2— Afrikaner Women and the Creation of Ethnicity in a Small South African Town, 1902–1950
1. P. Lewsen, ed., Selections from the Correspondence of J. X. Merriman—1899-1905 (Cape Town, 1966), p. 222, Merriman to Godwin Smith, 1 July 1900. [BACK]
2. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963), p.9. [BACK]
3. A. Cohen, The Politics of Elite Culture (Berkeley, 1981), p.5. [BACK]
4. S. Patterson, The Last Trek (London, 1957), p.75. Patterson means 'uninterested'. [BACK]
5. This essay uses 'race' to refer to the groups legally defined by the South African state—black (African), white, coloured (mixed race) and Asian; and 'ethnic group' for divisions within those 'races'. Thus Afrikaners are minimally defined as white and Afrikaans-speaking, and the overwhelming proportion of them (over 90 per cent) are nominally members of the Dutch Reformed Churches in South Africa or their descendants. [BACK]
6. Local celebratory literature on anniversaries of the building of churches, e.g. H.C. Hopkins, Die N. G. Kerk Cradock 1818-1968 (Cradock(?), n.d. (1969?)) and brochures of organizations such as one written for the 75th year of the Afrikaans Christelike Vroue Vereeniging (Afrikaans Christian Women's Association) (Cape Town, 1977) are obvious sources. All translations from Afrikaans in this paper are by the author. [BACK]
7. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, p.9.
8. Ibid . [BACK]
7. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, p.9.
8. Ibid . [BACK]
9. J.F.W. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment and rural exodus'. Economic Report of the Carnegie Commission, Part I, The Poor White Problem in South Africa (Stellenbosch, 1932), pp. 6, 10, 111, 186. [BACK]
10. See F. Wilson on 'Social dislocation, 1899-1924' in M. Wilson and L. Thompson, eds., The Oxford History of South Africa, Vol. II (Oxford, 1971), pp.126-36. [BACK]
11. A. Sedgwick, The Third French Republic, 1870-1914 (New York, 1966), pp.100-103. [BACK]
12. S.B. Spies, Methods of Barbarism? (Cape Town, 1977), pp.303-305. [BACK]
13. C. van Onselen, 'The Main Reef Road into the working class'. Studies in the Social History of the Witwatersrand 1886-1914, Vol. II, New Nineveh, (London, 1982), pp.111-170. [BACK]
14. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', pp.66-72, 185-8. By 1929, 42 per cent of Afrikaners in urban areas were in the mining towns, ports, and the major administrative centres of Pretoria, Bloemfontein and Pietermaritzburg. [BACK]
15. D. O'Meara, Volkskapitalisme: Class, Capital and Ideology in the Development of Afrikaner Nationalism, 1934-1948 (Cambridge, 1983), pp.4-6.
16. Ibid ., pp.234-5, 237-8. [BACK]
15. D. O'Meara, Volkskapitalisme: Class, Capital and Ideology in the Development of Afrikaner Nationalism, 1934-1948 (Cambridge, 1983), pp.4-6.
16. Ibid ., pp.234-5, 237-8. [BACK]
17. N. Stultz, Afrikaner Politics in South Africa, 1934-1948 (Berkeley, 1974), pp.144-50; David Welsh made the same point in relation to Natal farmers in the election of 1924: South Africa: Power, Process and Prospect (Cape Town, 1983), p.37. [BACK]
18. G. P. Cook, in 'Towns of the Cape Midlands and Eastern Karoo', Survey of the Cape Midlands and Karoo Regions, Vol. II (Grahamstown, 1971), p.10, classified Grahamstown as a 'major country town', Cradock and Graaff Reinet as 'country towns'. Dorp is widely used as a term of semi-affectionate contempt, roughly 'Hicksville'. [BACK]
19. J. Butler, 'Introduction: land and people' to 'A history of Cradock and its district, 1926-1960' (mimeo). [BACK]
20. Union of South Africa, Department of the Interior, Voters' List, 1925, Electoral Division of Cradock, Polling District No. 322; Census of the European Population 1926—Part VIII—Religions (European), p. 13 (1926 Census). This argument assumes that the proportion of white males registered for the vote was extremely high, over 90 per cent. [BACK]
21. T.R.H. Davenport, 'Appendix: office bearers', The Afrikaner Bond, 1880-1911 (Cape Town, 1966), p. 397. break [BACK]
22. W.M. Macmillan, The South African Agrarian Problem and its Historical Development (Grahamstown, 1915), pp.8-10; Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.22.
23. Ibid ., pp.4, 20. [BACK]
22. W.M. Macmillan, The South African Agrarian Problem and its Historical Development (Grahamstown, 1915), pp.8-10; Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.22.
23. Ibid ., pp.4, 20. [BACK]
24. 1926 Census, Part VIII, Table 4. [BACK]
25. Union of South Africa, Dept. of the Interior, 'List of male voters, 1931: electoral division of Cradock' and ibid ; 'Electoral division of Somerset East'. Two polling districts in the Somerset East constituency were in the fiscal division of Cradock, the basis of the census. By 1931, 'bywoner' was becoming a pejorative term. For 'lowliest occupations', see Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.vii. [BACK]
26. Partnerships and sons must be taken into account. However, the number of putative farmers as a percentage of farms held by each ethnic group is 172 per cent for Afrikaners, 133 per cent for Englishmen. This account assumes that the white poor in Cradock were overwhelmingly Afrikaans-speaking; I have no statistical measure of the English poor, urban or rural. [BACK]
27. Wilson and Thompson, South Africa, Vol. II, pp.127, 131; Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', pp.82-7. [BACK]
28. O'Meara, Volkskapitalisme, pp. 36-7. Sales of wool fell from £22.6m in 1920 to £5.4m in 1932, and rose to £8.8m in 1938. Hay (almost entirely lucerne in South Africa) fell from £2m in 1920, to £1.1m in 1932, and rose to £2m in 1938 - Union Statistics for Fifty Years (Pretoria, 1960), Vol. 1, 'Agriculture', pp.24, 26. [BACK]
29. Macmillan, Agrarian Problem, p.104ff. [BACK]
30. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.123. [BACK]
31. Macmillan, Agrarian Problem, p. 53. [BACK]
32. 1926 Census, Part I, Population Distribution of European Populations, by Sex and Area, p.4. [BACK]
33. On irrigation works and influx to small towns, see Macmillan, Agrarian Problem, pp.46-8; Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', pp.186-8. [BACK]
34. History of Cradock: Van Riebeeck Tercentenary 1652-1952 (Cradock, 1952), pp.11-13; D. Smith, ed., Cradock, 1814-1964: 150th Anniversary Brochure (Cradock, 1964), p.135.
35. Ibid . [BACK]
34. History of Cradock: Van Riebeeck Tercentenary 1652-1952 (Cradock, 1952), pp.11-13; D. Smith, ed., Cradock, 1814-1964: 150th Anniversary Brochure (Cradock, 1964), p.135.
35. Ibid . [BACK]
36. Cradock School Board, Minute Book of the Poor School Committee: 6 Dec. 1894, 14 Feb. 1898, 9 Dec. 1902, 10 Feb. 1903, 14 Dec. 1911. [BACK]
37. Die Oosterlig, 16 Jan. 1938 (Port Elizabeth). [BACK]
38. E.G. Malherbe, Education in South Africa II: 1923-1975 (Cape Town, 1977), pp.49, 155-60. [BACK]
39. J. Meintjies, The Boer War (Cape Town, 1979), p.174. [BACK]
40. Photograph: 'Rebels being sentenced in Market Square, Cradock, October, 1901, Colonel Sawyer O.C.', Jeffrey Butler papers. [BACK]
41. J. Butler, 'Soldiers' Stones' (mimeo), 1982. [BACK]
42. The two photographs are in the Cradock Museum; that of the women is also published in ACVV, Feesbrosjure 75: ACVV Cradock (ACVV, Cradock), p.10, hereafter 'ACVV 75'. [BACK]
43. For example, D.W. Krueger, The Age of the Generals (Johannesburg, 1958). [BACK]
44. H. Cloete, The History of the Great Boer Trek (London, 1899), pp. 178-90; E.A. Walker, A History of Southern Africa (London, 1957), p.222. [BACK]
45. P. Warwick, ed., The South African War (London, 1980), p.162. 46. Ibid . pp. l61-5.
46. Ibid . pp.161-5
47. Ibid ., p.174. 'Khaki' was usually synonymous with British soldier, but here clearly means 'fighting man'. [BACK]
45. P. Warwick, ed., The South African War (London, 1980), p.162. 46. Ibid . pp. l61-5.
46. Ibid . pp.161-5
47. Ibid ., p.174. 'Khaki' was usually synonymous with British soldier, but here clearly means 'fighting man'. [BACK]
45. P. Warwick, ed., The South African War (London, 1980), p.162. 46. Ibid . pp. l61-5.
46. Ibid . pp.161-5
47. Ibid ., p.174. 'Khaki' was usually synonymous with British soldier, but here clearly means 'fighting man'. [BACK]
48. H. Lamar and L. Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History (New Haven, 1981), p. 314, draw attention to the need for the examination of the role of women on the frontier. [BACK]
49. 'ACVV 75', pp.8-10; Warwick, ed., South African War, pp. 164-6. break [BACK]
50. Davenport, Afrikaner Bond, p. 227. [BACK]
51. Dictionary of South African Biography (DSAB), Vol. I (Pretoria, 1968), pp. 436-8. [BACK]
52. For example, S. Greenberg, Race and State in Capitalist Development (New Haven, 1980); and H. Adam and H. Giliomee, Ethnic Power Mobilized (New Haven, 1979). [BACK]
53. H. Giliomee, in a review of George Fredrickson's White Supremacy, argues that by the end of the eighteenth century, white women in South Africa played a major part in controlling choice of marriage partners and inhibiting inter-radal sex. Standpunte, 46, 4 (1983), pp.20-22. This subject has hardly been researched in South Africa. See C. Degler, Neither Black nor White (New York, 1971), pp.237-9, on northern European women in the American colonies. [BACK]
54. H.C. Lambrechts and E. Theron, Vrouevolksdiens: Die Werk van die Afrikaanse Christelike Vrouevereeniging (Cape Town, n.d. (1960?)), pp.6-10; 'ACVV 75', p. 11. [BACK]
55. Statement by Mrs van Hoepen, curator of the Cradock Museum, attached to the photograph of the female 'undesirables'. Mrs van Hoepen is the daughter of Emmie Venter. [BACK]
56. Lambrechts and Theron, Vrouevolksdiens, p. 10; 'ACVV 75', p.12. [BACK]
57. E. Kedourie, Nationalism in Asia and Africa (New York, 1970), p.36: 'Nationalist doctrine . . . decrees that just as nations exist, so nations by definition must have a past.' [BACK]
58. 'ACVV 75', pp. 11-12. [BACK]
59. DSAB, Vol. I, p.436; Interview, Mrs van Hoepen, 25 April 1981. [BACK]
60. See Giliomee, "The beginnings of Afrikaner ethnic consciousness, 1850-1915' in this volume. [BACK]
61. S.W. Pienaar and J.J.J. Scholtz, eds., Glo in U Volk: Dr Malan as Redenaar 1908-1954 ('Believe in Your Volk: Dr Malan as Orator 1908-1954') (Cape Town, 1964), p.234. The title of this collection is taken from Malan's speech of 2 May 1937 out of which came the slogan 'Believe in God! Believe in Your Volk! Believe in Yourself!' [BACK]
62. De Middelandsche Afrikaander, 2 May 1930. [BACK]
63. 'ACVV 75', pp. 11-12. [BACK]
64. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', pp.20-1. [BACK]
65. W.M. Macmillan, My South African Years (Cape Town, 1975), pp.122-3. [BACK]
66. Wilson and Thompson, South Africa, Vol. II, p. 205; Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.21; Pienaar and Scholtz, Dr Malan, pp.121, 191. [BACK]
67. Personal reminiscence; interview, Dorothy Murray (neé Butler), 24 Jan. 1981. [BACK]
68. 'ACVV 75', pp.11-12. This 'grave' was almost certainly the monument erected in 1907, and moved to the Moederkerk in 1976.
69. Ibid ., and interview with Mr Max Michau, 20 April 1981. [BACK]
68. 'ACVV 75', pp.11-12. This 'grave' was almost certainly the monument erected in 1907, and moved to the Moederkerk in 1976.
69. Ibid ., and interview with Mr Max Michau, 20 April 1981. [BACK]
70. 'ACVV75', pp. 11-12.
71. Ibid .; Smith, Cradock 1814-64, p. 177; S.W.J. van Rensburg, From the Horse's Mouth (Pretoria, 1983), pp.41, 44-5. Van Rensburg, a noted veterinarian, is Mrs J.J. van Rensburg's son, [BACK]
70. 'ACVV75', pp. 11-12.
71. Ibid .; Smith, Cradock 1814-64, p. 177; S.W.J. van Rensburg, From the Horse's Mouth (Pretoria, 1983), pp.41, 44-5. Van Rensburg, a noted veterinarian, is Mrs J.J. van Rensburg's son, [BACK]
72. Cradock Museum. [BACK]
73. Lambrechts and Theron, Vrouevolksdiens, pp.159-63. [BACK]
74. Q. Hoare and J. Nowell Smith, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New York, 1971), p.5.
75. Ibid . [BACK]
74. Q. Hoare and J. Nowell Smith, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (New York, 1971), p.5.
75. Ibid . [BACK]
76. The minutes are held by the ACVV Cradock and are on film at Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, Film No. 824. [BACK]
77. ACVV Minutes, 4 Sept. 1926: the bestuur decided to share profits of a tea with the Dingaansfees (Dingaan festival, i.e. the Day of the Covenant, 16 December) committee. [BACK]
78. In 1926, there were 4419 members of the Dutch Reformed Churches, 800 Anglicans and 450 Methodists, the three largest denominations, comprising together 90 per cent continue
of the white population of town and district. 1926 Census, Part VIII, Table 4, 13. [BACK]
79. Cull also audited the books of the Kerkraad for years without remuneration. See Cradock Dutch Reformed Church, 'Notules van die Kerkraad' (Minutes of the Church Council), 4 May 1935. [BACK]
80. ACVV minutes; De Kock reported surpluses of £108 on 25 June 1927 and £160 on 25 Nov. 1927. [BACK]
81. I have found no cases of welfare work by the ACVV among English-speaking poor in Cradock. [BACK]
82. Wilson and Thompson, South Africa, Vol. II, pp. 126-36. [BACK]
83. J. Butler, "The failure of closer settlement' (mimeo), pp.7-9. [BACK]
84. Union of South Africa, House of Assembly Debates, 7 March 1927, col. 1142. [BACK]
85. Patterson, Last Trek, p.194. [BACK]
86. De Kiewiet, South Africa, pp.224-5. [BACK]
87. Grosskopf, 'Rural Impoverishment', pp.82-92. [BACK]
88. Cape of Good Hope, Provincial Council, Report of the Select Committee on Educational Matters (Cape Town, P.C. Sel. Com. 8 - 1912), p. 108. The report shows 100 European children out of school in the Cradock district in 1912, with about 1000 in school; 100 is a figure of the same order as in neighbouring towns, but far below those in the northwest, e.g., Calvinia 330, Hay 300, Kenhardt 750. [BACK]
89. Smith, Cradock 1814-64, pp. 53, 55, 57. The average size of farms in the Cradock district was 1935 morgen in 1929, roughly 4000 acres. [BACK]
90. Dutch Reformed Church, Cradock, Kerkraad Minutes, 13 July 1925, 8 March 1926; Cape Archives, PAW SBB25/7a, Secretary of Cradock School Board to Controller of Educational Finance, 17 March 1928, reporting the ACVV's refusal to give up control of the boys' hostel. [BACK]
91. ACVV Minutes, 9 Sept. 1927; 3 March 1928; 16 March 1928. [BACK]
92. De Middelandsche Afrikaander, 25 Feb. 1927. [BACK]
93. The Midland News, 1 and 3 April 1926, for reports of ACVV Congress in Cradock. [BACK]
94. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.184. [BACK]
95. The Midland News, 3 April 1926. [BACK]
96. Patterson, Last Trek, pp.261-62. [BACK]
97. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', pp.184, 215-19.
98. Ibid ., p.84. [BACK]
97. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', pp.184, 215-19.
98. Ibid ., p.84. [BACK]
99. Lambrechts and Theron, Vroue Volksdiens, pp.32, 40-42. Cradock received its first full-time worker in 1949, its second in 1956. [BACK]
100. Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa, No. 26 (Pretoria, 1953), pp.345, 367; E.G. Malherbe, Education in South Africa II: 1923-1975 (Cape Town, 1977), pp.155, 159.
101. Ibid ., p.226. [BACK]
100. Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa, No. 26 (Pretoria, 1953), pp.345, 367; E.G. Malherbe, Education in South Africa II: 1923-1975 (Cape Town, 1977), pp.155, 159.
101. Ibid ., p.226. [BACK]
102. ACVV Minutes, 25 July 1927, 4 Aug. 1928.
103. Ibid ., 14 Dec. 1928. The minutes of the Kerkraad also show a continuing concern about Afrikaner children going to the convent. See 2 March and 13 July 1935.
104. Ibid ., 2 March, 8 April, 3 Aug. 1929.
105. Ibid ., 5 Dec. 1931. At this date 230 children were being fed for £96, but the period was not stated.
106. Ibid ., 6 Aug. 1927, 2 Feb. 1929, 4 June 1932. [BACK]
102. ACVV Minutes, 25 July 1927, 4 Aug. 1928.
103. Ibid ., 14 Dec. 1928. The minutes of the Kerkraad also show a continuing concern about Afrikaner children going to the convent. See 2 March and 13 July 1935.
104. Ibid ., 2 March, 8 April, 3 Aug. 1929.
105. Ibid ., 5 Dec. 1931. At this date 230 children were being fed for £96, but the period was not stated.
106. Ibid ., 6 Aug. 1927, 2 Feb. 1929, 4 June 1932. [BACK]
102. ACVV Minutes, 25 July 1927, 4 Aug. 1928.
103. Ibid ., 14 Dec. 1928. The minutes of the Kerkraad also show a continuing concern about Afrikaner children going to the convent. See 2 March and 13 July 1935.
104. Ibid ., 2 March, 8 April, 3 Aug. 1929.
105. Ibid ., 5 Dec. 1931. At this date 230 children were being fed for £96, but the period was not stated.
106. Ibid ., 6 Aug. 1927, 2 Feb. 1929, 4 June 1932. [BACK]
102. ACVV Minutes, 25 July 1927, 4 Aug. 1928.
103. Ibid ., 14 Dec. 1928. The minutes of the Kerkraad also show a continuing concern about Afrikaner children going to the convent. See 2 March and 13 July 1935.
104. Ibid ., 2 March, 8 April, 3 Aug. 1929.
105. Ibid ., 5 Dec. 1931. At this date 230 children were being fed for £96, but the period was not stated.
106. Ibid ., 6 Aug. 1927, 2 Feb. 1929, 4 June 1932. [BACK]
102. ACVV Minutes, 25 July 1927, 4 Aug. 1928.
103. Ibid ., 14 Dec. 1928. The minutes of the Kerkraad also show a continuing concern about Afrikaner children going to the convent. See 2 March and 13 July 1935.
104. Ibid ., 2 March, 8 April, 3 Aug. 1929.
105. Ibid ., 5 Dec. 1931. At this date 230 children were being fed for £96, but the period was not stated.
106. Ibid ., 6 Aug. 1927, 2 Feb. 1929, 4 June 1932. [BACK]
107. H. F. Stein and R. F. Hill, The Ethnic Imperative (University Park, Pennsylvania, 1977), pp.2, 5. [BACK]
108. Adam and Giliomee, Ethnic Power Mobilized, pp. 116-27. [BACK]
109. W. Bell and W. E. Freeman, Ethnicity and Nation Building (Beverley Hills, 1974), p.105. [BACK]
110. See R. Harris, Prejudice and Tolerance in Ulster (Towota, N.J., 1972), pp.x, 178, for a discussion of the frequent greater intensity of feeling among women on ethnic, in this case mainly religious, issues. break [BACK]
111. This is a question requiring research. General Kritzinger, a Free Stater, married into a Cradock family and settled there. He claimed that as a soldier who had 'really' fought, he had felt himself bound to join Hertzog and Smuts in 1934, having been a Nationalist. Personal reminiscence. [BACK]
112. See Note 51 above. [BACK]
113. See E.S. (Solly) Sachs, Rebel's Daughters (London, 1957). [BACK]
114. The 1960 census showed that among whites under 15 years of age 18 per cent could speak only English while 42.4 per cent could speak only Afrikaans. Weighting these figures in the proportion, 40 per cent English, 60 Afrikaans speaking in the total white population, suggests that roughly 45 per cent of English-speakers, and 70 per cent of Afrikaans-speakers are unilingual. Malherbe, Education in South Africa, Vol. II, p.139. [BACK]
115. Language issues were important in the party split in 1969. See T.R.H. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History (Johannesburg, 1977), p.306. [BACK]
116. Interview, Xenobia Lutz, 2 Nov. 1977. [BACK]
117. ACVV Minutes, 27 March 1930, 5 Dec. 1931. [BACK]
118. On Jews in South Africa, see E.A. Walker, A History of Southern Africa (1957), p.655; Wilson and Thompson, South Africa, Vol. II, pp.108, 389. [BACK]
119. 1926 Census, Part VIII, Table 4, p.13. [BACK]
120. ACVV Minutes, 17 Sept. 1927. [BACK]
121. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.115. [BACK]
122. Cape Archives, PAS 3/45/P101A, Provincial Secretary to Mrs E.C. van Lingen, Secretary, Nasionale Vroueparty van die Kaap Provinsie to Administrator, 25 Feb. 1929. [BACK]
123. De Middelandsche Afrikaander, 25 Feb. 1927. [BACK]
124. ACVV minutes, 12 Oct. 1929, 1 March 1930, 3 May 1930. [BACK]
125. J. Butler, 'Public health in a small South African town: Cradock, Cape Province, 1924-1937' (mimeo), p.19. [BACK]
126. Cape Archives Depot, Cape Provincial Administration, L/1/0/75/14, 'Admission of coloured children'. [BACK]
127. See Note 36 above. [BACK]
128. Butler, 'Public health', pp.32-44. [BACK]
129. ACVV minutes, 9 Dec. 1926, 5 Nov. 1927, 16 Nov. 1927. [BACK]
130. ACVV minutes, 6 Sept. 1930 and 6 Dec. 1930. [BACK]
131. At this stage of my work, I am not identifying any of my black informants. [BACK]
132. Grosskopf, 'Rural impoverishment', p.66. [BACK]
133. 1. Hexham, 'Afrikaner nationalism, 1902-1914' in Warwick, ed., South African War, pp.390-1. [BACK]
134. See Merriman's comment at the start of the chapter. [BACK]
135. See, e.g., De Middelandsche Afrikaander, 18 Feb. 1927 at a provincial by-election. [BACK]
136. See The Midland News, 15 March 1920 on poor local organization as reason for defeat of the SAP candidate. [BACK]
137. See De Middelandsche Afrikaander, 31 Jan. 1930 on housing for the needy; 7 March 1930 in favour of women's franchise. [BACK]
138. Interview, Anna Boeseken, 24 Jan. 1978. [BACK]
139. Stultz, Afrikaner Politics, p.61. [BACK]
140. T.D. Moodie, The Rise of Afrikanerdom (Berkeley, 1975), Chapter 10. [BACK]
141. O'Meara, Volkskapitalisme, pp.205, 210-11, 213, 220-1. [BACK]
142. Stultz, Afrikaner Politics, pp.157-59. [BACK]
143. Greenberg, Race and State, p.392.
144. Ibid ., p.393. [BACK]
143. Greenberg, Race and State, p.392.
144. Ibid ., p.393. [BACK]
145. Cf. Van Onselen, New Nineveh, pp. 111-170, and Gilomee's essay in this volume. [BACK]
146. Van Onselen, New Nineveh, p.157. break [BACK]