919, Dec . 7151 of 19 Nov. 1920, Portaria 58 of 2 Aug. 1921 and Dec . 352 of 20 Jan. 1923. The final change for the period under consideration here was Dec . 12, 533 of 1927. Legislation can be followed in: Boletim Oficial de Moçambique and José Caramona Ribeiro, Sumários de Boletim Oficial de Moçambique, 1855-1965 (Lourenço Marques, n.d.). [BACK]

102. O Africano, 27 Jan. 1917 for quote. See also O Africano, 20 July 1918, 24 Jan. 1917 and 28 Feb. 1920; Brado Africano, 4 and 18 Jan., 1 March, 19 April and 19 July 1919, 3 Jan. and 28 May 1920. [BACK]

103. Honwana, 'Memorias', p.62. [BACK]

104. Albasini authored the column entitled 'a tal portaria' carried in O Africano and Brado Afhcano throughout the period 1917 to 1920. [BACK]

105. Among Albasini's best journalistic challenges are articles or editorials in the following: O Africano, 24 and 27 Jan. and 19 Sept. 1917, 20 July and 7 Aug. 1918; Brado Africano, 1 March and 19 April 1919, 3 Jan. and 28 Feb. 1920. break [BACK]

106. Quote from homage to Albasini on the tenth anniversary of his death, Brado Africano, 20 Aug. 1932. [BACK]

107. O Africano, 13 and 22 May 1909, for example. [BACK]

108. Actas do Conselho do Governo da Colonia de Moçambique, 28 July 1927, p.13. [BACK]

109. Cartoon in O Africano (Almanach), 1913; p.31; and Public Record Office, London. FO 367/341, Hardinge to Consul, Lisbon, 3 March 1913, quoting Freire de Andrade. [BACK]

110. O Africano, 5 and 12 July 1919. [BACK]

111. Penvenne, 'Labor struggles at the port of Lourenço Marques', pp.249-285. [BACK]

112. Interviews with Samuel Mussongueia Mussona, 4 July and 3 Oct. 1977, CMM, Maputo; Nicodemus Salamão Nhaca, 11 Oct. 1977, AHU, Maputo, Tapes A and F. [BACK]

113. Penvenne, 'Forced labor and the origin of an African working class: Lourenço Marques, 1870-1962', Boston University, African Studies Center Working Paper, 13 (1979), pp.17-20. [BACK]

114. O Africano, 5 July and 1 Nov. 1913. [BACK]

115. Brado Africano, 19 April 1919. [BACK]

116. Penvenne, 'A history of African labor', pp.221-3; O Africano, 31 March 1915, 18 May 1918; Brado Africano, 8 March 1919, 8 Sept. 1923, 29 May 1926, and 28 Nov. 1936. [BACK]

117. David Hedges specifically explores the question of state policy on assimilation and mission education in Mozambique for the subsequent period in his 'Educação, missões e a ideologia política de Assimilação, 1930-1960', Boletim do Departmento de História de Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, 1 (June 1985), pp.7-19. [BACK]

118. The phrase is from Clarence-Smith, Third Portuguese Empire, p.135. [BACK]

119. Delagoa Directory and Anuário Estatistico detail school populations throughout this period. [BACK]

120. Ilidio Rocha, Catálogo dos periódicos e principais seriados de Moçambique, da introdução da tipografia a independéncia (1854-1975) (Lisbon, 1985), pp.23, 52-3, 57, 254-5. [BACK]

121. For the reasons behind the economic crisis see Vail and White, Capitalism and Colonialism, pp.202-5, and Clarence-Smith, Third Portuguese Empire, Chapter 5. [BACK]

122. For details see Penvenne, 'Labor struggles at the port of Lourenço Marques', pp.264-6. [BACK]

123. By the 1940s, however, the younger mulatto generation petitioned for assimilation. See AHM SNI Files 3-141 and 3-408 and ACLM Doc. 1517/1. [BACK]

124. Interviews with Tembe and da Costa, 5 July 1977, 24 and 25 Aug. 1977, Maputo; Brado Africano, 4 June 1932; Rocha, Catálogo, p.322; Honwana, 'Memorias', p.63. These associations were social associations which commonly incorporated persons of diverse economic classes and political persuasions. It is misleading to paint one group as any more or less 'militant' than another. The Associação Africana, for example, was not '. . . a more militant outgrowth' of the Gremio Africano, any more than the Instituto Negrófilo was '. . . yet another militant faction' breaking away from the Gremio . The leadership of each group was predominantly of petty bourgeois origin, and their positions on most important issues were similar. Quotations from T.H. Hendriksen, Revolution and Counterrevolution, Mozambique's War of Independence, 1964-1974 (Westport, Ct., 1983) pp.16-17; and B. Munslow, Mozambique: The Revolution and Its Origins (London, 1983), pp.65-6. [BACK]

125. Cf. Actas do Conselho do Governo, 24 Aug. 1927. [BACK]

126. Leadership fragmentation is particularly evident in Brado Africano, 31 Dec. 1932, Aug. to Dec. 1933, and 23 Dec. 1933. [BACK]

127. For details, see Penvenne, 'A history of African labor, pp.452-77. [BACK]

128. The Brado Africano quickly deteriorated into a chronicle of elite fragmentation and continue

disillusion, for example, 31 March 1934, 19 June 1937, 18 March 1939, 12 Dec. 1946, 24 Dec. 1948, 19 Feb. and 27 Aug. 1949, and 27 June 1952. [BACK]

129. Among the most pathetic examples of this genre are Brado Africano, 15 May 1937 and 11 June 1938. [BACK]

130. Karl Marx, 'The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon' in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Works, 3 vols. (Moscow, 1969), Vol. 1, p.398. break [BACK]