Notes
PREFACE
1. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy, trans. David Carr (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press), 130.
From Physics to the Human Sciences—The Itinerary of an Attitude
1. Peter Caws, review of R. Harré, The Principles of Scientific Thinking, in Synthese 25, 1/2, Nov/Dec 1972, 253.
2. Sir Isaac Newton, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, trans. Andrew Motte, 3 vols. (London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; and Davis and Dickson), 2:160-162.
3. Pierre-Simon Laplace, Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1921), 3.
4. See Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: New American Library [Mentor Books], 1948 [originally published in 1925]), 56.
5. Donald Davidson, "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme," Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, 48, 1973-74, 5-20.
6. Peter Caws, The Philosophy of Science: A Systematic Account (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1965).
7. Samual Taylor Coleridge, The Friend 1:iv (1865), 118.
8. Peter Caws, Science and the Theory of Value (New York: Random House, 1967).
9. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 1094 b 20-26.
10. See Peter Caws, Sartre (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul [series "Arguments of the Philosophers"], 1979). break
11. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy, trans. David Cart (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press), 48-49, 103-189.
12. Sir Karl Popper, Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 106.
13. Gaston Bachelard, L'activité rationaliste de la physique contemporaine (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1951), 6.
1— Aspects of Hempel's Philosophy of Science
1. Carl G. Hempel, Philosophy of Natural Science (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966).
2. Leiden: Sijthoff, 1936.
3. P. W. Bridgman, The Logic of Modern Physics (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1927).
4. Rudolf Carnap, Der Logische Aufbau der Welt (Berlin-Schlachtensee: Weltkreis-Verlag, 1928).
5. Karl R. Popper, Logik der Forschung (Vienna: Springer Verlag, 1934).
6. Morris R. Cohen and Ernest Nagel, An Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1934).
7. In the paper "Studies in the Logic of Explanation" with Paul Oppenheim, first published in Philosophy of Science 15 (1948): 135-175, and now reprinted in Aspects of Scientific Explanation (see note 11 below).
8. P. K. Feyerabend, "How to Be a Good Empiricist," in Philosophy of Science, The Delaware Seminar , ed. Bernard Baumrin, 2 vols. (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1963), 2:9.
9. Sir Isaac Newton, Opticks: Or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light , 3d ed. (London: William and John Innys, 1721), 256.
10. Fundamentals of Concept Formation in Empirical Science , vol, 2, no. 7 of International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952).
11. Aspects of Scientific Explanation and Other Essays in the Philosophy of Science (New York: The Free Press, 1965).
12. Stephen Toulmin, in Scientific American (February 1966): 129-133.
13. P. K. Feyerabend, "Explanation, Reduction, and Empiricism," in Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science , ed. H. Feigl and G. Maxwell (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1962), 3:28.
14. P. K. Feyerabend, "How to Be a Good Empiricist," 37.
15. Peter Achinstein, "The Problem of Theoretical Terms," in American Philosophical Quarterly 2, no. 3 (July 1965): 193-203.
16. T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). break
2— Science and System: On the Unity and Diversity of Scientific Theory
1. A. N. Whitehead, Adventures of Ideas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933), 203.
2. Galileo Galilei, Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences , trans. H. Crew and A. De Salvio (New York: Macmillan, 1914), 160.
3. Rudolf Carnap, "Logical Foundations of the Unity of Science," in Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap, and Charles Morris, Foundations of the Unity of Science: Toward an International Encyclopedia of Unified Science , 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955-1970), 1:55.
4. Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam, "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis," in Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science , ed. Feigl, Scriven, and Maxwell (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1958), 2: 3.
5. Carnap, "Logical Foundations," 61.
6. George Perrigo Conger, Synoptic Naturalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Library, 1960), vi.
7. Francis Bacon, Novum Organum , bk. 1, aph. 45.
8. Herbert Spencer, The Genesis of Science (New York: Humboldt Publishing Co., 1887), 14-15.
9. Otto Neurath, "Unified Science as Encyclopedic Integration," in Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap, and Charles Morris, Foundations of the Unity of Science: Toward an International Encyclopedia of Unified Science , 2 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955-1970), 1:20.
10. R. G. Collingwood, Speculum Mentis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924), 191.
11. Herbert Simon, "The Architecture of Complexity," General Systems 10 (1965): 69.
12. Kenneth Boulding, "General Systems Theory—The Skeleton of Science," General Systems 1 (1956): 11.
13. Herbert Spencer, The Genesis of Science (New York: Humboldt Publishing Co., 1887), 34.
14. Henri Poincaré, "Relations entre la physique experimentale et la physique mathématique," in Ch.-Ed. Guillaume and L. Poincaré, Rapports présentés au Congrès International de Physique réuni à Paris en 1900 (Paris: Gauthiers-Villars, 4 v., 1900), 1:24.
3— Gosse's Omphalos Theory and the Eccentricity of Belief
1. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907), 328.
2. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S., by His Son (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1890), 72. break
3. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 6.
4. Titian Peale, a painter of animals, is the only brother he mentions; Rubens and Rembrandt, who earlier had made important contributions to American natural history, were by this time considerably older than Gosse. The father of these three (and of eight other children also named after artists) was Charles Willson Peale, the famous portrait painter.
5. Philip Gosse, Letters from Alabama (U.S.) Chiefly Relating to Natural History (London: Morgan and Chase, 1859). Letter 12 deals with manners in the south, especially with slavery.
6. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 157.
7. Philip Gosse, The Canadian Naturalist. A Series of Conversations on the Natural History of Lower Canada (London: John Van Voorst, 1840), 2.
8. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 113.
9. P. H. Gosse (assisted by Richard Hill, Esq., of Spanish-Town), The Birds of Jamaica (London: John Van Voorst, 1847).
10. Philip Gosse, The Romance of Natural History (London: James Nisbet and Co., 1860), 270.
11. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 152.
12. Ibid., 70.
13. Ibid., 72.
11. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 152.
12. Ibid., 70.
13. Ibid., 72.
11. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 152.
12. Ibid., 70.
13. Ibid., 72.
14. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 97.
15. Ibid., 71.
16. Ibid., 99.
17. Ibid., 84.
14. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 97.
15. Ibid., 71.
16. Ibid., 99.
17. Ibid., 84.
14. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 97.
15. Ibid., 71.
16. Ibid., 99.
17. Ibid., 84.
14. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 97.
15. Ibid., 71.
16. Ibid., 99.
17. Ibid., 84.
18. P. H. Gosse, The Ocean (Philadelphia: Parry and Macmillan, 1856), 101. (The title page bears the inscription, "from the last London edition.")
19. Philip Henry Gosse, A Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire Coast (London: John Van Voorst, 1853), 354-357. This was not, after all, quite the discovery Gosse thought it. Johnstonella was not a new genus, but a subgenus of Tomopteris , which had been named in 1825 by Eschscholtz. The species catharina is still recognized by some workers, although Gosse's drawing and description are too vague to provide clear identification, and the name helgolandica attached to a later and more accurate description by Greeff is more usual. As a result, what Gosse hoped would be called Johnstonella catharina is in fact called Tomopteris helgolandica —a disappointing sequel to so magnanimous a gesture. (I am indebted for the foregoing information to Mr. Frederick M. Bayer, Acting Curator of the Division of Marine Invertebrates, Smithsonian Institution.)
20. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 376.
21. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 346.
22. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 367.
23. Philip Henry Gosse, Omphalos: An Attempt to Untie the Geological Knot (London: John Van Voorst, 1857), 5.
24. A Greek word meaning "navel." The epigraph to Omphalos is from Aristotle's Historia Animalium , book 7.8, and in D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson's translation it reads: "All animals, or all such as have a navel, grow by continue
the navel." The idea is, clearly, to make an analogy between Adam as the microcosm, whose navel pointed to a birth which never took place, and the earth as the macrocosm, whose fossils similarly are signs of an unreal past; but this comparison is not taken up seriously in the book, there being only two casual references to the navel at pp. 289 and 334. One might therefore look for a deeper significance in the title, in keeping with various secondary uses of the Greek term, such as its application to the stone at Delphi which was supposed to represent the center of the earth. But Gosse's epigraphs, like his scriptural quotations, are often disappointingly irrelevant, and on the whole it seems unlikely that there is any more to the title than the obvious meaning referred to above.
25. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , vii-viii.
26. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 116.
27. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 103-104.
28. Ibid., 110.
29. Ibid., 122.
30. Ibid., 123.
27. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 103-104.
28. Ibid., 110.
29. Ibid., 122.
30. Ibid., 123.
27. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 103-104.
28. Ibid., 110.
29. Ibid., 122.
30. Ibid., 123.
27. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 103-104.
28. Ibid., 110.
29. Ibid., 122.
30. Ibid., 123.
31. John Donne, Essays in Divinity , ed. E. M. Simpson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952), 18.
32. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 124-125.
33. Ibid., 126.
34. Ibid., vi.
35. Ibid., 372.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 369.
32. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 124-125.
33. Ibid., 126.
34. Ibid., vi.
35. Ibid., 372.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 369.
32. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 124-125.
33. Ibid., 126.
34. Ibid., vi.
35. Ibid., 372.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 369.
32. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 124-125.
33. Ibid., 126.
34. Ibid., vi.
35. Ibid., 372.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 369.
32. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 124-125.
33. Ibid., 126.
34. Ibid., vi.
35. Ibid., 372.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 369.
32. Philip Gosse, Omphalos , 124-125.
33. Ibid., 126.
34. Ibid., vi.
35. Ibid., 372.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid., 369.
38. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 280.
39. Ibid., 280-281.
40. Ibid., 281.
38. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 280.
39. Ibid., 280-281.
40. Ibid., 281.
38. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 280.
39. Ibid., 280-281.
40. Ibid., 281.
41. John Henry Cardinal Newman, Apologia pro Vita Sua: Being a Reply to a Pamphlet Entitled "What, Then, Does Dr. Newman Mean?" (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1864), 120.
42. Edmund Gosse, Father and Son , 118.
43. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 281.
44. Philip Henry Gosse, The Romance of Natural History, Second Series (London: James Nisbet and Co., 1861), 89.
45. Edmund Gosse, The Life of Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. , 349.
5— The Paradox of Induction and the Inductive Wager
1. J. M. Keynes, A Treatise on Probability (London: Macmillan, 1921), 272.
2. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 48.
3. Ibid., 51-52.
4. Ibid., 48.
5. Ibid., 52. break
2. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 48.
3. Ibid., 51-52.
4. Ibid., 48.
5. Ibid., 52. break
2. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 48.
3. Ibid., 51-52.
4. Ibid., 48.
5. Ibid., 52. break
2. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 48.
3. Ibid., 51-52.
4. Ibid., 48.
5. Ibid., 52. break
6. R. F. Harrod, Foundations of Inductive Logic (London: Macmillan, 1956), passim.
7. Donald Williams, The Ground of Induction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947), 21.
8. Ibid., chap. 1, passim.
7. Donald Williams, The Ground of Induction (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1947), 21.
8. Ibid., chap. 1, passim.
9. Blaise Pascal, Pensées , trans. W. F. Trotter (New York: Random House [Modern Library], 1941), p. 84, no. 235.
10. Ibid., no. 234.
9. Blaise Pascal, Pensées , trans. W. F. Trotter (New York: Random House [Modern Library], 1941), p. 84, no. 235.
10. Ibid., no. 234.
11. Williams, The Ground of Induction , 62.
12. Hans Reichenbach, Experience and Prediction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938), 350.
13. J. O. Wisdom, Foundations of Inference in Natural Science (London: Methuen, 1952), 266.
14. Reichenbach, Experience and Prediction , 348.
15. Wisdom, Foundations of Inference , chap. 24.
16. Hume, Human Understanding , sect. 4, pt. 2.
17. R. G. Collingwood, An Essay on Metaphysics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940), passim.
18. Reichenbach, Experience and Prediction , 363.
19. Wisdom, Foundations of Inference , 229.
20. Pascal, Pensées , p. 79, no. 230.
21. Hans Reichenbach, "The Logical Foundations of the Concept of Probability," trans. Maria Reichenbach, in Readings in the Philosophy of Science , ed. Herbert Feigl and May Brodbeck (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953), 466.
22. Wisdom, Foundations of Inference , 226.
This article is dedicated to the memory of Norwood Russell Hanson, vice-president of AAAS section L in 1961-1962 and for many years secretary of the section.
6— The Structure of Discovery
1. Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery , new ed. (New York: Harper, 1965 [original German ed., 1934]), 31.
2. Peter Caws, "Three Logics, or the Possibility of the Improbable," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 25 (1965): 522. (Appears as chapter 8 in this work.)
3. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery , 32.
4. A. Koestler, The Act of Creation (London: Hutchinson, 1964), pt. 2.
5. Charles Darwin, in The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin , ed. F. Darwin, new ed. (Basic Books: New York, 1959 [original ed., 1888]), 83.
6. See for example G. Polya, Patterns of Plausible Inference , vol. 2 of Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1954).
7. G. Frege, "Begriffschrift," in From Frege to Gödel , ed. J. Van Heijenoort (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950), 5. break
8. N. R. Hanson, Patterns of Discovery (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 70.
9. P. B. Medawar, The Art of the Soluble (London: Methuen, 1967).
10. F. Bacon, The New Organon , new ed. (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960 [original ed., 1620]).
11. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species , new ed. (New York: Modern Library, n.d. [original ed., 1859]).
12. Darwin, in Life and Letters , 68.
13. E. Jones, "The Nature of Genius," Scientific Monthly 84 (1957): 75.
14. Darwin, in Life and Letters , 82.
15. Sir Isaac Newton, letter to Robert Hooke (1676).
16. R. K. Merton, "The Role of Genius in Scientific Advance," New Science 12 (1961): 306.
17. P. B. Medawar, The Art of the Soluble (London: Methuen, 1967).
18. Charles S. Peirce, Values in a Universe of Chance , ed. Philip P. Wiener (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958), 255.
19. D. E. Berlyne, "Curiosity and Exploration," Science 153 (1966): 25.
20. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind , new ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966 [original French ed., 1962]), 9.
21. M. Bunge, The Search for System , vol. 1 of Scientific Research (New York: Springer, 1967), 345.
7— Induction and the Kindness of Nature
1. Grover Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 106-165.
2. Ibid., 107.
3. Ibid., 106.
1. Grover Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 106-165.
2. Ibid., 107.
3. Ibid., 106.
1. Grover Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 106-165.
2. Ibid., 107.
3. Ibid., 106.
4. Peter Caws, "The Paradox of Induction and the Inductive Wager," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 22, no. 4 (June 1962): 512-520. (Appears as chapter 5 of this work.)
5. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 125.
6. Ibid., 129-130.
7. Ibid., 134.
8. Ibid., 136.
9. Ibid., 150.
10. Ibid.
5. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 125.
6. Ibid., 129-130.
7. Ibid., 134.
8. Ibid., 136.
9. Ibid., 150.
10. Ibid.
5. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 125.
6. Ibid., 129-130.
7. Ibid., 134.
8. Ibid., 136.
9. Ibid., 150.
10. Ibid.
5. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 125.
6. Ibid., 129-130.
7. Ibid., 134.
8. Ibid., 136.
9. Ibid., 150.
10. Ibid.
5. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 125.
6. Ibid., 129-130.
7. Ibid., 134.
8. Ibid., 136.
9. Ibid., 150.
10. Ibid.
5. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 125.
6. Ibid., 129-130.
7. Ibid., 134.
8. Ibid., 136.
9. Ibid., 150.
10. Ibid.
11. Charles S. Peirce, Values in a Universe of Chance , ed. Philip P. Wiener (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958), 370-371.
12. Ibid., 372-373.
11. Charles S. Peirce, Values in a Universe of Chance , ed. Philip P. Wiener (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958), 370-371.
12. Ibid., 372-373.
13. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 52.
14. Ibid., 60.
15. Ibid., 67-68. break
13. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 52.
14. Ibid., 60.
15. Ibid., 67-68. break
13. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 52.
14. Ibid., 60.
15. Ibid., 67-68. break
16. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 112.
17. Ibid., 157.
16. Maxwell, "Induction and Empiricism," 112.
17. Ibid., 157.
18. Peter Caws, "Mach's Principle and the Laws of Logic," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 487-495. (Appears as chapter 9 of this work.)
19. Ibid., 491-492.
18. Peter Caws, "Mach's Principle and the Laws of Logic," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 487-495. (Appears as chapter 9 of this work.)
19. Ibid., 491-492.
20. Cf. Peter Caws, "The Structure of Discovery," Science 166 (Dec. 12, 1969): 1375-1380. (Appears as chapter 6 of this work.)
21. Ibid.
20. Cf. Peter Caws, "The Structure of Discovery," Science 166 (Dec. 12, 1969): 1375-1380. (Appears as chapter 6 of this work.)
21. Ibid.
8— Three Logics, or the Possibility of the Improbable
1. Charles Sanders Peirce, Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce , ed. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1931-1935), 1:306.
2. G. H. Hardy, A Mathematician's Apology (Cambridge, 1941).
3. William and Martha Kneale, The Development of Logic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), 742.
4. Pierre-Simon Laplace, Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1921), 3.
5. C. G. Hempel and Paul Oppenheim, "The Logic of Explanation," in Readings in the Philosophy of Science , ed. Herbert Feigl and May Brodbeck (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953).
6. Peirce, Collected Papers 7:131.
7. Ibid., 6:86.
8. Ibid., 6:324.
6. Peirce, Collected Papers 7:131.
7. Ibid., 6:86.
8. Ibid., 6:324.
6. Peirce, Collected Papers 7:131.
7. Ibid., 6:86.
8. Ibid., 6:324.
9. F. Hoyle, The Nature of the Universe (New York: New American Library, 1950), chap. 7, passim.
10. Peirce, Collected Papers 1:148.
11. M. Heidegger, An Introduction to Metaphysics , trans. Ralph Manheim (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), 1.
12. Peirce, Collected Papers 1:148.
13. Ibid., 174.
12. Peirce, Collected Papers 1:148.
13. Ibid., 174.
14. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956), 21ff.
9— Mach's Principle and the Laws of Logic
1. Peter Caws, "' . . . Quine/Is Just Fine'" Partisan Review 34, no. 2 (Spring 1967): 302.
2. See in this connection Charles Hartshorne, "Some Empty Though Important Truths," in American Philosophers at Work , ed. Sidney Hook (New York: Criterion Books, 1959), 225ff. break
10— A Quantum Theory of Causality
1. Michael Scriven, "The Concept of Cause," Abstracts of Contributed Papers (Stanford, Calif.: International Congress for Logic, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science, 1960).
2. Bertrand Russell, Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1948), 333.
3. Pierre-Simon Laplace, Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1921), 3.
4. Russell, Human Knowledge , 334.
5. Laplace, Essai philosophique , 3.
6. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 48.
7. Alfred Landé, "Non-Quantal Foundations of Quantum Theory," Philosophy of Science 24 (1957): 309.
8. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason , trans. N. Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan, 1956), 50.
9. W. Ross Ashby, An Introduction to Cybernetics (New York: John Wiley, 1958), 28.
12— Science, Computers, and the Complexity of Nature
1. Isaac Newton, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy , trans. Andrew Motte and Florian Cajori (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1947), 398.
2. Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, "Essai de Cosmologie," Oeuvres de Maupertuis , 4 vols. (Lyon: Jean-Marie Bruyset, 1768), 1:42-43.
3. W. Ross Ashby, An Introduction to Cybernetics (New York: John Wiley, 1958), 5.
4. See for example Karl Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1959), chap. 7; J. O. Wisdom, Foundations of Inference in Natural Science (London: Methuen, 1952), chap. 7; Sir Harold Jeffreys, Scientific Inference (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957), sect. 2.7; Nelson Goodman, "Axiomatic Measurement of Simplicity," Journal of Philosophy 52, no. 24, etc.
5. W. Ross Ashby, "General Systems Theory as a New Discipline," General Systems, Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research 3 (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1958): 5.
13— Praxis and Techne
1. Aristotle, Parts of Animals 645 a 20.
2. Plato, Gorgias 465 a .
3. The fact that, as Carl Mitcham has pointed out, Aristotle uses technologia to mean "grammar"—the techne of the logos —does not invalidate this argu- soft
ment, which rests on current usage in English. Etymological analyses are helpful because they show how terms are articulated and sometimes how they have changed, not because classical usage supports our own.
4. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics , 1098 a 28.
5. Freidrich-Karl Forberg, Manuel d'érotologie classique , trans. Alcide Bonneau (Paris: Au Cercle du Livre Précieux, 1959), 1:6. Forberg contrasts the treatise Dodecatechnon with the courtesan (Cyrene) known as ''Dodecamechanos," because the former talks about the twelve positions while the latter knew how to practice them—a further reinforcement of the distinction between techne and praxis and an illustration as well of the classic forerunner of the notion of the machine. Whether (as some commentators maintain—see V. de Magalhaes-Vilhena, Essor scientifique et technique et obstacles sociaux à la fin de l'antiquité [Paris, n.d.]) this use of mechanos meant that the courtesans practiced the art of love in a "mechanical" way, or whether, which seems more likely, it reflects a conception of the human body as a kind of living machine, Forberg does not say.
6. Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy , trans. Ben Fowkes (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 247ff.
7. Mao Tse-tung, "On Practice," in Four Essays on Philosophy (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1966), 14.
8. Benedict de Spinoza, De intellectus emendatione , trans. A. Boyle, published with the Etica (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1910), 236.
9. Alfred Espinas, Les origines de la technologie (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1897), 10.
10. Tadeusz Kotarbinski, Praxiology , trans. O. Wojtasiewicz (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965).
11. See Thomas Gladwin, "Culture and Logical Process," in Explorations in Cultural Anthropology , ed. Ward H. Goodenough (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 167ff.
15— Individual Praxis in Real Time
1. "The practice [ Praxis ] of philosophy, however, is itself theoretical ." Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society, ed. Loyd D. Easton and Kurt H. Guddat (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1967), 61.
2. Ibid., 62.
1. "The practice [ Praxis ] of philosophy, however, is itself theoretical ." Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society, ed. Loyd D. Easton and Kurt H. Guddat (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1967), 61.
2. Ibid., 62.
3. Peter Caws, "Reform and Revolution," in Philosophy and Political Action , ed. Virginia Held, Kai Nielsen, and Charles Parsons (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972).
4. Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon .
5. Easton and Guddat, Writings of the Young Marx , p. 308.
6. Ibid.
5. Easton and Guddat, Writings of the Young Marx , p. 308.
6. Ibid.
16— Towards a Philosophy of Technology
1. W. R. Niblett, ed., The Sciences, the Humanities and the Technological Threat (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975). break
2. David Hume, An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1955), 52.
3. New York: W. Morrow, 1974.
4. E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful; Economics As If People Mattered (New York: Harper and Row [Colophon Books], 1975).
5. B. de Spinoza, Ethics , ed. J. Gutmann, preceded by On the Improvement of the Understanding (New York: Hafner Publishing Company, 1949), 11.
6. A. Espinas, Les origines de la technologie (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1897), 10, 16, 20.
7. T. Kotarbinski, Praxiology: An Introduction to the Sciences of Efficient Action , trans. O. Wojtasiewicz (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1965).
8. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), chap. 1.
9. Peter Caws, "Scientific Theory as an Historical Anomaly," in Proceedings of the XIIIth International Congress of the History of Science , sect. 1 (Moscow: Editions "Nauka," 1974), 65ff. (Appears as chapter 17 in this work.)
10. J. Baudrillard, Le système des objets (Paris: Gallimard, 1968).
11. Peter Caws, "Mach's Principle and the Laws of Logic," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 487-495. (Appears as chapter 9 of this work.)
12. M. Heidegger, "The Question Concerning Technology," trans. W. W. Lovitt, in Basic Writings , ed. D. F. Krell (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 288ff.
13. H. Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), 158.
14. J. Habermas, Toward a Rational Society , trans. J. L. Shapiro (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), 81ff.
15. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind , trans. J. B. Baillie (New York: Harper and Row [Torchbooks], 1967), 238. The interpretation is due to Alexandre Kojève in his Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit Assembled by Raymond Queneau , trans. James H. Nichols, Jr. (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 3-30.
16. K. Axelos, Marx: Penseur de la technique (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1961).
17— Scientific Theory as an Historical Anomaly
1. Erwin Schrödinger, Mind and Matter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959), 4-9.
18— Is There (Scientific) Knowledge? Who Knows?
1. Edmund L. Gettier, "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?" Analysis 23, 6 (June 1963): 121-123. break
2. Richard L. Kirkham, "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" Mind 43 (1984): 501-513.
3. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Words , trans. Bernard Frechtman (New York: George Braziller, 1964), 62.
4. Sir Isaac Newton, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy , trans. Andrew Motte, 3 vols. (London: Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; and Davis and Dickson), 2:160-162.
19— The Law of Quantity and Quality, or What Numbers Can and Can't Describe
1. There are two other poems of the same sort that everyone also learns—the names of the months, and of the days of the week—but these do not open up comparably large domains of conjecture and argument.
2. Oliver Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, and Other Clinical Tales (New York: Summit Books, 1985), 190.
3. G. W. F. Hegel, Hegel's Logic, Being Part I of the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences ([1830] translated by William Wallace) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), 160.
4. Frederick Engels, Herr Eugen Duhring's Revolution in Science , trans. Emile Burns (New York: International Publishers, 1939), 138.
5. Peter Caws, "Reform and Revolution," in Philosophy and Political Action , ed. Virginia Held et al. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 78.
6. Galileo Galilei, Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences , trans. H. Crew and A. De Salvio (New York: Macmillan, 1914), 160.
7. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy , trans. David Cart (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 51.
8. Ibid., 48-49.
7. Edmund Husserl, The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology: An Introduction to Phenomenological Philosophy , trans. David Cart (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 51.
8. Ibid., 48-49.
9. Hanan Selvin, "On Following in Someone's Footsteps: Two Examples of Lazarsfeldian Methodology," in Qualitative and Quantitative Social Research: Papers in Honor of Paul S. Lazarsfeld , ed. Robert K. Merton, James S. Coleman, and Peter S. Rossi (New York: The Free Press, 1979), 234.
10. Edwin E. Ghiselli, John P. Campbell, and Sheldon Zedeck, Measurement Theory for the Behavioral Sciences (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1981), 12ff.
11. Husserl, Crisis of European Sciences , 44.
12. Richard Bevan Braithwaite, Scientific Explanation: A Study of the Function of Theory, Probability and Law in Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 47-49.
13. Denis F. Johnston, ed., Measurement of Subjective Phenomena (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce [Special Demographic Analyses], 1981), 2. break
20— On Being in the Same Place at the Same Time
1. H. Minkowski, "Space and Time," in Albert Einstein et al., The Principle of Relativity (London, 1923), 76.
2. Ernst Cassirer, Einstein's Theory of Relativity , trans. W. C. and M. C. Swabey, bound with Substance and Function (Chicago: Open Court, 1923), 449.
3. Nicholas of Cusa, De Docta Ignorantia , bk. 2, chap. 12.
4. Minkowski, "Space and Time," 83.
5. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel Barnes (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956), 307.
6. Isaac Newton, General Scholium to the second edition of the Principia .
7. Albert Einstein, "On Scientific Truth," in Essays in Science (New York: Philosophical Library, 1934), 11.
21— On a Circularity in Our Knowledge of the Physically Real
1. Henry Margenau, The Nature of Physical Reality (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950).
2. Plato, Euthyphro , 15b.
3. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations , trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1953), p. ix e .
4. George Berkeley, Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1954 [originally published in 1713]).
5. Bertrand Russell, "The Relationship of Sense-Data to Physics," in Mysticism and Logic (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1953), 140.
6. Rudolf Carnap, The Logical Structure of the World , trans. Rolf A. George (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967).
7. A. N. Whitehead, The Organisation of Thought (London: Williams and Norgate, 1917), chap. 7.
8. Henry Margenau, Nature of Physical Reality , p. 289.
9. Ibid.
8. Henry Margenau, Nature of Physical Reality , p. 289.
9. Ibid.
10. Peter Caws, "The Functions of Definitions in Modern Physical Science" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1956), 225. (The sponsor of this dissertation was Henry Margenau.)
All translations from Bachelard (except those specifically cited in English translation) are my own. break
22— Truth and Presence: Poetic Imagination and Mathematical Physics in Gaston Bachelard
1. C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959).
2. Sir A. S. Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World (London: J. M. Dent and Sons [Everyman's Library ed.], 1935), 304-305.
3. Personal communication (letter from Bachelard dated December 13, 1956).
4. Gaston Bachelard, Le nouvel esprit scientifique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1934), 79-82.
5. Gaston Bachelard, The Psychoanalysis of Fire , trans. Alan C. M. Ross (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), 5-6.
6. Personal communication (see note 3 above).
7. Gaston Bachelard, La philosophie du non (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1940), 139.
8. Gaston Bachelard, La terre et les rêveries de la volonté. Essai sur l'imagination des forces (Paris: J. Corti, 1948), 2.
9. Gaston Bachelard, Le rationalisme appliqué (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1949), 58.
10. Gaston Bachelard, L'activité rationaliste de la physique contemporaine (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1951), 87.
11. Gaston Bachelard, "Univers et réalité," Textes des communications du IIe Congrès des Sociétés de Philosophie (Lyon, 1939), 63-65.
12. Gaston Bachelard, L'air et les songes. Essai sur l'imagination du mouvement (Paris: J. Corti, 1943), 283.
13. Gaston Bachelard, La terre et les rêveries du repos. Essai sur l'imagination de l'intimité (Paris: J. Corti, 1948), 323.
14. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space , trans. Maria Jolas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969).
15. Ibid., xxviii-xxix.
16. Ibid., xix.
17. Ibid.
Translations from works cited in French are my own.
14. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space , trans. Maria Jolas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969).
15. Ibid., xxviii-xxix.
16. Ibid., xix.
17. Ibid.
Translations from works cited in French are my own.
14. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space , trans. Maria Jolas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969).
15. Ibid., xxviii-xxix.
16. Ibid., xix.
17. Ibid.
Translations from works cited in French are my own.
14. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space , trans. Maria Jolas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969).
15. Ibid., xxviii-xxix.
16. Ibid., xix.
17. Ibid.
Translations from works cited in French are my own.
23— Science, Surrealism, and the Status of the Subject
1. Soren Kierkegaard, A Kierkegaard Anthology , ed. Robert Bretall (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951), 207.
2. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Transcendence of the Ego , trans. Forrest Williams and Robert Kirkpatrick (New York: Noonday Press, 1957), 105-106.
3. Edmund Husserl, The Cartesian Meditations , trans. Dorion Cairns (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1960), 26.
4. G. W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind , trans. J. B. Baillie (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1967), 80.
5. Kierkegaard, Anthology , 204-206.
6. Peter Caws, "Parallels and Orthogonals," Semiotext(e) 1, no. 2 (1974):58.
7. Jean-Paul Sartre, "Intentionality: A Fundamental Idea of Husserl's Phe- soft
nomenology," trans. Joseph P. Fell, Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology 1, no. 2 (1970): 5.
8. André Breton, Le surréalisme et la peinture (Paris: NRF/Gallimard, 1928/ 1965), 2.
9. André Breton, Manifestes du surréalisme (Paris: Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1962), 30-31.
10. Denis Chausson, Les lumières conincidentes (Paris: Depentecôte, 1931), 63.
11. Breton, Le surréalisme et la peinture , 46.
12. André Breton, Point du jour (Paris: NRF/Gallimard, 1970 [collection "Idées"]), 69.
13. Kierkegaard, Anthology , 120.
14. André Breton, Nadja , édition entièrement revue par l'auteur (Paris: NRF/Gallimard, 1963), 73.
15. Ibid., 176.
14. André Breton, Nadja , édition entièrement revue par l'auteur (Paris: NRF/Gallimard, 1963), 73.
15. Ibid., 176.
24— Subjectivity in the Machine
1. Daniel C. Dennett, "Intentional Systems," The Journal of Philosophy 68 (1971): 87-106.
2. Alan M. Turing, "Computing Machinery and Intelligence," Mind 59 (1950): 433-460.
3. René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy , trans. Laurence J. Lafleur (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Co. [The Library of Liberal Arts], 1951), 76.
4. Erwin Schrödinger, Mind and Matter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 9.
5. Peter Caws, "The Subject in Sartre and Elsewhere," in Descriptions , ed. Don Ihde and Hugh J. Silverman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985), 146.
6. Ibid., 141-142.
5. Peter Caws, "The Subject in Sartre and Elsewhere," in Descriptions , ed. Don Ihde and Hugh J. Silverman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985), 146.
6. Ibid., 141-142.
7. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness , trans. Hazel Barnes (New York: The Philosophical Library, 1956), 9ff.
8. Valentino Braitenberg, Vehicles (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1984).
9. Peter Caws, "Mach's Principle and the Laws of Logic," in Induction, Probability, and Confirmation , ed. Grover Maxwell and Robert M. Anderson, Jr., Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 6 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975), 487-495. (Appears as chapter 9 of this work.)
10. Stephen Michael Kosslyn, Image and Mind (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980).
11. Schrödinger, Mind and Matter , 1.
12. Oliver D. Wells, HOW COULD YOU be so naive? (Beaconsfield, Berkshire: Modern Books, Ltd., 1970), 6.
13. Ernst Cassirer, "Le concept de groupe et la théorie de la perception," Journal de psychologie normale et pathologique , XXXV e année (1938): 368-414. break
14. Paul Churchland, "Some Reductive Strategies in Cognitive Neurobiology," Mind 95 (1986): 279-309.
15. Paul Churchland, "On the Speculative Nature of Our Self-Conception: A Reply to Some Criticisms," Canadian Journal of Philosophy , supplementary vol. 11 (1985): 162.
25— Rethinking Intentionality
1. The obvious names to mention in this connection are those of Dennett, Dreyfus, Margolis, and Searle, among others. Two recent collections of note are the October 1986 issue of The Monist and volume 194 of the Synthese Library: Perspectives on Mind, ed. Herbert Otto and James Tuedio (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Reidel, 1988).
2. Benson Mates, Stoic Logic , 2d ed. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961), 11ff.
3. The parallel between utterance/lekton and signifier/signified (and, as we shall see later on, text/megalekton) is in fact a very instructive one: the Saussurean sign-relation is a basic form of intentionality, and its sharp separation between significance and reference accommodates elegantly the vocabulary of nonexistence.
4. Samuel Beckett, Molloy , trans. Patrick Bowles in collaboration with the author (New York: Grove Press, 1955), 72.
5. See for example Joaquin M. Fuster, The Prefrontal Cortex: Anatomy, Physiology, and Neuropsychology of the Frontal Lobe , 2d ed. (New York: Raven Press, 1989), which shows how language is associated with the perceptual interpretation of other sensory modalities in the prefrontal cortex, "a cortical region of polysensory convergence" (p. 194). In particular, "the prefrontal cortex is engaged in the temporal organization of behavior" (ibid.), "participates in the representation of all the essential elements of a given behavioral structure" (p. 196), and ''suppresses extraneous influences" (ibid.) while these activities are going on (emphasis added). The relevance of these points to the view of intentionality developed here is obvious.
6. Peter Caws, "Subjectivity in the Machine," Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior 18, no. 3 (September 1988): 303. (Appears as chapter 24 in this work.)
7. Roderick Chisholm, "Presence in Absence," The Monist 69, no. 4 (October 1986): 497.
8. Sigmund Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud , 23 vols. (London: Hogarth Press, 1966-), 9:141ff.
9. Sigmund Freud, An Outline of Psycho-Analysis (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1949), 29.
10. Alfred Schutz, On Phenomenology and Social Relations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 68-69. (This concept was drawn to my attention by Judith Butler.)
11. Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1978), 164.
12. Ibid., 165. break
13. Ibid., 168.
11. Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1978), 164.
12. Ibid., 165. break
13. Ibid., 168.
11. Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis , trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1978), 164.
12. Ibid., 165. break
13. Ibid., 168.
14. Peter Caws, "The Ontology of Criticism," Semiotext(e) 1, no. 3 (1975): 42ff., and Structuralism: The Art of the Intelligible (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1988), 251.
15. See note 7 above.
16. John Searle, "What Is an Intentional State?" in Husserl, Intentionality, and Cognitive Science , ed. Hubert L. Dreyfus (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1982).
17. Daniel C. Dennett, The Intentional Stance (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1987).
18. W. V. O. Quine, Word and Object (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1960), 221.
26— Yorick's World, or the Universe in a Single Skull
1. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence, trans. I. Lasker (Moscow: Progress Publishers, rev. ed. 1965), 418.
2. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Haman Understanding , ed. Alexander Campbell Fraser, 2 vols. (New York: Dover Publications, 1959), 1:392.
3. George Berkeley, Philosophical Works, Including the Works on Vision (London: J. M. Dent and Sons; Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1975), 158.
4. Plato, The Republic 514 a (trans. Benjamin Jowett).
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
5. Plotinus, The Enneads , trans. Stephen McKenna, 2d ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 380.
6. Ibid., 134.
7. Ibid., 264.
8. Ibid., 268.
9. Ibid., 380.
10. Ibid., xxix.
11. Ibid., 330.
12. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, "The Monadology," in Leibniz Selections , ed. Philip P. Wiener (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1951), 542.
13. Ibid., 544.
12. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, "The Monadology," in Leibniz Selections , ed. Philip P. Wiener (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1951), 542.
13. Ibid., 544.
14. Berkeley, Philosophical Works , 19.
15. Ibid., 51-52.
14. Berkeley, Philosophical Works , 19.
15. Ibid., 51-52.
16. The figure of 30 billion was drawn from Jean-Pierre Changeux, L'Homme neuronal (Paris: Fayard, 1983). At the time of writing I had just read this for Pantheon Books and had recommended its publication in English; it appeared as Neuronal Man: The Biology of Mind (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985).
17. Ernst Cassirer, "The Concept of Groups and the Theory of Perception," trans. Aaron Gurwitsch, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 5, 1 (1944): 1-35.
18. Oliver Wells, HOW COULD YOU be so naive! (Beaconsfield, Berkshire: Modern Books Limited, 1970), 6. (See chapter 23 at note 12.) break
27— A Case for the Human Sciences
1. I have argued this point at length in my Science and the Theory of Value (New York: Random House, 1967).
2. Kenneth L. Pike, Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1967), 37.
3. This essay was originally written as a position paper for the inauguration of the University Seminar in the Human Sciences at the George Washington University.
4. William Whewell, Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded upon Their History , 2 vols. (London, 1840), 1:113. I am indebted to Robert Merton (personal communication, 1992) for an unpublished article ("The Multiple Origins and Epicene Character of the Word Scientist : An Episode in the Interplay of Science, Language and Society") in which he points out that the coinage actually goes back at least to 1834.
5. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation , new impression (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1930), 620.
6. Ibid., xv.
5. John Stuart Mill, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation , new impression (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1930), 620.
6. Ibid., xv.
7. Charles S. Peirce, Values in a Universe of Chance , ed. Philip P. Wiener (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1958), 135.
8. Ibid., 71-72.
7. Charles S. Peirce, Values in a Universe of Chance , ed. Philip P. Wiener (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1958), 135.
8. Ibid., 71-72.
9. I am not here concerned with questions of individuation that arise at the level of quantum theory; the contrast is intended in a context of macroscopic observations.
10. John Fekete, The Structural Allegory: Reconstructive Encounters With the New French Thought (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xi.
11. Pierre-Simon Laplace, Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1921), 3.
12. Aristotle, Poetics 1451 a 17-22. break