1. Murray Bailey, Travel and Tourism Opportunities in Vietnam: A Blue-print for Development (Hong Kong: Business International Asia-Pacific, 1990). [BACK]

2. David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 8. [BACK]

3. Martha K. Norkunas, The Politics of Public Memory: Tourism, History, and Ethnicity in Monterey, California (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993). [BACK]

4. Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Schocken Books, 1989), 44–45. [BACK]

5. Norkunas, The Politics of Public Memory, 36. [BACK]

6. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, ed. and trans. Lewis A. Coser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992). [BACK]

7. John Urry, Consuming Places (New York: Routledge, 1995), 165; see also Marie-Franc¸oise Lanfant, John B. Allcock, and Edward M. Bruner, eds., International Tourism: Identity and Change (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1995). [BACK]

8. This point is the subject of debate between those who see history as continuously reconstructed in the present to serve current needs and those who see history as often resistant to such reconstruction. Marita Sturken, Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, the AIDS Epidemic, and the Politics of Remembering (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997). [BACK]

9. Norkunas, The Politics of Public Memory, 5. [BACK]

10. Bailey, Travel and Tourism Opportunities in Vietnam. [BACK]

11. Estimates of tourists entering Vietnam should be understood as approx-imations rather than precise figures. These statistics sometimes represent travelers entering the country on organized tours, visitors entering through the international airports, or categories including tourists, business travelers, and those visiting friends and relatives. Figures shown here, for example, are the official statistics published by the Vietnam National Administration of Tourism, but they differ from those provided by VNAT to the World Tourism Organization. [BACK]

12. Among other provisions, the 1988 Foreign Investment Law imposed few requirements on foreign investors, permitted up to 100 percent foreign ownership, permitted imports under joint venture enterprises to be free of duties, and eased repatriation of profits. [BACK]

13. Murray Hiebert, “Wish You Were Here,” Far Eastern Economic Review, January 18, 1990, 44–45. [BACK]

15. Bailey, Travel and Tourism Opportunities in Vietnam. [BACK]

16. Tre, Vietnam: Investment and Tourism in Prospect (Hanoi: Nguyen Minh Hoang Printing House, 1991), 63. [BACK]

17. For example, Vietnamtourism, the governmentrun tour agency, provides tours, such as a sixteen-day “Veteran's Tour,” as well as side trips that can be used to supplement packaged tours, like the “Humanitarian Side-Trips,” which take visitors to a drug rehabilitation center, an orphanage, and a maternity hospital. [BACK]

18. See, for example, Erik Cohen, “Toward a Sociology of International Tourism,” Social Research 39 (1972): 164–82; Nelson H. H. Graburn,

19. Cohen, “Toward a Sociology of International Tourism.” [BACK]

20. Ralph Lenz, “On Resurrecting Tourism in Vietnam,” Focus, 43 no.3(fall 1993): 1–6. [BACK]

21. Dean MacCannell, “Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of Social Space in Tourist Settings,” American Journal of Sociology 79 (1973): 589–603. [BACK]

22. Norkunas, The Politics of Public Memory, 2. [BACK]

23. David Margolick, “To Hanoi by Train, a Journey of 1, 000 Miles,” New York Times Magazine, November 9, 1997, 18, 32. [BACK]

24. George Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). See also Victor Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974). [BACK]

25. Neil Sheehan, After the War Was Over (New York: Random House, 1991). [BACK]

26. Many American veterans of the war in Vietnam have described their travels back to the country either in the mainstream media or, less professionally presented, as postings to the World Wide Web. These travelogues, which often grapple in highly personal terms with the experience of revisiting sites replete with memory and emotion, could be considered a new genre within the literature of the Vietnam-American war. See, for example, Sheehan, After the War Was Over; Paul Martin, “Land of the Descending Dragon,” National Geographic Traveler, May/June 1996, 60–75; Philip Milio, “My Return to Vietnam” (http://grunt.space.swri.edu/pmilio.html, 1996); and Robert Bowley, “Vietnam Visited and Revisited” (http://www.goodnet.com/~rbowley/vietnamstory.html, 1995). [BACK]

27. Between 150, 000 and 260, 000 overseas Vietnamese traveled to Vietnam in each of these years. Vietnamtourism, Tourism (http://www.vietnamtourism.com/tourist/index.htm, 1998). [BACK]

28. MacCannell, “Staged Authenticity,” 2. [BACK]

29. Hamid Mowlana, Global Information and World Communication (New York: Longman, 1986), 126. [BACK]

30. “The Profit Hunters,” The Economist, June 11, 1994, 31. [BACK]

31. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers, 126–27. [BACK]

32. The Chinese Rooms of the War Crimes Museum were closed after China and Vietnam renewed diplomatic relations. See Steven Erlanger, “Saigon in Transition and in a Hurry,” New York Times Magazine Sophisticated Traveler, May 17, 1992, 18–19. [BACK]

33. Completion of the new construction was delayed following efforts by historical preservationists to include a small commemorative museum in the design of the new Hanoi Towers. I thank Hue-Tam Ho Tai for information on the Towers'marketing slogan. [BACK]

34. Robert S. Greenberger, “Buy Those Zippos, Catch Some Waves, Visit a War Museum,” Wall Street Journal, January 25, 1993, A8. [BACK]

35. “War Sites to Bring in Tourist Bucks” Vietnews 3, no. 6 (1995): 35–36. [BACK]

36. Philip Shenon, “Hanoi to Show Tourists Hideout That Eluded US,” New York Times, December 11, 1992, A4. [BACK]

37. “War Sites to Bring in Tourist Bucks,” 35–36. [BACK]

38. Murray Hiebert, “Wish You Were Here,” Far Eastern Economic Review, January 18, 1990, 44–45. [BACK]

39. Walter Fisher, “Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of Public Moral Argument,” Communication Monographs 51 (March 1984): 2. [BACK]

40. Donald C. Bryant, “Rhetoric: Its Function and Its Scope,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 39 (December 1953): 413. [BACK]

41. We examined the following brochures: Abercrombie and Kent, “The Orient, China and India” (Oak Brook, Ill., 1996); Geographic Expeditions, “Geographic Expeditions” (San Francisco, 1996); InnerAsia Expeditions, “Expeditions” (San Francisco, 1996); TBI Tours, “Orient Spectacular” (New York, 1994–95). [BACK]

42. Greg Dickinson, “Memories for Sale: Nostalgia and the Construction of Identity in Old Pasadena,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 83 (1977): 1–27. [BACK]

43. Pacific-Asia Travel News, Vietnam: A Travel Agent's Guide (Phoenix, Ariz.: Americas Publishing, 1994), 14–17. [BACK]

44. Ibid., 38. [BACK]

45. Ibid., 30, 42. [BACK]

46. Ibid., 47. [BACK]

47. Fisher, “Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm,” 10. [BACK]

48. Gloria E. Blumanhourst, “Coherence: A Narrative Criticism of Two Accounts of Herstory” (master's thesis, Colorado State University, 1986). [BACK]

49. Sonja K. Foss, Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1989), 229. [BACK]

50. “Faith in Hanoi” Wall Street Journal, January 20, 1995, A12. [BACK]

51. Marie-Franc¸oise Lanfant, “International Tourism, Internationalization and the Challenge to Identity,” in International Tourism: Identity and Change, 33. [BACK]