1. A French journalist's remarks on the Ottoman residential pavilion in the 1867 exhibition suggest Western fantasies about Muslim home life. After describing the main room of the Pavillon du Bosphore (to be discussed later), the journalist added: "Here the contemplative Muslim enjoys his kief, allowing hours to pass smoking his chibouk or the narghile and drinking coffee, letting his gaze wander from the vault ornamented with arabesques to the golden latticework to the brightly colored glasswork" (Saint-Félix, "Les Installations d'Orient dans le parc," in L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 38). [BACK]

2. On Parvillée, see Beatrice St. Laurent, "Léon Parvillée: His Role as Restorer of Bursa's Monuments and His Contribution to the Exposition Universelle of 1867," in H. Batu and J.-L. Bacque-Grammont eds., L'Empire ottomane, la république de Turquie, et la France (Istanbul, 1986), 247-282. [BACK]

3. Léon Parvillée, Architecture et décoration turques (Paris, 1874), ii. [BACK]

4. Parvillée, 2. [BACK]

5. Parvillée, iii-iv. [BACK]

6. Quoted in Michael Darby, The Islamic Perspective (London, 1983), 62. [BACK]

7. Anatole de Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," Gazette des architectes et du bátiment (special issue), Paris, 1867. Baudot was a leading rationalist architect and a former student of Viollet-le-Duc. Among his buildings in Paris is St. Jean de Montmartre, a pioneer building whose structural members are of exposed reinforced concrete. [BACK]

8. Baudot, 260. [BACK]

9. Perhaps the only exception is Celal Esad, who in 1907 called for a careful documentation of Ottoman monuments, which were to be studied for their underlying "principles"—a reference to Viollet-le-Duc's thought. See Celal Esad, "Osmanli mimarisi," Ikdam, 3 January 1907. [BACK]

10. Théophile Gautier, L'Orient (Paris, 1902), 2:88. [BACK]

11. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 165. [BACK]

12. References are to Çinili Kösk (1472) in the Topkapi Palace gardens and Köprülü Amcazade Hüseyin Pasa Yalisi (1698) in Kanlica on the Bosphorus. [BACK]

13. Saint-Félix, "Les installations d'Orient dans le parc," 38. [BACK]

14. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 268. [BACK]

15. Saint-Félix, "Les Installations d'Orient dans le parc," 38. [BACK]

16. The only other example of a bath in an exposition setting was in Vienna in 1873. See Basiret no. 779, 14 Ramazan 1289 (15 November 1872). [BACK]

17. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 268-269. [BACK]

18. L'Esposizione universale di Viena, no. 2:11; no. 10:74; no. 19:145. [BACK]

19. Basiret, no. 779, 14 Ramazan 1289 (15 November 1872). [BACK]

20. The Dream City: A Portfolio of Photographic Views from the World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), caption. [BACK]

21. David Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893 (Lexington, Ky., c. 1976); The Dream City, caption. As David Gebhard has pointed out, this pavilion inspired Frank Lloyd Wright, whose Winslow House in River Forest, Illinois, designed in 1893 and completed in 1894, showed striking similarities to the Ottoman building: it too had an overhanging roof, a band of windows, and terra-cotta ornament under the eaves. Gebhard has traced other parallels between Wright's early houses and the Ottoman pavilion, for example in the skylight of his own house (1895) in Oak Park, Illinois (which also repeated the pattern of squares on the exterior facades of the Ottoman building) and in the hipped roof, terra-cotta band, and arched openings of the Isidore Heller House and in the Joseph Husser House (1899), both in Chicago. Indeed, the overhanging roof and the band of terra-cotta with windows right under the roof became features of his Prairie Houses. See David Gebhard, "A Note on the Chicago Fair of 1893 and Frank Lloyd Wright," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 18, no. 2 (May 1959): 63-65. [BACK]

22. Le Figaro, 16 May 1900. [BACK]

23. The Parisian Dream City (St. Louis, Mo., 1900), caption. [BACK]

24. Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 9. [BACK]

25. Le Figaro, 16 May 1900; George Riat, La Rue des nations (Paris, 1901), 4. [BACK]

26. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 8:42. [BACK]

27. Edmond, L'Egypt à l'Exposition, 177. [BACK]

28. Edmond, 179-180. [BACK]

29. L'Illustration, 22 July 1867. [BACK]

30. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 190-191. [BACK]

31. L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 55. [BACK]

32. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 196; Alfred Normand also saw the careful

      study of decorative patterns, which ''highlight further the brilliance of precious materials," as a typical feature of Arab monumental architecture. See Norman, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, 7. [BACK]

33. Edmond, 214-215. [BACK]

34. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 101. [BACK]

35. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 271. [BACK]

36. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 184; Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 97. [BACK]

37. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 98. [BACK]

38. L'Illustration, 29 June 1867 and 27 July 1867. [BACK]

39. The Illustrated London News, 3 August 1867. [BACK]

40. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiositiés de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:98-99; Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 99. [BACK]

41. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 274. [BACK]

42. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 11. [BACK]

43. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 11-12. [BACK]

44. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 18. [BACK]

45. Edmond, 91-92. [BACK]

46. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:92. [BACK]

47. L'Illustration, 31 August 1878; Clovis Lamarre and Charles Fliniaux, L'Egypte, la Tunisie, le Maroc à l'exposition de 1878 (Paris, 1878), 134-136. [BACK]

48. Mariette, La Galerie de l'Egypte ancienne, 1. [BACK]

49. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 190-191. [BACK]

50. Chicago Tribune, 16 May 1893. [BACK]

51. Le Figaro, 17 June 1900; Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 198. [BACK]

52. L'Exposition de Paris, 3:6. [BACK]

53. C. Perrouchot, "L'Exposition universelle de 1867, le parc étranger," L'Illustration, 9 March 1867. [BACK]

54. Livre Chaix, guide du visiteur à l'Exposition universelle de 1878, 98, quoted in Le Livre des expositions universelles, 1851-1989 (Paris, 1983), 291. [BACK]

55. S. de Vendières, L'Exposition universelle de 1878 illustrée (Paris, 1879), 15. [BACK]

56. L'Exposition de Paris, 2:215. [BACK]

57. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 11:78. [BACK]

58. Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 154. [BACK]

59. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 11:79. [BACK]

60. L'Illustration, 16 June 1900; Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 155. The text of the inscription read:

The government of His Highness the Shah erected this pavilion in honor of the 1900 Universal Exposition. The palaces it contains will call to

mind the art of lost centuries as well as testifying to the progress of the present one. The whole world stands breathless with admiration before the gigantic work to which France gathered all the nations by a gracious act of hospitality. If the Persian pavilion displays only a small portion of the products of Persia, it bears in itself a precious treasury: the warm wishes that she [Persia] has for the prosperity and glory of France. The poet Zaka el Molk was happy to write these lines in Teheran and sign them in honor of this beautiful city of Paris, the land which nourishes all sciences and all arts. [BACK]

61. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. II:79. Islamic architecture is distinguished by the use of inscriptions on wall surfaces and details. See Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1973), 208-209. [BACK]

62. Van Millingen used this phrase in reference to the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. See A. van Millingen, Constantinople (London, 1906), 205. [BACK]

63. L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 411-412. [BACK]

64. Normand, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, 9. [BACK]

65. L'Illustration, 9 March 1867; Normand, 12-14; A. Chirac, "Le Palais du bey," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 39-42; Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:51-53. [BACK]

66. Lamarre and Fliniaux, L'Egypte, la Tunisie, le Moroc, 54. [BACK]

67. L'Illustration, 3 August 1878. [BACK]

68. C. Perrouchot, "L'Exposition universelle de 1867, le parc étranger," L'Illustration, 9 March 1867. [BACK]

69. Normand, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, 14. [BACK]

70. L'Illustration, 3 August 1878. [BACK]

71. Lamarre and Fliniaux, L'Egypte, la Tunisie, le Moroc, 62-63. [BACK]

72. Dr. A. Warner, "L'Exposition de l'Algérie, trophée de la colonie," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 182-183. [BACK]

73. Vendières, L'Exposition universelle de 1878 illustrée, 15. [BACK]

74. L'IIlustration, 10 August 1878. [BACK]

75. L'Illustration, 26 October 1878. [BACK]

76. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:224. [BACK]

77. Paris illustrée (1889): 449. [BACK]

78. Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 165. [BACK]

79. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 16:16. [BACK]

80. The emphasis on wines indicates how the French changed the agricultural patterns of the Algerian countryside by substituting grapes for cereals. [BACK]

82. L'Illustration, 29 September 1900. [BACK]

83. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:244. [BACK]

84. G. Moynet, "L'Exposition tunisienne," in L'Exposition de Paris, 2:280. [BACK]

85. Because non-Muslims were not allowed to enter mosques, Saladin, in designing the interior, had to rely on photographs taken by an Arab. He did measure the exterior of the building himself, however. See G. Moynet, "L'Exposition tunisienne," in L'Exposition de Paris, 2:279. [BACK]

86. L'Illustration, 15 September 1900. [BACK]

87. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900. [BACK]

88. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900. [BACK]

89. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 8:46. [BACK]

90. Louis Hautecoeur, L'Architecture classique en France (Paris, 1957), 7:384. [BACK]

91. Le Figaro, 16 May 1900. [BACK]

92. Saladin's publications include Voyage en Tunisie, Géographie de la Tunisie, Rapport sur deux missions archéologiques, Monographe sur la Mosquée Sidi Okta à Kairouen, and Histoire d'architecture musulmane. See E. Delaire, Les Architectes élèves de l'École des Beaux-Arts, 2d ed. (Paris, 1907), 378. [BACK]

93. Jacques Brévet architecte, 1832-1900 (Paris, n. d.), 8. [BACK]

94. Jacques Brévet, 55. [BACK]

95. Delaire, Les Achitectes, 245. [BACK]

96. Albert Ballu wrote extensively on the antiquities of the region. Among his books are Guide de Timgad (1897), Les Ruines de Timgad (1897-1903), Les Ruines de Timgad, sept années de découvertes (1911), and Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie (1894). [BACK]

97. Pierre Courthion, "L'Architecture à l'exposition coloniale," Art et décoration 55 (July-December 1931): 37. [BACK]

98. Rabinow, French Modern, 46. [BACK]

99. César Daly, "Discours prononcé au nom des anciens élèves de Félix Duban," Funerailles de Félix Duban, ed. César Daly (Paris, 1871), 33; quoted in Neil Levine, "The Romantic Idea of Architectural Legibility: Henri Labrouste and the Neo-Grec," in The Architecture of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, ed. Arthur Drexler (New York, 1977), 328; quoted in Rabinow, 46. [BACK]

100. The terms are Paul Ricoeur's in History and Truth, trans. C. A. Kelbley (Evanston, Ill., 1965), 271-284. [BACK]

101. Hippolyte Gautier, Leo Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:86. [BACK]

102. Another aspect of this redefinition was the shift from Turkish to Arabic in official documents. The last treaty between France and Tunis to be written in Turkish dates from 1824. See Brown, The Surest Path, 15. [BACK]

103. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 178. [BACK]

104. I am thinking of the questions Edward Said asked in the last pages of Orientalism (325-326):

How does one represent another culture? What is another culture? Is the notion of a distinct culture (or race, or religion, or civilization) a useful one, or does it always get involved either in self-congratulation (when one discusses one's own) or hostility and aggression (when one discusses the "other")? Do cultural, religious, and racial differences matter more than socio-economic categories, or politicohistorical ones? How do ideas acquire authority, "normality," and even the status of "natural" truth? [BACK]