1. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848-1875, 2d ed. (New York, 1979), 32-33. [BACK]

2. Walter Benjamin argues that architecture is appropriated by touch and by sight. See his chapter "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," in Illuminations (New York, 1969), 240. [BACK]

3. Edward N. Kaufman, "The Architectural Museum from the World's Fair to Restoration Village," Assemblage, no. 9 (1989): 22. [BACK]

4. Benjamin calls the illusionary effects phantasmagoria. See Walter Benjamin, "Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century," in Reflections (New York, 1979), 152. [BACK]

5. Montgomery Schuyler, "Last Words about the World's Fair," The Architectural Record 3 (July 1893-July 1894): 299-300. [BACK]

6. This period also witnessed a great interest in travel to foreign countries. Feeding it was a vast travel literature, often richly illustrated to convey vivid images of foreign lands. Artists, especially the Orientalist painters, included in their works images from other cultures. [BACK]

7. Benjamin, "The Work of Art," 240. [BACK]

8. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978). [BACK]

9. The term "Third World" implies a global order, neatly divided into clear and simple zones, each with a fixed place in the hierarchy. Yet cultures and societies are not abstract, oppositional, static, and sealed units. Trinh Mihn-Ha eloquently summarized the fallacy of the First World-Third World construct: "No system functions in isolation. No First World exists independently from the Third World; there is a Third World in every First World and vice-versa." See: Trinh Mihn-Ha, "Of Other Peoples,'' in Hal Foster, ed., Discussions in Contemporary Culture (Seattle, 1987), 138. [BACK]

10. Edward Said, "Orientalism Reconsidered," Cultural Critique 1 (Fall 1985): 92-93, 97. [BACK]

11. For a survey of expositions, see: Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions, and World's Fairs, 1851-1939 (Manchester, 1988). [BACK]

12. The account that follows relies largely on Ira Lapidus's History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge, 1988). General works on the topic include Charles Issawi, The Economic History of the Middle East, 1800-1914 (Chicago, 1966); and Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy (New York, 1981). For the Ottoman Empire, see Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal, 1964); R. H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, N.J., 1963); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3d ed. (London, Oxford, New York, 1976); and Donald Quataert, Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881-1908 (New York, 1983). For Egypt, see G. Baer, Studies on the Social History of Modern Egypt (Chicago, 1969); and P. M. Holt, ed., Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt (London, 1968). For Algeria, see C. R. Ageron, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine (1830-1964) (Paris, 1966), and Les Algériens musulmans et la France (1871-1919), 2 vols. (Paris, 1968); and C. A. Julien, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine (Paris, 1964). For Tunisia, see Leon Carl Brown, The Tunisia of Ahmed Bey, 1837-1855 (Princeton, N.J., 1975). For Iran, see Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy, and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London, 1978). [BACK]

13. Gilbert Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans dans l'Egypte du XIXe siècle (Paris. 1982) vol. 2, livre V, 577. [BACK]

14. Leon Carl Brown, The Surest Path (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 23-33. [BACK]

15. Brown, The Surest Path, 28. [BACK]

16. James Clifford, Introduction to Writing Culture, ed. James Clifford and George Marcus (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1986), 18. [BACK]

17. Roy Wagner, The Invention of Culture, rev. ed. (Chicago and London, 1981), 4, 8-9. [BACK]

18. Wagner, 35. [BACK]

19. John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London, 1972), 9. [BACK]

20. Wagner, The Invention of Culture, 2. [BACK]

21. I owe this interpretation to Talal Asad's analysis of the ethnographer's translation of a culture. Because of its inscribed nature, Asad claims, the ethnographer's text assumes a "scientific" role and hence "gains a greater power to shape, to reform selves and institutions than folk memories do." See Talal Asad, "The Concept of Cultural Translation,'' in Clifford and Marcus, Writing Culture, 163. [BACK]

22. Said, Orientalism, 2-5. [BACK]

23. Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe, and Empire (Edinburgh, 1966), xvi. For a very different "Orient," seen through the eyes of European women, see Bilha Melman, "Western and Middle Eastern Women in the Colonial Era: Images of Europe's 'Other' and 'Self,'" paper delivered at the Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies, Harvard University, 27 April 1990. [BACK]

24. Edward Said, "Intellectuals in the Post Colonial World," Salmagundi 70-71 (Spring-Summer 1986): 56. [BACK]

25. Ibrahim Sinasi lived in Paris between 1849 and 1853 and, later, in the 1860s; al-Tahtawi lived there between 1826 and 1831, later visiting the city again in the 1860s; and Khayr al-Din lived there in the 1850s and the 1860s. [BACK]

26. Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1789-1939, 3d ed. (Cambridge, 1986), 68. [BACK]

27. Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton, N.J., 1962), 267-268. [BACK]

28. Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar, XIX asirda Türk edebiyati tarihi, 3d ed. (Istanbul, 1967), 171-172. [BACK]

29. Tanpinar, 172-175. [BACK]

30. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 2, livre V, 390-391. [BACK]

31. Quoted in G. Douin, Histoire du règne du khédive Ismail (Rome, 1934), 2:10. [BACK]

32. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 2, livre V. 453. [BACK]

33. Anouar Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et renaissance nationale, l'Egypte moderne (Paris, 1969), 208. [BACK]

34. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 2, livre V, 456. [BACK]

35. Delanoue, 2, livre V, 485; Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et renaissance, 228. [BACK]

36. Brown, The Surest Path, 38. [BACK]

37. Brown, 10. [BACK]

38. Brown, 46-47. [BACK]

39. Brown, 168-170. [BACK]

40. Brown, 35. [BACK]