1. AN F7 13426, 18 April 1923; AN F7 13413, 12 October 1925. On Tangier and Cairo: Bundesarchiv, Koblenz (hereafter, BA) R58/954, 30 May 1938, p. 134; ibid., 4 November 1937, p. 33. On Langenheim: SHAT 3H 102, 24 January 1924; SHAT 3H 256, 1 June 1940. Julius Mader identifies Langenheim as an Abwehr agent in the 1930s. Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 227-28.

2. Andrew, Secret Service , chap. 11, especially 347.

3. AN F7 14774, 10 September 1936, 11 September 1936, 27 September 1937; L'Oeuvre , 20 November 1938.

4. Charles S. Maier, "Between Taylorism and Technocracy: European Ideologies and the Vision of Industrial Productivity in the 1920s," Journal of Contemporary History 5 (April 1970): 27-61; Charles S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 153; Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, "The Large Corporation in Modern France," in Managerial Hierarchies: Comparative Perspectives on the Rise of the Modern Industrial Enterprise , ed. Alfred D. Chandler and Herman Daems (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 126-27, 136-37; Victoria de Grazia, "Mass Culture and Sovereignty: The American Challenge to European Cinemas, 1920-1960," Journal of Modern History 61 (March 1989): 58, 61; Gary S. Cross, Immigrant Workers in Industrial France: The Making of a New Laboring Class (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 18, 20, 34-35, 41-42, 46, 55-62; Le Petit Parisien , 12 June 1938 (on narcotics); Paris-Soir , 29 June 1938, 1 July 1938 (on narcotics); Alan A. Block, ''European Drug Traffic and Traffickers Between the Wars: The Policy of Suppression and its Consequences," Journal of Social History 23 (Winter 1989): 315-32; Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight against White Slavery, 1870-1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 71-78, 113. On the Croisière jaune see chapter 4. For additional discussion of organized immigration—in this case from Italy—see Claudio Segrè, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 311-13.

5. Chalmers Johnson, An Instance of Treason: Ozaki Hotsumi and the Sorge Spy Ring , expanded edition (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), quoted 69.

6. London Times , 6, 11, 16 April 1925, 4, 20, 21 May 1925.

7. AN F7 13413, 14 May 1925 (this report was filed by "un correspondant à même d'être fort documenté sur l'Angleterre, et dont les communications sont souvent d'un haut intéret"). See also Slavin, "Anticolonialism," 52-53, 147-48. Both the report and Slavin suggest possible Mannesmann collaboration with the British syndicate. A deposition by Charles Deboe, who claimed to have acted as an intermediary between Gardiner and Abd-el-Krim's brother, made no mention of the syndicate. The basic outline of Gardiner the adventurer-gunrunner remains. See AN F7 13413, 30 July 1925. Also, according to C. R. Pennell, Gardiner had developed his own commercial connections with the Rif

government and was passing himself off in London as "Minister-Plenipotentiary of the Government of the Riff." C. R. Pennell, A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco, 1921-1926 (Cambridgeshire: Menas Press, 1986), 210-11.

8. References to ex-army officers—American, British, Turkish, German—repeatedly turn up in intelligence reports on the Rif war. SHAT 3H 102, n. d. ("Fournitures à Abd-el-Krim"), 30 October 1925, 18 July [1925?] ("Maroc: officiers étrangers pour le Riff"). See also MAE Maroc 1917-1940 616, 4 June 1925, pp. 227-28.

9. New York Times , 13, 26, 30, 31 July 1935; National Archives, Washington, D.C., Shanghai Municipal Police files (hereafter, SMP) reel 34, D8000, 9, 11, 16 February 1938, 11 March 1938, 20 April 1938, 26 July 1940; SMP reel 60, N965, 7 April 1941 (on O.). H. D.'s name turns up in connection with other shady figures in the SMP files. See SMP reel 31, D7596, 16 July, 1938; SMP reel 58, D9478 (c), 11 December 1939. I consulted the SMP files on microfilm in Syracuse.

10. Sterling Seagrave, The Epic of Flight: Soldiers of Fortune (Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1981), 66-67.

11. MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 7 December 1928, pp. 110, 113, 28 December 1928, p. 111, 29 December 1928, p. 115, 29 January 1929, pp. 116-21, 31 January 1929, pp. 123-27; MAE Z Europe 1918-1929 Russie 601, 19 March 1929, pp. 289-90.

12. Marcel Nadaud and André Fage published their work, Armée , in 1926.

13. Andrew, Secret Service , 142-43, 158-59, 377-78.

14. BA R58/275, 9 February 1940, pp. 75-77.è

15. On Swirles: Auswärtiges Amt—Politisches Archiv, Bonn (hereafter, AA) Pol 1 M 240, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, S-Z 1.39-11.39, Bd. 2 (hereafter, Pol 1 M 240), 16 January 1939, 18 February 1939, 31 March 1939, and document with no date but succeeding 16 January 1939 note. As is often the case with such reports, some of the biographical material on Swirles is contradictory, one report stating he had lived in Paris since 1929, another that he had left Germany only in the mid-1930s. On Stallmann: Navarre, Service , 66-67, 72-73; AA Pol 1 M 240, 18 February 1939; AA Pol 1 M 234, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, A-K 6.39-9.39, Bd. 4 (hereafter, AA Pol 1 M 234), 25 May 1939; BA R58/1045, p. 119 (this report has no date; it is attached to a report that appears to have been written in early 1940, but the section on spies almost certainly was compiled after the French defeat); Michel Garder, La guerre secrète des services spéciaux franais, 1935-1945 (Paris: Plon, 1967), 84.

16. AN F7 14713, Norris file, 31 December 1935, 3 March 1936; AN F7 14671, 28 March 1935.

17. Bristow, Prostitution , 57-58, 129-30.

18. An example is the Captain Frogé affair of the early 1930s. There is a large dossier on this in AN BB18 6094.

19. AN F7 14754, 17 October 1934.

20. OM SLIII 56, 1 July 1922, 17 August 1922.

21. MI 25393/25394, 6 July 1937 (report of Commissaire de police mobile

Valentin, pp. 17-18). This report is in a dossier with 25393 written on it but belongs to the Troncoso file listed as 25394 in the inventory.

22. John Le Carré, A Perfect Spy (New York: Bantam, 1987).

23. The Antwerp reports can be found in AN F7 12836 (see especially 19 December 1908 on German government complicity); MAE NS Maroc 175; MM SSEa4.

24. Guillen, L'Allemagne , 371-72, 375-80.

25. In 1914 at Antwerp a beginning customs official took his duties seriously and insisted on inspecting a shipment of cement. When the consignee refused to open the containers in which the cement was packed, the customs man forbade the embarkment of the cargo. Antwerp customs, its hand forced, was thus obliged to proceed with an investigation, and the consignee withdrew the cargo altogether. Later, the novice douanier received a "paternal" talking-to, in effect a warning not to pull this stunt again. MAE NS Maroc 178, 10 February 1914, pp. 154-55.

26. AN F7 12836, 9 November 1907 (written from Brussels). The correspondent's reports to which he refers are in AN F7 12836, 12, 15, 23 October 1907.

27. MM SSEa4, especially 22 June 1912.

28. Charles Chenevier, La grande maison (Paris: Presses de la Cité, 1976), 61-71.

29. MI 25295, 23 October 1934. Royère was an Inspecteur principal de police mobile.

30. MI 25296, 29, 30 November 1934, 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14 December 1934. Barthelet also went to Vienna, Danzig, and Berlin. He was a Commissaire de police mobile. One cannot discount the possibility that the difficulties of Royère and Barthelet were compounded by the unwillingness of the French government to discover inconvenient evidence. At the time of the murders Franco-Italian relations were improving and the French had incentives to conduct an investigation that would not rupture this process. This hypothesis could explain why the government was powerless to prevent the humiliation of its police missions abroad.è

31. Henri Koch-Kent, Doudot: figure légendaire du contre-espionage franais (Paris: Casterman 1976); Navarre, Service , 61-62.

32. Navarre, Service , 87.

33. Ibid., 50-51.

34. AN F7 14755, March 1936 (attached to 20 April 1936), 9 January 1936, June 1936 (attached to 26 June 1936), 5 September 1936. The March and June reports differ a bit on the dates of Samuel I.'s arrival in Paris and his definitive departure.

35. AA Geheimakten 1920-1936, AZ: Spanien Pol 15, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen 4.20-26.35.

36. AA Inland II A/B 292/2, AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 8.5.35-17.4.36, 6 May 1936; MA N104/4, 15 October 1939.

37. BA R58/954, 30 May 1938, p. 136. On AA complaints, see particularly AA Inland II A/B 292/3, AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 1935-1940. SS was am acronym for Schutzstaffel.

38. AA Inland II A/B 291/3, AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 18.12.33-31.7.34, 15 January 1934 and "Abschrift" that follows (on Schneekloth); AA Pol 1 M 234, 20 June 1939; AA Pol 1 M 240, 2 February, 1939.

39. BA R58/275, 3 October 1938, pp. 25-26.

40. MA RW49/529-530; BA R58/830, 13 June 1941; BA R58/472, 28 March 1940, p. 14 (Zsunke). AA Pol 1 M 240, 25 May 1939, 20 June 1939, 12 September 1939; AA Pol 1 M 241, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, S-Z 11.39-4.40, Bd. 3 (hereafter, Pol 1 M 241), 27 November 1939 (Sparwasser). NA T77 884, pp. 12-13 (Xylander). On Rühle and telegram see the following reports in BA R58/472: n. d. (pp. 1-5), 18 April 1940 (pp. 18-20), 13 April 1940 (p. 15). On sabotage via Italy: ibid., 28 March 1940, p. 14. See also De Jong, Fifth , 202-3.

39. BA R58/275, 3 October 1938, pp. 25-26.

40. MA RW49/529-530; BA R58/830, 13 June 1941; BA R58/472, 28 March 1940, p. 14 (Zsunke). AA Pol 1 M 240, 25 May 1939, 20 June 1939, 12 September 1939; AA Pol 1 M 241, AZ: PO15-1g, Agenten- u. Spionagewesen Einzelfälle, S-Z 11.39-4.40, Bd. 3 (hereafter, Pol 1 M 241), 27 November 1939 (Sparwasser). NA T77 884, pp. 12-13 (Xylander). On Rühle and telegram see the following reports in BA R58/472: n. d. (pp. 1-5), 18 April 1940 (pp. 18-20), 13 April 1940 (p. 15). On sabotage via Italy: ibid., 28 March 1940, p. 14. See also De Jong, Fifth , 202-3.

41. MI 25393/25394, 6 July 1937 (Valentin report); AN BB18 6476, especially the Delrieu report of 4 October 1937. Later reports from judicial sources presented a watered-down version of Delrieu's report based on Tamborini's later insistence that he understood French imperfectly and had difficulty with the police interrogators' accent, and based on attacks on the character and motivations of a POUM informant. Neither qualification is convincing, especially in light of Cantelli's confession, Valentin's report, the Giardini incident, the details and style of Delrieu's report, and SIM revelations following the war (see note 42). AN BB18 6476, 6 May 1938, 23 December 1938.

42. J.-R. Tournoux, L'histoire secrète (Paris: Plon, 1962), 324-61 (these are transcripts of documents). Joel Blatt has been helpful in confirming these documents, based on his work with Italian sources.

43. AN BB18 6095, Switz/Stahl file, especially 20 March 1934, 27 March 1934, 5 July 1934, 17 April 1935; APP BA 1743, May 1935, 29 April 1935. See also Le Journal , 21, 22 December 1933, 21 March 1934, 11 July 1934, 26 March 1935.

44. On circuits into France: APP BAP 69, 24 April 1924. On Germany: AN F7 13424; AN F7 13426 (especially 1924 dossier); Dan Jacobs, Borodin: Stalin's Man in China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 78-79, 86; John Erickson, "Threat Identification and Strategic Appraisal by the Soviet Union, 1930-1941," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 394. On Vienna: AN F7 13065, 28 June 1922, 5 January 1925; AN F7 14753, 12 December 1936; APP BAP 269, 16 March 1931; Elisabeth K. Poretsky, Our Own People: A Memoir of 'Ignace Reiss' and his Friends (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1970), 58. On global dimensions, see chapter 4. For an overall view of Soviet espionage in these years, including discussion of specific operations in Germany and France, the departure points are David J. Dallin, Soviet Espionage (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955); and, more recently, John Costello and Oleg Tsarev, Deadly Illusions (New York: Crown, 1993).

45. Soviet secret police went through several name changes during the period. For the sake of consistency I use the letters GPU throughout this book.

46. Dallin argues that distance between agencies and local parties, to the extent it was practiced, was to protect the latter from charges of spying for a foreign country. Dallin, Soviet Espionage , 16-18.

47. On this point see Erickson, "Threat," in May, Knowing One's Enemies , 394.

48. Literature on German interwar intelligence has concentrated on the Nazi years. The best reviews are in Kahn, Hitler's Spies ; and Michael Geyer, "National Socialist Germany: The Politics of Information," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 310-46. See also Buchheit, Geheimdienst . On French reports from the 1920s, in addition to the Impex material, see AN F7 14713, May 1926 ("Les services secrets allemands").

49. AA Inland II A/B 292/1 AZ: 83-78, Spionageabwehr, Vertrauensmänner 1.8.34-18.4.35, Wesemann file, especially 26 July 1934, 8 April 1935; AN F7 14714, 20 March 1935.

50. Hans Georg Lehmann, In Acht und Bann: Politische Emigrations, NS-Ausbürgerung, und Wiedergutmachung am Beispiel Willy Brandts (Munich: Beck, 1976), 44, 61. The extent of Gestapo penetration in France is difficult to follow. A Foreign Office report refers to a number 9 menées terroristes list "relatif à la Gestapo," but this list is not to be found among the others. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 791, 14 May 1940, p. 177.

51. MA RW5/137, 22 November 1934, 25 June 1935, 16 July 1935, 21 October 1935, 20 November 1937, 25 November 1937.

52. De Jong, Fifth , 153; Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 309, 311-15.

53. De Jong, Fifth , 150; Donald Cameron Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939 (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 61.

54. MA RW5/143, 5 October 1939; MA RW5/163, 4 July, 1939; De long, Fifth , 154-55, 182-206 (on May-June 1940 operations; de long emphasizes the limited role of treachery among resident populations). See also Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 321-22, 330-33; Paul Leverkuehn, German Military Intelligence , trans. R. H. Stevens (New York: Praeger, 1954), 45.

55. The phrase is Geyer's in "National Socialist," in May, Knowing One's Enemies , 311.

56. The following discussion, except details on Yugoslavia, relies primarily on Navarre, Service , especially 39-47, 53, 69-71, 117-22. This is a sober account put together by a former SR official who headed the German section of the SR Centrale from 1936 to 1940; other former intelligence officers supplied information to Navarre for this work. Down to 1930 the SR Marine maintained a station in Germany. For a positive assessment of the SR's effectiveness in obtaining strategically valuable intelligence, see, in addition to Navarre, Robert Young, "French Military Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1938-1939," in Knowing One's Enemies , ed. May, 271-309. On Bertrand and Enigma, see also Jean Stengers, "Enigma, the French, the Poles, and the British, 1931-1940" in The Missing Dimension , ed. Andrew and Dilks, 126-29, 133. Dates for SR stations have been given only where precise information exists.

57. AA Pol 1 M 240, 6 April 1939, 26 April 1939; BA R58/275, 9 August 1939 (pp. 56-57), 13 [18?] January 1940 (pp. 67ff.). Freundt, in the German consulate in Zagreb, sent the original report on Hartwig. He said his information came from a former collaborator of Hartwig. Although Freundt noted that he lacked the time and means to verify this information, he believed it to be

highly credible because of the bestimmtheit (certainty; exactitude) with which the source stated his details and because of the way the source responded to his (Freundt's) questions. The repetition of these details in the RSHA report nine months later again suggests that the report was correct. It is possible that the informer was part of a French sting operation; the French SR did engage in disinformation. If so, this would, in a diferent way, demonstrate the sophistication of French intelligence in this period. Hartwig was related to the Baron Hartwig, Russian minister to Serbia, who died of a heart attack during the July crisis. His father was a former bank director in St. Petersburg.

58. On charts and organization circulars, see SHAT 7N 2486, particularly the "Liste des postes SR en temps de paix et en temps de guerre," 1925; SHAT 3H 434, especially 14 April 1937, 14 October 1937; SHAT 7N 2571, 21 July 1933 ("Note . . . gendarmerie au service du contre-espionage"), 30 April 1937. Menées terroristes lists are in AN F7 14684. On the Préfecture archives see APP BAP 65, 1 October 1940 (dossier D-11). The barge was blocked in the Seine and most of its contents recovered by the Germans.

59. Navarre, Service , 40-41, 68-72; Gunter Peis, The Man Who Started the War (London: Odhams Press, Ltd., 1960), 104-12; Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 279-93; AN F7 14713, 9 February 1935; AN F7 14662, 4 December 1939. MA RW5/137 (reports to Abwehr Ast. Dresden concerning experiments with sabotage materials). On Soviet wireless use, see The Rote Kapelle: The CIA's History of Soviet Intelligence and Espionage Networks in Western Europe, 1936-1945 (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1979), 20, 24.

60. Peis, Man , 106.

61. Charles Reber, Terrorisme et diplomatie (Paris: Baudinière, 1935), 18-20.

62. Andrew, Secret Service , 347. British cryptography, however, was very competent. British industrial intelligence was also comparatively advanced: Wark, Ultimate , 159-60.

63. On Reiss, see Poretsky, People and (on mobile assassination squads) Alexander Orlov, The Secret History of Stalin's Crimes (London: Jarrolds, 1954), 229-32.

64. Rote Kapelle , 13-20, 87-92, 105-10, 237-53, 367-73; Leopold Trepper, The Great Game: Memoirs of the Spy Hitler Couldn't Silence (New York: Mcgraw-Hill, 1977). In his memoirs, Trepper says there was a deception of his German captors that was not prearranged. See also Dallin, Soviet Espionage ; Gilles Perrault, The Red Orchestra , trans. Peter Wiles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969).

65. AN F7 13065, 12 May 1926. See also AN F7 13509, 1 June 1921, 20 September 1921. See also chapter 4.

66. Rote Kapelle , 70, 213, 312, 327, 360-61; Johnson, Instance , 68, 95. See also Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 92-93, 209, 249.

67. Geyer, "National Politics," in May, Knowing One's Enemies , 311, 321-22.

68. Watt, How War Came , 58.

69. Henri de Monfreid, Les secrets de la mer Rouge (Paris: Grasset, 1932). On Monfreid see chapter 4. On the dimensions of the arms traffic in the Red Sea

see Agnès Piquart, "Le commerce des armes à Djibouti de 1888 à 1914," Revue franaise d'histoire d'outre-mer 58 (1971): 407-32.

70. Joseph Crozier, Mes missions secrètes, 1915-1918 (Paris: Payot, 1933). On the NOT, see chapter 3.

71. AN F7 14679. Alan Block has chronicled how League of Nations efforts in the 1920s to regulate the drug trade simply created greater opportunities for illicit drug traffickers and resulted in larger criminal networks of narcotics dealers, who, as well, might traffic in arms: Block, "European Drug Traffic."

72. Georges Castellan, Le réarmement clandestin du Reich, 1930-1935 (Paris: Plon, 1954), 274-94.

73. SHAT 3H 102, 17 June 1925 (quoted), 17 July 1925, 28 August 1925, 29 September 1925; MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2ème Partie 162, 6 February 1928, p. 289.

74. AN BB18 6542, 27 July 1935, 29 July 1935, 27 September 1935, 29 October 1935, 12 December 1935, 24 March 1936; AN F7 14679, 24 July 1935 (translation of Associated Press clipping on Le Havre mayor).

75. AN F7 14679, 3 July 1939.

76. AN F7 14680, Corrigan.

77. Castellan, Réarmement , 175-98; MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Yougoslavie 135, 11 October 1934; AN BB18 3061/2, 2 August 1939 (Affaire du CSAR). See also MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 21 August 1934, pp. 222-23 on Wilhelm K. who was smuggling weapons into Morocco in the early 1930s.

78. SHAT 3H 102, 17 June 1925. The informant estimated that up to 800 persons had shown interest and that as of 1 June 500 had been accepted; but only one individual was named as definitely having departed for the Rif.

79. MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2ème Partie 162, 13 December 1927, pp. 163-64, 198-203; ibid., 24 May 1927, pp. 115-16; ibid., 17 January 1928, pp. 240-41; OM SLIII 141, 17 July 1928 (Peking documents).

78. SHAT 3H 102, 17 June 1925. The informant estimated that up to 800 persons had shown interest and that as of 1 June 500 had been accepted; but only one individual was named as definitely having departed for the Rif.

79. MAE Asie 1918-1929 Chine 2ème Partie 162, 13 December 1927, pp. 163-64, 198-203; ibid., 24 May 1927, pp. 115-16; ibid., 17 January 1928, pp. 240-41; OM SLIII 141, 17 July 1928 (Peking documents).

80. AN F7 14676, 13 April 1937. The newspaper was the Stockholm daily, Aftonbladet .

81. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 1 July 1937, pp. 38-39.

82. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

83. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 5 August 1937, p. 60.

84. On boats and false destinations: ibid., particularly 18 August 1937 (pp. 76-77), 30 August 1937 (pp. 86-87), 1 July 1937 (pp. 37-39). AN F7 14676, 17 November 1936, 13 April 1937. On hotel: AN F7 14676, 5 December 1936. On Jean A.: AN F7 14680, 22 August 1938.

83. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 5 August 1937, p. 60.

84. On boats and false destinations: ibid., particularly 18 August 1937 (pp. 76-77), 30 August 1937 (pp. 86-87), 1 July 1937 (pp. 37-39). AN F7 14676, 17 November 1936, 13 April 1937. On hotel: AN F7 14676, 5 December 1936. On Jean A.: AN F7 14680, 22 August 1938.

85. Poretsky, People , 210-11.

86. Walter Krivitsky, In Stalin's Secret Service (1939; reprint, Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985), 84-88. See also Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (New York: Harper Colophon, 1963), 295-96. Poretsky, People , 270, casts doubts on the veracity of Krivitsky's account.

87. MAE Z Europe 1939-1940 Espagne 147, 5 August 1937, pp. 58-60.

88. Daladier papers, 3 DA11 DR3, 26 January 1939, pp. 26-28, 37.

89. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

90. AN F60 201, 22 August 1937; ibid., n.d. ("Note pour Monsieur le président du conseil. Affaire d'espionage d'Oran").

89. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

90. AN F60 201, 22 August 1937; ibid., n.d. ("Note pour Monsieur le président du conseil. Affaire d'espionage d'Oran").

91. Veltjens may have had ties to the conspirators in Spain prior to their uprising, although the evidence on this remains inconclusive. In 1940 Göring used Veltjens for arms exports to Finland and during the Second World War for black market purchases in western Europe. Whealey, Hitler , 81-82; Hans-Henning Abendroth, Hitler in der Spanischen Arena (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1973), 19-20, 156, 179-81; Gerhard Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983; 1980), 1:286-87; 2:147.

92. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier).

93. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Espagne 147, 1 July 1937, pp. 37-39.

94. AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier); APP BA 1665, 24 August 1936; AN F7 14676, 25 February 1938; AN F7 14680, January 1939, 9 July 1938.

95. Fricke, Bismarcks Prätorianer .

96. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Yougoslavie (hereafter, MAE Z Youg.) 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1), pp. 123-40. The author of this report was identified as "an informer who is often well informed." His personal acquaintance with Ustasha figures and his style of presentation alike appear to merit this appraisal.

97. On pre-1914 southern Slav terrorism, see Vladimir Dedijer, The Road to Sarajevo (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966).

98. AN BB18 6473, 13 November 1934; MI 25296, 30 November 1934 (Barthelet report); MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 99; Reber, Terrorisme , 27, 49-56, 66.

99. On IMRO and their Ustasha association: MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1); AN F7 14754, 11 October 1934 ("Au sujet de l'ORIM"); AN F7 14755, n.d. ("L'organisation révolutionnaire intérieure macédoine de 1928 à 1936"). Relations between the IMRO (the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization) and Ustashi preceded the 1932 agreement.

100. MAE Z Youg. 137, 17 November 1934, pp. 159, 165-76; AN F7 14754, 12 October 1934 (procès verbal of Pospisil).

101. MAE Z Youg. 136, 23 October 1934, pp. 21-22.

102. Ibid., 30 October 1934 (note no. 1); MAE Z Youg. 135, 11 October 1934, pp. 25-30. The two reports appear to be written by the same person.

103. MI 25297, "La vie secrète des émigrés criminels" by Jelka Pogorelec.

104. AN BB18 6473, 1 March 1935, 9 March 1935, 12 March 1935, 1 April 1935; MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 84. According to note no. 1, Duic committed suicide for personal reasons.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

106. The problem of Yugoslav tendentiousness was recognized within the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs: MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 85. For reports indicating German complicity see: ibid., 15 October 1934, 16 October, especially p. 125; MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 2), pp. 141-45; MI 25295, 30 October 1934 ("Etude relative aux agissements . . . terroristes allemands"); ibid., 19 November 1934. Naggiar, the French repre-

sentative in Belgrade reported, however, that the Yugoslavs were certain that Berlin was not involved: MAE Z Youg. 138, 23 December 1934, p. 12. The author of note no. I also discounted German involvement. See also the report of Inspector Borel from Switzerland: MI 25296, 29 October 1934, p. 25. In general charges regarding Berlin came from questionable sources or people not likely to have good access to the facts.

107. AN F7 14754, 1 February 1935 (The French embassy in Rome argued, however, that all Croats in Italy were concentrated on the Lipari Islands: ibid, 19 February 1935); AN F7 14755, 26 March 1937; MI 25297, 25 January 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 5, 16 April 1938, pp. 16, 19-20; ibid., list no. 7, 1 May 1939, pp. 35, 93; AN F7 14753, 26 June 1939; AN F7 14755, 9 June 1939, 19 December 1939; APP BAP 65, June 1938 ("Propositions d'expulsions"—bound booklet on 100 people; hereafter, 100-persons book), category 10.

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

106. The problem of Yugoslav tendentiousness was recognized within the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs: MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 85. For reports indicating German complicity see: ibid., 15 October 1934, 16 October, especially p. 125; MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 2), pp. 141-45; MI 25295, 30 October 1934 ("Etude relative aux agissements . . . terroristes allemands"); ibid., 19 November 1934. Naggiar, the French repre-

sentative in Belgrade reported, however, that the Yugoslavs were certain that Berlin was not involved: MAE Z Youg. 138, 23 December 1934, p. 12. The author of note no. I also discounted German involvement. See also the report of Inspector Borel from Switzerland: MI 25296, 29 October 1934, p. 25. In general charges regarding Berlin came from questionable sources or people not likely to have good access to the facts.

107. AN F7 14754, 1 February 1935 (The French embassy in Rome argued, however, that all Croats in Italy were concentrated on the Lipari Islands: ibid, 19 February 1935); AN F7 14755, 26 March 1937; MI 25297, 25 January 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 5, 16 April 1938, pp. 16, 19-20; ibid., list no. 7, 1 May 1939, pp. 35, 93; AN F7 14753, 26 June 1939; AN F7 14755, 9 June 1939, 19 December 1939; APP BAP 65, June 1938 ("Propositions d'expulsions"—bound booklet on 100 people; hereafter, 100-persons book), category 10.

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

106. The problem of Yugoslav tendentiousness was recognized within the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs: MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 85. For reports indicating German complicity see: ibid., 15 October 1934, 16 October, especially p. 125; MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 2), pp. 141-45; MI 25295, 30 October 1934 ("Etude relative aux agissements . . . terroristes allemands"); ibid., 19 November 1934. Naggiar, the French repre-

sentative in Belgrade reported, however, that the Yugoslavs were certain that Berlin was not involved: MAE Z Youg. 138, 23 December 1934, p. 12. The author of note no. I also discounted German involvement. See also the report of Inspector Borel from Switzerland: MI 25296, 29 October 1934, p. 25. In general charges regarding Berlin came from questionable sources or people not likely to have good access to the facts.

107. AN F7 14754, 1 February 1935 (The French embassy in Rome argued, however, that all Croats in Italy were concentrated on the Lipari Islands: ibid, 19 February 1935); AN F7 14755, 26 March 1937; MI 25297, 25 January 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 5, 16 April 1938, pp. 16, 19-20; ibid., list no. 7, 1 May 1939, pp. 35, 93; AN F7 14753, 26 June 1939; AN F7 14755, 9 June 1939, 19 December 1939; APP BAP 65, June 1938 ("Propositions d'expulsions"—bound booklet on 100 people; hereafter, 100-persons book), category 10.

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

105. MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 1).

106. The problem of Yugoslav tendentiousness was recognized within the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs: MAE Z Youg. 135, 13 October 1934, p. 85. For reports indicating German complicity see: ibid., 15 October 1934, 16 October, especially p. 125; MAE Z Youg. 136, 30 October 1934 (note no. 2), pp. 141-45; MI 25295, 30 October 1934 ("Etude relative aux agissements . . . terroristes allemands"); ibid., 19 November 1934. Naggiar, the French repre-

sentative in Belgrade reported, however, that the Yugoslavs were certain that Berlin was not involved: MAE Z Youg. 138, 23 December 1934, p. 12. The author of note no. I also discounted German involvement. See also the report of Inspector Borel from Switzerland: MI 25296, 29 October 1934, p. 25. In general charges regarding Berlin came from questionable sources or people not likely to have good access to the facts.

107. AN F7 14754, 1 February 1935 (The French embassy in Rome argued, however, that all Croats in Italy were concentrated on the Lipari Islands: ibid, 19 February 1935); AN F7 14755, 26 March 1937; MI 25297, 25 January 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 5, 16 April 1938, pp. 16, 19-20; ibid., list no. 7, 1 May 1939, pp. 35, 93; AN F7 14753, 26 June 1939; AN F7 14755, 9 June 1939, 19 December 1939; APP BAP 65, June 1938 ("Propositions d'expulsions"—bound booklet on 100 people; hereafter, 100-persons book), category 10.

108. APP BAP 278, September 1930; ibid., March 1928 (21-page report); APP BA 1711, 21 February 1930; AN BB18 6093, 6 September 1932.

109. AN F7 14744, 13 November 1926, 13 January 1927; AN BB18 6095, 23 May 1933, 12 February 1934, 7 May 1934.

110. MI 25344, n. d. The note is torn, making the last third of what is written on it difficult to read. The reference in the text, therefore, is to part of the note.

111. Robert C. Williams, Culture in Exile: Russian Emigrés in Germany, 1881-1941 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972), especially 81-84, 111-24, 131-34, 284-85; Marc Raeff, Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919-1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), especially 4-5, 17-24, 41-42, 47-52, 61, 77 (on publishers); Robert H. Johnston, New Mecca, New Babylon: Paris and the Russian Exiles, 1920-1945 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988), especially 9, 53, 81, 85-90, 147-48. The one-million figure is from Michael Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 61. Raeff suggests somewhat smaller figures, pp. 202-3. All authors point out the wildly varying estimates from the times that allow only approximate numbers.

112. Johnston, Mecca , 25-28.

113. Ibid., 3.

114. APP BAP 65, June 1938 (100-persons book), category 12.

115. APP BAP 65, June 1938 (100-persons book), category 12 (Eugène H.); AN F7 14676, 30 December 1936, April 1937; AN F7 14677, October 1937 (Goldberg dossier); AN F7 14680, 22 August 1938; AN F7 14676, 31 December 1936.

116. Marina Grey, Le général meurt à minuit (Paris: Plon, 1981), 62. This is the most thorough investigation into the Kutepov and Miller kidnappings.

117. APP BAP 291, September 1934, p. 10; Grey, Général , 60-61 (according to Grey, ZK. sold Yugoslav military secrets to the USSR at the behest of the Yugoslav general staff, for whom ZK. really was working); AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 1, 10 April 1937; Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, Stanford, B. I. Nicolaevsky register, box number 299 folder ID7 (hereafter, Hoover N.), 14 December 1937 ("Rapport: affaire de Miller";

hereafter, by date only), pp. 3-4, 35-36, 45-46; I consulted photocopies of these files in Syracuse. This report is largely compiled from White Russian papers seized during the investigation into the kidnapping of General Miller in 1937. It is written in an impressionable way and should be treated with caution.

118. Hoover N., 14 December 1937, pp. 12-13, 19, 38, 39 (quoted). The author of the quote on Koltypin was Zakrjevskii (in a note dated 6 December 1934). See also MI 25344, 3 March 1930.

119. APP BA 1708, June 1932.

120. For some sense of the scope of double agent penetration see MAE Europe 1918-1929 Russie 120, 27 October 1922, p. 6; ibid., 27 September 1923, pp. 105-6 (on Red agents among the entourage of Grand Duke Kirill, an exiled pretender to the throne); AN F7 14753, 17 December 1935 (on Red infiltration of White Russian groups in Belgrade). On the "trust" see Grey, Général , 24-45; Geoffrey Bailey, The Conspirators (New York: Harper, 1960); Paul W. Blackstock, The Secret Road to World War Two: Soviet Versus Western Intelligence 1921-1939 (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1969).

119. APP BA 1708, June 1932.

120. For some sense of the scope of double agent penetration see MAE Europe 1918-1929 Russie 120, 27 October 1922, p. 6; ibid., 27 September 1923, pp. 105-6 (on Red agents among the entourage of Grand Duke Kirill, an exiled pretender to the throne); AN F7 14753, 17 December 1935 (on Red infiltration of White Russian groups in Belgrade). On the "trust" see Grey, Général , 24-45; Geoffrey Bailey, The Conspirators (New York: Harper, 1960); Paul W. Blackstock, The Secret Road to World War Two: Soviet Versus Western Intelligence 1921-1939 (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1969).

121. Grey, Général , 54, 111; Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 68. On the Normandy coast invasions see MI 25344, 26-27 March, 5 April 1930.

122. Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 297 confirms the GPU's role and Skoblin's complicity in the kidnapping. Theories about militant Whites and the Spanish civil war emanated mostly from White Russian groups, but they were also accepted by Sûreté commissaire Jean Belin, who participated in the investigation of the case and heard a confession from Skoblin's wife shortly before her death in prison (Jean Belin, Secrets of the Sûreté [New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1950]).

123. Georges London, Les grands procès de l'année 1938 (Paris: Editions de France, 1939), 228; Hoover N., 14 December 1937, p. 34; Hoover N., February 1938 (Roches to Directeur de la police judiciaire), p. 11.

124. Grey Général , 226.

125. Hoover N., 14 December 1937, p. 5. On amateurism see Hoover N., 12 July 1934, côte XIII, 19 April 1938, côte XXIX.

126. Hoover N., especially côtes III (on boat), V-VIII, XV, XIX-XX, XXXVII (listed erroneously as XXVII—on expenses).

127. For some examples see Krivitsky, Stalin's , 224-43; Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 219; Grey, Général , pp. 191-203; Paul Paillole, Services spéciaux, 1935-1945 (Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1975), 46-52.

128. Material on Skoblin and the inner line is scattered throughout the Hoover documents. See in particular Hoover N., November 1937, pp. 4-5; ibid., 14 December 1937, pp. 2-3, 17-19. See also press coverage in the major Parisian dailies in September-October 1937; Grey, Général . Poretsky's charges are in Poretsky, People , 145-46, 165, 214. On mobile assassination squads see also Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 285-86. On Von Petrov: Peter Wright, Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer (New York: Viking Penguin, 1987), 325.

127. For some examples see Krivitsky, Stalin's , 224-43; Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 219; Grey, Général , pp. 191-203; Paul Paillole, Services spéciaux, 1935-1945 (Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1975), 46-52.

128. Material on Skoblin and the inner line is scattered throughout the Hoover documents. See in particular Hoover N., November 1937, pp. 4-5; ibid., 14 December 1937, pp. 2-3, 17-19. See also press coverage in the major Parisian dailies in September-October 1937; Grey, Général . Poretsky's charges are in Poretsky, People , 145-46, 165, 214. On mobile assassination squads see also Costello and Tsarev, Deadly Illusions , 285-86. On Von Petrov: Peter Wright, Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer (New York: Viking Penguin, 1987), 325.

129. MAE Maroc/Tunisie 1917-1940 Maroc 1214, 31 January 1929, pp. 123-25; MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 15 October, p. 251; MI

25344, 7 February 1930; Hoover N., February 1938 (Roches, p. 14), 1 February 1938.

130. Mader, Hitlers Spionagegenerale , 132; Andrew, Secret Service , 350; AA Jugoslav Pol. 15 1921-1934, 10 July 1921; BA R58/275, 13 January 1940; Watt, How War Came , 61. On Red Army spies: APP BAP 437, 2 February 1935, 26 March 1935.

131. Woolman, Rebels , 129; AN F7 13413, 19 June 1925, 20 June 1925, 22 June 1925, 9 January 1926.

132. Grey, Général , 187-91; Hoover N., February 1938 (Roches, p. 14), 14 December 1937, pp. 6-10; APP BAP 65, June 1938 (100-persons book), category 8.

133. Williams, Culture , 98-102, 160-67, 213-22, 288-90, 348. For French counterintelligence reports tracking early White conspiracies in Germany, see MAE Europe 1918-1929 Russie 119. In 1935 the French signed a pact with the USSR, although neither side ever took it seriously. Biskupskii, incidentally, turns up as one of the schemers in the files on the gunrunner W.è

134. MM 1BB7 93, 10 December 1936; Gabrielle Bertrand, Seule dans l'Asie troublée:Mandchouko-Mongolie, 1936-1937 (Paris: Plon, 1937), 53-62 (quoted, 57), 96; OM Affaires politiques 1416, 15 March 1938 (BMR [Bulletin mensuel de renseignements]: ''Les Russes blancs de la Chine du nord devant le conflit sino-japonais"), 45-54 (quoted, 47, 49); SHAT 7N 3124, 26 December 1935 (Consul de France at Harbin to Hoppenot, Chargé d'affaires de la République franaise en Chine); George Stewart, The White Armies of Russia: A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention (New York: Macmillan, 1933), 269.

135. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 30 April 1934, pp. 170-71 (note dated 28 April); MAE E Asie-Océanie-Japon 1930-1940 150, 18 January 1939, p. 114; APP BA 1706, 26 November 1937.

136. APP BAP 291, September 1934 (also useful on intrigues between White Russians, Germans, and Japanese); APP BAP 407, February 1939 ("L'émigration en face de la perspective d'une guerre européene"), p. 8.

137. Among these: MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 30 April 1934, pp. 171-72; APP BAP 291, 11 June 1938; APP BAP 407, 18 January 1939; APP BAP 66, 4 April 1939. After World War II it was learned that Turkul had been a GPU agent. One might assume that his pro-German role was to divide the White Russians: Pierre Broué, "La main d'oeuvre 'blanche' de Staline," Cahiers Léon Trotsky 24 (December 1985): 81.

138. Bernard Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 1939-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 83-90; Roger Daniels, The Decision to Relocate the Japanese Americans (Malabar, Fla.: Robert E. Krieger, 1986).

139. Exact figures are difficult to determine, in part because of distinctions between assembly centers where detainment could nevertheless last some time and actual internment camps. A 15,000 figure is given in SHAT 7N 2475, 15 November 1939 ("Situation du recrutement et de l'utilisation des étrangers ô la date du 12 novembre"). See also MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790, 9 December 1939 (by this date 6,000 had left the camps, one third of these for the Foreign Legion); Journal officiel , Chambre des députés, débats parlemen-

taires, séance of 8 December 1939, p. 2121; Michael R. Marrus and Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 65. For a higher figure see Gilbert Badia et al., Les Barbelés de l'exil (Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 1979), 176, 182. On May internments: MAE Z Europe 1930-1940, Allemagne 791, 15, 25 May 1940, pp. 90-93, 212.è

140. The starting point here is the work of Michael Marrus and Robert Paxton who have made the most thorough assessment of Vichy's Jewish policy and have stressed the similarities, as well as the differences, between wartime measures taken against Jews and the increasingly repressive refugee policies of the late Third Republic. For the challenging questions they have raised see Marrus and Paxton, Vichy , 14, 54, 58, 67. See also Badia, Barbelés ; Ralph Schor, L'opinion franaise et les étrangers en France, 1919-1939 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985), 709, 728-29.

141. Marrus and Paxton, Vichy , chap. 2; Badia, Barbelés ; Schor, Opinion ; Marrus, Unwanted , chap. 3; Vicki Caron, "Loyalties in Conflict: French Jewry and the Refugee Crisis, 1933-1935," Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 36(1991)-305-38; Timothy Maga, "The United States, France, and the Refugee Problem, 1933-1947" (Ph.D. diss., McGill University, 1981).

142. AN F60 173.

143. APP BA 60, November 1933 ("Les réfugies allemands dans la région parisienne"/dossier établi par M. Chiappe); AN F60 497, 31 October 1938 ("Note sur la situation désespérée des réfugies"). The dating of this note is questionable since the suicides it describes are dated 1 and 2 November.

144. The most stringent measures—internments—came at a time of repression of the Communist party in France, and it has been suggested that the internments were political in motivation and an offshoot of anti-Soviet or anticommunist policy: Badia, Barbelés , 171-73. The trouble with this perspective is that it does not take into account the constant concern with German secret agents, the internment of only "enemy" nationals, and the ready association of communist and fascist saboteurs following the Nazi-Soviet non-agression pact. On the crackdown against the Communist party, see J. Kim Munholland, "The Daladier Government and the 'Red Scare' of 1938-1940," Proceedings of the Western Society of French Historical Studies (1982): 495-506; AN F60 988, 17 April 1940.

145. Marrus, Unwanted , 141-45.

146. See chapter 3.

147. Belin, Secrets , 245; AN F7 13505, 15 June 1933; APP BA 60, 31 July 1934; AN F7 14662, 12 October 1938, 29 November 1938; Journal officiel , Chambre des députés, débats parlementaires, séance of 8 December 1939, p. 2121 (on necessity to intern); SHAT 7N 2475, 26 October 1939 and AN F7 14662, 27 October 1939 (on boats).

148. That precise question was asked by a parliamentary review commission: AN F60 391, 16 November 1939.

149. APP BAP 407, 10 November 1933, pp. 12-13; ibid., February 1939 ("L'émigration en face de la perspective d'une guerre européenne"). The earlier report was not very favorably disposed toward the refugees and argued that political refugees (as opposed to Jewish ones) remained German to the core and might still represent a security threat.

148. That precise question was asked by a parliamentary review commission: AN F60 391, 16 November 1939.

149. APP BAP 407, 10 November 1933, pp. 12-13; ibid., February 1939 ("L'émigration en face de la perspective d'une guerre européenne"). The earlier report was not very favorably disposed toward the refugees and argued that political refugees (as opposed to Jewish ones) remained German to the core and might still represent a security threat.

150. APP BAP 407, 31 March 1939. See also APP BA 60, 3 November 1933 (response to Voilà article—in Chiappe file).

151. APP BAP 65, December 1938 (Préfet de police to Minister of the Interior/Sûreté nationale); AN F7 14776, n.d. (Interior to Finance Ministry); APP BAP 65, 23 July 1937, 28 March 1939.

152. AN F7 14711, 7 February 1939.

153. APP BAP 355, particularly reports of 24 April 1925, 16 May 1925, January 1927; APP BAP 65, 3 March 1928; Schor, Opinion , 281. See also Cross, Immigrant Workers , 149-52, 180-82. Refoulements referred to the withdrawal or nonrenewal of an identity card permitting residence in France; expulsions or deportations were a more direct and forcible form of expelling people from the country.

154. Mitchell, "Xenophobic"; SHAT 7N 676, 20 April 1906, 22 January 1909, 30 October 1913; SHAT 7N 658 (Dossier entitled "Question des étrangers résidant en France avant 1914/1913-1914"—quoted from "Historique'' and 20 March 1914 report in this dossier).

155. SHAT 16N 1589, 4 November 1915 ("Note sur les conditions de séjour des étrangers en France pendant la guerre"). As of November 1915 the French had established fifteen concentration camps for Germans, Austrians, and Turks (Turkish suspects were interned following a 9 November 1914 circular). Depots for hostages were in addition to these. There were also two depots for "Alsacien-Lorrains douteux" (I have used the simpler term "Alsatian" for the term "Alsacien-Lorrains" in this document; my apologies to the latter). And two special concentration camps in the Haute-Loire and the Sarthe confined French, Allied, and neutral suspects. Within three weeks of the general internment order, plans were being made for separating women, children, the elderly, and the infirm into special depots where they would await repatriation via Switzerland. Special exclusions and exceptions were made for those in this group who would prefer to remain in France.

156. Ibid.; APP BA 896. This commission was constituted at the very end of 1915. Among its initial purposes was a review of the military status of Russians and Italians, particularly the former who were charged with shirking enlistment in the army. The powers of the commission seem to have been primarily consultative.

157. Interministerial sorting out commissions followed the internments of 1939. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790, 22 October 1939; AN F60 391, 16 November 1939. Even before the war, plans to release from internment those refugees able to present "garanties de loyalisme envers la France" called for the creation of "commissions de criblage." See SHAT 7N 2436, 3 December 1938, August 1939 (no. 158 or 10,000).

158. SHAT 7N 2436, 24 June 1926. The interned men were to be formed into work brigades. These general internments were applicable to frontier zones and the Seine region. Ibid., 4 April 1939. Among other projects and instructions from the interwar period, see ibid., 12 March 1923, 24 January 1929, 4 April 1930, 19 November 1937, 3 December 1938.

159. See chapter 1.

160. On hauling suspects off ships, see MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790 and 791 (the latter includes the Oran episode: 10 May 1940, pp.

26-27, 11 May 1940, p. 141). For prosecutions in France: AN F60 520. Jacques R.'s case is dated 27 May 1940.

161. SHAT Pacifique carton 6, 20 April 1939 (terrorists and explosives; my appreciation to Kim Munholland for showing me this); AN F7 14830, 6 June 1939 (Argentina; see also the earlier reports from 29 April 1939, 20 May 1939); AN F7 14662, 10 June 1939 (Czechs); ibid., 23 June 1939 (Italians); SHAT Pacifique carton 6, 8 July 1939 (timetables); SHAT 7N 2570, August 1939 (Gestapo/OVRA); AN F7 14830, 24 October 1939 (Lambert); AN F7 14662, 14 November 1939 (Romanians. See also AN F7 14684, 21 December 1939, 27 April 1940; AN F60 385, 27 April 1940); AN F60 234, 29 February 1940 (gasoline); AN F7 14830, 21 February 1940 (Communists); see chapter 1 for parachutists. The above are largely from Sûreté circulars.

160. On hauling suspects off ships, see MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 790 and 791 (the latter includes the Oran episode: 10 May 1940, pp.

26-27, 11 May 1940, p. 141). For prosecutions in France: AN F60 520. Jacques R.'s case is dated 27 May 1940.

161. SHAT Pacifique carton 6, 20 April 1939 (terrorists and explosives; my appreciation to Kim Munholland for showing me this); AN F7 14830, 6 June 1939 (Argentina; see also the earlier reports from 29 April 1939, 20 May 1939); AN F7 14662, 10 June 1939 (Czechs); ibid., 23 June 1939 (Italians); SHAT Pacifique carton 6, 8 July 1939 (timetables); SHAT 7N 2570, August 1939 (Gestapo/OVRA); AN F7 14830, 24 October 1939 (Lambert); AN F7 14662, 14 November 1939 (Romanians. See also AN F7 14684, 21 December 1939, 27 April 1940; AN F60 385, 27 April 1940); AN F60 234, 29 February 1940 (gasoline); AN F7 14830, 21 February 1940 (Communists); see chapter 1 for parachutists. The above are largely from Sûreté circulars.

162. Buchheit, Geheimdienst , 313. A Soviet-organized ship sabotaging unit actually existed, but its targets were German ships or ships carrying war supplies to Germany. Dallin, Soviet Espionage , 126-32.

163. Donald Baker, "The Surveillance of Subversion in Inter-war France: The Carnet B in the Seine, 1922-1940," French Historical Studies 10 (1978): 486-516.

164. Of 133 listed on the 16 April 1938 sheets, only two French appeared (one naturalized). Of 185 listed on the 1 May 1939 sheets, there were thirteen French (one naturalized by marriage).

165. AN F7 14684, menées terroristes , list no. 3, 22 April 1937. There had been a warning that Ukrainian terrorists might make attacks on Soviet diplomats.

166. Koestler, Scum of the Earth (New York: MacMillan, 1941), 78-79; Bruno Frei, Die Männer von Vernet (1950; reprint, Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1980), 69-71; AN F60 493, 3 March 1941.

167. On special policies regarding Italians in France in the event of war, see internment projects in SHAT 7N 2436; SHAT 7N 2462, 7 May 1940, 13 May 1940; APP BAP 65, 1 October 1940, D-11, p. 3. According to government statistics from spring 1940, there were 66,504 Russians in France "sans nationalité" and 905,916 Italians: AN F60 391, 15 April 1940.

168. Lehmann, In Acht , 44, 118-21; AA Inland II A/B 291/3, 8 February 1934; AA Pol 1 M 240, 16 January 1939, 18 February 1939; BA R58/954, 12 March 1937, p. 1.

169. BA R58/954, 13 July 1937, p. 7. On refugee offers and German suspicions, see AA Inland II A/B 292/2.

170. APP BAP 65, 1 June 1938 (100-persons book), category 4—Lorenzi; AN F7 14662, 23 June 1939.

171. AN F7 14830, 7 May 1939.è

172. MAE E Asie-Océanie-Indochinc franaise 1930-1940 52, 31 December 1939.

173. The following discussion is based on documents in the following files: AN F7 14774, 14775, 14776; APP BAP 407, BAP 69.

174. See also Bristow, Prostitution , 294 on how immigration barriers in North America fostered an Eastern European market in counterfeit passports (probably, as well, providing an experience in this sort of trafficking to be turned toward the refugee clientele later).

175. AN F7 14774, 21, 28 December 1936; AN F7 14684, menées terroristes list no. 7, 1 May 1939, p. 29.

176. Kahn, Hitler's Spies , 279-83.

177. Dallin, Soviet Espionage , 92-103 (on Pass-Zentrale); Rote Kapelle , 19-20, 245; Gordon W. Prange, with Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, Target Tokyo: The Story of the Sorge Spy Ring (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984), 99-100.

178. BA R58/275, 22 February 1939, 26 February 1940, pp. 34, 78; AA Pol 1 M 240, 31 March 1939.

179. AN F7 14717, 10 November 1931; AN F7 13498, 26 November 1927; APP BAP 69, 8 March 1933; AN F7 14662, 4 December 1939.

180. SHAT 7N 1590, 8 April 1918; Rote Kapelle , 20-21; OM SLII 23, 4 May 1938; AA Pol 1 M 234, 25 May 1939; AN F7 14662, 3 January 1940. The bulletin on Chilean and Argentine diplomats began with a notification that "certain foreigners of German nationality, ex-Austrians of Jewish extraction" (read refugees), were obtaining Latin American passports on the basis of false consular statements.

181. AN F7 14662, 13 December 1939.

182. APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940, 7 May 1938, 30 August 1938. See also AN F7 14680, 31 September 1939 on Ricardo D.

183. APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940; BA R58/275 (Italienische Spionage) pp. 129-34 (a 1941 German report drawn from French police records that fell into German hands during the occupation). See also Charles Chenevier, De la combe aux fées à Lurs: souvenirs et révélations (Paris: Flammarion, 1962), 33-36.

184. The quote is from the Cuban passport affair, APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940.

185. APP BAP 407, October 1938 (stamped as 25 October); ibid, 30 September 1938; AN F7 14662, 19 April 1939.

184. The quote is from the Cuban passport affair, APP BAP 69, 14 March 1940.

185. APP BAP 407, October 1938 (stamped as 25 October); ibid, 30 September 1938; AN F7 14662, 19 April 1939.

186. APP BAP 65, 1 June 1938.

187. SHAT 7N 2436, 4 April 1939, August 1939 (no. 158 or 10,000).

188. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 791, 24 January 1940, 2 May 1940, 20 May 1940, 22 May 1940, 24 May 1940, 6 June 1940, pp. 129, 172-87, 309.

189. AN F7 13986, 9 March 1940.

190. AN F7 14754, 23 October 1934; MI 25295, 12 November 1934 (note from Commissaire de police de Mohon, 30 October 1934).

191. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 URSS 1089, 30 April 1934, pp. 17-71. For wartime suspicions and convictions, see the files in AN F7 12895-12896; AN F7 13506, 26 June 1918 ("Agissements des représentants du maximalisme en Suisse").

192. APP BAP 278, March 1928 (p. 6 of 21-page report on Italian Fascist and anti-Fascist groups in France); AN F60 201, 21 December 1938 ("La politique italienne"), p. 149; APP BA 60, 21 September 1933.

193. MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 757; MAE Z Europe 1930-1940 Allemagne 753, 14 December 1933, p. 170.

194. BA R58/275, 23 December 1939, p. 65. See as well other reports in this file on foreign (including French) secret service activity. In addition, see BA R58/1045, pp. 117-21.

195. An example is French reporting on Morocco in the late 1930s, at times tense or worrisome, but by the end of the decade and with the outbreak of war rather calm and sanguine.

196. The chart is in AN F60 707 n. d. ("L'action actuelle de propagande dans les pays musulmans: tableau comparatif"; its dossier placement suggests spring 1939). For other critiques, see OM Affaires politiques 1421, 23 November 1938; OM Affaires politiques 920, March 1938 (HCMAN report on radio broadcasts), pp. 8-9; AN F60 710, 11 January 1938, 12 March 1938; AN F60 707, 5 December 1938, 2 May 1939; SHAT 3H 256, 19 May 1940.

197. OM Affaires politiques 1421, 23 November 1938; OM Affaires politiques 920, March 1938 (HCMAN report), pp. 16-18; OM Affaires politiques 1425, 11 January 1940 (BRQM), p. 530; SHAT 3H 256, 19 May 1940; AN F60 707, 5 December 1938; AN F60 745 n. d. (91-page report "Les grands courants"), pp. 86-87; AN F60 753, 26-27 March 1939; AN F60 572, 13 October 1937; AN F60 710, 14 December 1937.

198. AN F60 234, 2 June 1940.