1. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848-1875, 2d ed. (New York, 1979), 32-33. [BACK]

2. Walter Benjamin argues that architecture is appropriated by touch and by sight. See his chapter "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," in Illuminations (New York, 1969), 240. [BACK]

3. Edward N. Kaufman, "The Architectural Museum from the World's Fair to Restoration Village," Assemblage, no. 9 (1989): 22. [BACK]

4. Benjamin calls the illusionary effects phantasmagoria. See Walter Benjamin, "Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century," in Reflections (New York, 1979), 152. [BACK]

5. Montgomery Schuyler, "Last Words about the World's Fair," The Architectural Record 3 (July 1893-July 1894): 299-300. [BACK]

6. This period also witnessed a great interest in travel to foreign countries. Feeding it was a vast travel literature, often richly illustrated to convey vivid images of foreign lands. Artists, especially the Orientalist painters, included in their works images from other cultures. [BACK]

7. Benjamin, "The Work of Art," 240. [BACK]

8. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978). [BACK]

9. The term "Third World" implies a global order, neatly divided into clear and simple zones, each with a fixed place in the hierarchy. Yet cultures and societies are not abstract, oppositional, static, and sealed units. Trinh Mihn-Ha eloquently summarized the fallacy of the First World-Third World construct: "No system functions in isolation. No First World exists independently from the Third World; there is a Third World in every First World and vice-versa." See: Trinh Mihn-Ha, "Of Other Peoples,'' in Hal Foster, ed., Discussions in Contemporary Culture (Seattle, 1987), 138. [BACK]

10. Edward Said, "Orientalism Reconsidered," Cultural Critique 1 (Fall 1985): 92-93, 97. [BACK]

11. For a survey of expositions, see: Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions, and World's Fairs, 1851-1939 (Manchester, 1988). [BACK]

12. The account that follows relies largely on Ira Lapidus's History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge, 1988). General works on the topic include Charles Issawi, The Economic History of the Middle East, 1800-1914 (Chicago, 1966); and Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy (New York, 1981). For the Ottoman Empire, see Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal, 1964); R. H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton, N.J., 1963); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3d ed. (London, Oxford, New York, 1976); and Donald Quataert, Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881-1908 (New York, 1983). For Egypt, see G. Baer, Studies on the Social History of Modern Egypt (Chicago, 1969); and P. M. Holt, ed., Political and Social Change in Modern Egypt (London, 1968). For Algeria, see C. R. Ageron, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine (1830-1964) (Paris, 1966), and Les Algériens musulmans et la France (1871-1919), 2 vols. (Paris, 1968); and C. A. Julien, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine (Paris, 1964). For Tunisia, see Leon Carl Brown, The Tunisia of Ahmed Bey, 1837-1855 (Princeton, N.J., 1975). For Iran, see Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy, and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London, 1978). [BACK]

13. Gilbert Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans dans l'Egypte du XIXe siècle (Paris. 1982) vol. 2, livre V, 577. [BACK]

14. Leon Carl Brown, The Surest Path (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 23-33. [BACK]

15. Brown, The Surest Path, 28. [BACK]

16. James Clifford, Introduction to Writing Culture, ed. James Clifford and George Marcus (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1986), 18. [BACK]

17. Roy Wagner, The Invention of Culture, rev. ed. (Chicago and London, 1981), 4, 8-9. [BACK]

18. Wagner, 35. [BACK]

19. John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London, 1972), 9. [BACK]

20. Wagner, The Invention of Culture, 2. [BACK]

21. I owe this interpretation to Talal Asad's analysis of the ethnographer's translation of a culture. Because of its inscribed nature, Asad claims, the ethnographer's text assumes a "scientific" role and hence "gains a greater power to shape, to reform selves and institutions than folk memories do." See Talal Asad, "The Concept of Cultural Translation,'' in Clifford and Marcus, Writing Culture, 163. [BACK]

22. Said, Orientalism, 2-5. [BACK]

23. Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe, and Empire (Edinburgh, 1966), xvi. For a very different "Orient," seen through the eyes of European women, see Bilha Melman, "Western and Middle Eastern Women in the Colonial Era: Images of Europe's 'Other' and 'Self,'" paper delivered at the Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies, Harvard University, 27 April 1990. [BACK]

24. Edward Said, "Intellectuals in the Post Colonial World," Salmagundi 70-71 (Spring-Summer 1986): 56. [BACK]

25. Ibrahim Sinasi lived in Paris between 1849 and 1853 and, later, in the 1860s; al-Tahtawi lived there between 1826 and 1831, later visiting the city again in the 1860s; and Khayr al-Din lived there in the 1850s and the 1860s. [BACK]

26. Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1789-1939, 3d ed. (Cambridge, 1986), 68. [BACK]

27. Serif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton, N.J., 1962), 267-268. [BACK]

28. Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar, XIX asirda Türk edebiyati tarihi, 3d ed. (Istanbul, 1967), 171-172. [BACK]

29. Tanpinar, 172-175. [BACK]

30. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 2, livre V, 390-391. [BACK]

31. Quoted in G. Douin, Histoire du règne du khédive Ismail (Rome, 1934), 2:10. [BACK]

32. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 2, livre V. 453. [BACK]

33. Anouar Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et renaissance nationale, l'Egypte moderne (Paris, 1969), 208. [BACK]

34. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans, 2, livre V, 456. [BACK]

35. Delanoue, 2, livre V, 485; Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et renaissance, 228. [BACK]

36. Brown, The Surest Path, 38. [BACK]

37. Brown, 10. [BACK]

38. Brown, 46-47. [BACK]

39. Brown, 168-170. [BACK]

40. Brown, 35. [BACK]

1. Paul Rabinow, French Modern (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1989), 21-23. Greenhalgh points out that the rise of anthropology as a discipline occurred between 1878 and 1889 in Paris. See Geenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas, 86. [BACK]

2. Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Object (New York, 1983), xi, 68, and 143. [BACK]

3. Fabian argues that the ethnographer and the anthropologist see native society as a tableau vivant . See Fabian, 67. [BACK]

4. Chicago Tribune, 17 June 1893. [BACK]

5. Raoul Girardot, L'Idée coloniale en France (Paris, 1972), 83. [BACK]

6. L'Exposition de 1889, 15 March 1889. [BACK]

7. Charles Lemire, "La Transformation de l'exposition coloniale de 1900, L'Exposition des colonies, 1 January 1898. [BACK]

8. Charles Lemire, "L'Exposition des colonies en 1900," L'Exposition des colonies, 1 August 1897. [BACK]

9. Burton Benedict, "The Anthropology of World's Fairs," in The Anthropology of World's Fairs, ed. Burton Benedict (London and Berkeley, 1983), 2. [BACK]

10. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair (Chicago and London, 1984), 5 and 235. Hannah Arendt traced the origins of "race-thinking" to Arthur de Gobineau's Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, published in 1853, arguing that by 1900, Gobineau's text had become "a kind of standard work for race theories in history." See Hannah Arendt, Imperialism, 4th ed. (San Diego, New York, London, 1968), 50-51. [BACK]

11. Benedict, "The Anthropology of World's Fairs," 43-45. [BACK]

12. Chicago Tribune, 21 June 1893. During the latter part of the century the Ottoman government had launched a reform to industrialize the country and exhibited its machine-produced goods (especially textiles) in Western cities. Yet because the machines themselves were European inventions, the production processes of Ottoman industry were not brought to the fairs. [BACK]

13. A. Chirac, "Le Palais du Bey," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée (Paris, 1867), 42. [BACK]

14. L'Illustration, 23 June 1878. [BACK]

15. Chicago Tribune, 8 April 1893. [BACK]

16. J. Charles-Roux, Les Colonies françaises, l'organisation et le fonctionnement de l'exposition des colonies et pays de protectorat (Paris, 1902), 210-211. [BACK]

17. L'Illustration, 15 September 1900. [BACK]

18. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900. [BACK]

19. The "people as freaks" category, however, existed in the Islamic quarters of the exhibitions as well. For example, Cairo Street in Chicago in 1893 was crowded with wrestlers, acrobats, sword-swallowers, fire-eaters, snake charmers, and fortune-tellers. See the Chicago Tribune, 5 April 1893. [BACK]

20. Ben. C. Truman, History of the World's Fair (Philadelphia, 1893), 558. [BACK]

21. "Le Palais de l'Egypte," L'Exposition de Paris (Paris, 1903), 3:6; Julien Tiersot, Musiques pittoresques, promenades musicales. L'exposition de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 95-98. [BACK]

22. P. Jorde, "Le Théâtre du pavilion ottoman," L'Exposition de Paris, 3:161. [BACK]

23. See, for example, H. Lavoix, "L'Orient à l'Exposition universelle," L'Illustration, 22 July 1867; L'Illustration, 18 May 1878; and P. Jorde, "Le Théâtre du pavilion ottoman," L'Exposition de Paris, 3:161. These views are uninformed by the serious investigations of many nineteenth-century historians of music, who included non-Western music in their publications. For further discussion, see Philip V. Bohlman, "The European Discovery of Music in the Islamic World and the 'Non-Western' in Nineteenth-Century Music History,'' The Journal of Musicology 5, no. 2 (Spring 1987): 147-163. [BACK]

24. Truman, History of the World's Fair, 558. [BACK]

25. Tiersot, L'Exposition de 1889, 78. [BACK]

26. Anouar Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains égyptiens en France au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1970), 193-194. [BACK]

27. Eugène-Meichior de Vogue, "A Travers l'exposition," Revue des deux mondes 95 (1889): 451. [BACK]

28. World's Fair Puck, 4 September 1893. [BACK]

29. Zeynep Çelik and Leila Kinney, "Ethnography and Exhibitionism at the Expositions Universelles, " Assemblage, no. 13 (1990): 34-59. [BACK]

30. Sylviane Leprun, Le Théâtre des colonies (Paris, 1986), 70-72. [BACK]

31. René Maizeroy, "Les Théâtres éphémères à l'exposition, le théâtre égyptien," Figaro illustré, no. 124 (July 1900): 142-143. [BACK]

32. Maizeroy, 143-144. The Thousand and One Nights had been instrumental in shaping European ideas about Islam since the early eighteenth century. First translated into French by Antoine Galland, it was published in twelve volumes between 1704 and 1717. During the eighteenth century alone it was reissued in French twenty times. German and English translations appeared in the 1710s, and the book was translated into eight other European languages in the nineteenth century. See Georges May, Les Mille et une nuits d'Antoine Galland (Paris, 1986), 9-10. [BACK]

33. Léon Dussert, "Le Palais algérien," Revue de l'Exposition universelle de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 1:208. [BACK]

34. Figaro illustré, no. 124 (July 1900): 142-144. [BACK]

35. See, for example, the descriptions of the workshops in the Tunisian section of the 1889 exposition, in E. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889 (Paris, 1900), 2:245. [BACK]

36. "Nos soldats coloniaux à l'exposition," L'Exposition de Paris, 2:25. [BACK]

37. Docteur Warnier, "Exposition de l'Algérie," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 182-183. [BACK]

38. L'Illustration, 18 May 1878. [BACK]

39. Paris illustrée (1889): 449. [BACK]

40. Paris illustrée (1889): 617. [BACK]

41. The Vanishing White City (Chicago, 1893), caption. [BACK]

42. Chicago Tribune, 28 May 1893. [BACK]

43. Charles-Roux, Les Colonies françaises, 209. [BACK]

44. The Vanishing White City, caption. [BACK]

45. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:141. [BACK]

46. Le Figaro, 3 July 1867. [BACK]

47. The Illustrated London News, 6 July 1867. Although Paris in the 1860s was filled with foreigners from all corners of the world—among them the Young Ottomans, liberal Ottoman intellectuals who were in exile in Paris—their numbers escalated because of the exhibition. According to one journalist, "Paris had never been so populated with Turks" (See L'Illustration, 6 July 1867). Nevertheless, cosmopolitan Paris showed at least as much interest in the sultan as it had in the first Turkish ambassador, Mehmed Çelebi Efendi, in 1727. For an account of Mehmed Efendi's visit, see Fatma Müge Göçek, East Encounters West: France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century (New York and Oxford, 1987). [BACK]

48. The Illustrated London News, 6 July 1867, and Ruzname-i Ayine-i Vatan 35, 1 Rebiülevvel 1284 (3 July 1867). [BACK]

49. L'Illustration, 6 July 1867. [BACK]

50. Le Figaro, 19 June 1867. [BACK]

51. Charles Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition universelle de 1867 (Paris, 1867), 14. [BACK]

52. Mark Twain, The Innocents Abroad (New York, 1984), 102. [BACK]

53. Twain, 101. [BACK]

54. The entry of the empress to the Palais de l'Industrie on the arm of the composed Abdülaziz was described at length in the press. See, for example, Le Figaro, 7 July 1867. [BACK]

55. Le Figaro, 19 June 1867. [BACK]

56. Le Figaro, 7 July 1867. [BACK]

57. L'Illustration, 6 July 1867. [BACK]

58. See: Zeynep Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century (Seattle and London, 1986), especially chapter 3. [BACK]

59. Osman Nuri [Ergin], Mecelle-i umur-u belediye (Istanbul, 1914-1922). 1:1013. [BACK]

60. A Turkish journalist visiting Cairo during the late 1860s described, with admiration and envy, its ongoing transformation into a "little Paris." See Basiretçi 'Ali, Istanbul'da yarim asirlik vekayi-i muhimme (Half a century of important events in Istanbul) (Istanbul, 1325 [1907]), 28. [BACK]

61. Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo: One Thousand and One Years of City Victorious (Princeton, N.J., 1971), chapter 7. [BACK]

62. Nubar Pasha, Mémoires de Nubar Pasha (Beirut, 1983), 312. [BACK]

63. Nubar Pasha, 312. [BACK]

64. Louis Béhier, L'Egypte de 1798 à 1900 (Paris, n.d.), 182. [BACK]

65. Iran's diplomatic representation in major European cities, as well as in Istanbul, dates from the1850s. See Bakhash, Iran, 28. [BACK]

66. Bakhash, 48-49. [BACK]

67. Bakhash, 114-115. [BACK]

68. L'Illustration, 28 July 1900. [BACK]

69. See Commission des sciences et arts d'Egypte, Description de l'Egypte, 9 vols. (Paris, 1809-1828). [BACK]

70. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 185. [BACK]

71. Edmond, 182. [BACK]

72. Edmond, 183. [BACK]

73. Edmond, 200-201. [BACK]

74. Auguste Mariette, Aperçu de l'histoire ancienne d'Egypte pour l'intelligence des monuments exposés dans le temple du Parc égyptien, (Paris, 1867), 7-9. [BACK]

75. L'Aperçu de l'histoire surveys Egyptian history from the early kingdoms to the official adoption of Christianity in 381; it is a reprint, with a new introduction, of a text first published in Cairo. The Description du Parc égyptien, in contrast, records the Egyptian buildings and the artifacts they sheltered, with an emphasis on the "temple," the representation of antiquity. Mariette-Bey's La Galerie de l'Egypte ancienne à l'exposition rétrospective du Trocadéro (Paris, 1878) is again a survey of the antique artifacts in the Egyptian gallery in 1878. [BACK]

76. Auguste Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien (Paris, 1867), 13. [BACK]

77. Although Salaheddin Bey did not acknowledge Marie de Launay's contribution, several paragraphs from Marie de Launay's article in L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, titled "Turquie, établissement du parc" (pp. 199-202), appear in La Turquie à l'Exposition universelle de 1867 . Marie de Launay was a translator and the author of many Ottoman publications; he may have contributed to Salaheddin Bey's book. Or if there was plagiarism on Salaheddin Bey's part, it may not have been considered a serious issue. In any event, it is significant that the intellectual activities of an Ottoman administrator were linked with those of a European consultant. [BACK]

78. Even when talking about the uniqueness of Ottoman architecture, Salaheddin Bey reflected the Westernization process that characterized this era. He was so much at ease with the French vocabulary (and the French way of thinking as expressed through the language) that he did not refer to the mosque-pavilion as a mosque, but as a chapelle-sepulchrale . [BACK]

79. Salaheddin Bey, La Turquie à l'Exposition universelle de 1867 (Paris, 1867), 139. [BACK]

80. Salaheddin Bey, 36. [BACK]

81. Salaheddin Bey, 37. [BACK]

82. Salaheddin Bey, 36. The description is largely a fiction. For example, the sky is not always blue in most parts of Turkey, and certainly not in Bursa, and Ottoman culture is not particularly sea oriented. The picturesque image of Bursa painted here, however, agrees with contemporary descriptions of this town. [BACK]

83. Salaheddin Bey, 36. [BACK]

84. Salaheddin Bey, 142-144. [BACK]

85. Osman Hamdi acted as the commissary general for the Ottoman Empire in the 1873 Vienna exposition. [BACK]

86. Linda Nochlin, "The Imaginary Orient," Art in America 71, no. 5 (May 1983): 121-123. [BACK]

87. Said argues that such "repressed" and "resistant" histories were omitted by Orientalism for the most part. See Edward Said, "Orientalism Reconsidered," 94. [BACK]

88. For further detailed discussion of Osman Hamdi's work, see Mustafa Cezar, Sanatta batiya açilis ve Osman Hamdi (Exposure to the West in art and Osman Hamdi) (Istanbul, 1971); Vasif Kortun, "Osman Hamdi üzerine yeni notlar," Tarih ve Toplum 41 (May 1987): 25-26; and especially Ipek Aksügür Duben, "Osman Hamdi ve Orientalism," Tarih ve Toplum 41 (May 1987): 27-34. [BACK]

89. The chapters are divided according to types. For example, in the Constantinople section, first the professional types ( aiwaz, caikdji, sakka, hamal ) are listed; religious types ( derviche mevlevi, derviche baktachi, and molla ) and women follow. A short text explains the role of each type in social life, gives average salaries, and so forth. [BACK]

90. Hamdy Bey and Marie de Launay, Les Costumes populaires de la Turquie en 1873 (Constantinople, 1873), 7. Although Osman Hamdi's name does not appear in the book, Cezar claims that Osman Hamdi worked on this publication, as well as on Usul-u mimari-i Osmani. See Cezar, Sanatta batiya açilis, 143. [BACK]

91. Hamdy and de Launay, 6. [BACK]

92. Hamdy and de Launay, 5. [BACK]

93. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, Usul-u mimari-i Osmani (Constantinople, 1873), vi. The following discussion of Usul-u mimari-i Osmani is excerpted from my Remaking of Istanbul, 148-149. [BACK]

94. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, 7. [BACK]

95. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, 15. [BACK]

96. Montani Effendi and Boghos Effendi Chachian, 17. [BACK]

97. These albums are in the Prints and Photographs section of the Library of Congress. [BACK]

98. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 27 March 1893. [BACK]

99. William Allen, "The Abdul Hamid II Collection," History of Photography 8, no. 2 (April-June 1984): 119. [BACK]

100. Quoted in Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe (Princeton, N.J., 1963), 138. [BACK]

101. Hourani, Arabic Thought, 83. [BACK]

102. Quoted in Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe, 141. [BACK]

103. Mahmud 'Umar al-Bajuri, al-durar al-bahiyya fi al-rihla al-urubiyya (Description of an Arab's journey); see Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 207. [BACK]

104. Louca, 106. [BACK]

105. Louca, 227 and 233. [BACK]

106. Muhammad Amin Fikri, Irshad al-alibba ila mahasin 'uruba (The guide to the virtues of Europe); see Louca, 202-203. [BACK]

107. Louca, 213. [BACK]

108. Sadullah Efendi, "1878 Paris Ekspozisyonu," in Ebuziya Tevfik, ed., Numune-i edebiyat-i Osmaniye (Istanbul, 1302 [1884]), 298-301. [BACK]

109. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 224. [BACK]

110. The tradition of describing European settings in the language of fairy tales goes back to the 1727 Sefaretname of Mehmed Çelebi Efendi, the first Ottoman ambassador to Paris. Sent to Paris to document Western advances, Mehmed Efendi became fascinated by French architecture. He described the buildings, the gardens, the palaces, and especially the fountains in the language of fairy tales. See Göçek, East Encounters West . [BACK]

111. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 233. [BACK]

112. Ahmad Zaki, al-safar ila al-mu'tamar (The trip to the conference); see Louca, 212. [BACK]

113. Louca, 224. [BACK]

114. Sabah, 9 Muharrem 1307 (5 September 1889). [BACK]

115. Halid Ziya Usakligil, Kirk yil (Istanbul, 1969), 263. [BACK]

116. Ahmed Mithat, Avrupa'da bir cevelan (Istanbul, 1307 [1889]), 486-499. [BACK]

117. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 106. [BACK]

118. Louca, 219. [BACK]

119. Louca, 232. [BACK]

120. Diyojen, no. 101, 4 Mart 1288 (16 March 1872). [BACK]

1. In the main building of the 1867 exposition, France occupied 61,315 square meters; next came Great Britain with 21,655, followed by Germany with 7,880. See L'Exposition universelle de Paris (Paris, 1867), 1:5. [BACK]

2. Alfred Normand, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, étude sur les principales constructions du parc à l'Exposition universelle de Paris (1867) (Paris, 1870), 1. [BACK]

3. S. Giedion, Space, Time, and Architecture, 4th ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), 258-262. [BACK]

4. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867 (Paris, 1867), 2:85-86. [BACK]

5. Janet Abu-Lughod, "The Islamic City—Historic Myth, Islamic Essence, and Contemporary Relevance," International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 19, no. 2 (May 1987): 160-161. [BACK]

6. Patricia Mainardi, "The Eiffel Tower and the English Lighthouse," Art Magazine 54 (March 1980): 141-144, and Art and Politics of the Second Empire: The Universal Expositions of 1855 and 1867 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1987), 146-147. [BACK]

7. Sylviane Leprun uses the formal conventions of Orientalist paintings to analyze the architectural representations of French colonies in the expositions. Her three case studies are Horace Vernet's La Prise de la Smalah d'Abd el-Kader, Eugène Delacroix's Une Noce juive dans le Maroc, and Eugène Fromentin's La Rue d'El Aghouat . See: Leprun, Le Théâtre des colonies, 48-83. [BACK]

8. Nochlin, "The Imaginary Orient," 120-123. [BACK]

9. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 100. [BACK]

10. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 15-19. [BACK]

11. L'Illustration, 20 July 1867. [BACK]

12. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:56. [BACK]

13. The Levant Herald, 19 February 1867. [BACK]

14. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:49. [BACK]

15. L 'Illustration, 20 July 1867. [BACK]

16. Basiret 779, 14 Ramazan 1289 (15 November 1872); L'Esposizione universale di Viena del 1873 2 (1873): 11; L'Esposizione universale di Viena 2:10, 74. [BACK]

17. Ministere de l'Agriculture et Commerce, Monographie des palais et constructions diverses de l'Exposition universelle de 1878 (Paris, 1882), 1:4. [BACK]

18. H. Gautier and A. Desprez, Les Curiosités de l'exposition de 1878, guide du visiteur (Paris, 1878), 41. [BACK]

19. Morocco's and Tunisia's representation elsewhere on the fairgrounds is discussed in chapter 3. The Ottoman Empire did not take part in this exposition. [BACK]

20. Reports of the United States Commissioners to the Paris Universal Exposition, 1878 (Washington, D.C., 1880), 2:155. [BACK]

21. Reports of the United States Commissioners, 2:154. Spain at the fairs was often represented by its Islamic monuments, most likely because of the English and

French obsession with the Alhambra. These pavilions, though interesting as they shed light on the fundamental conflicts in Spain's self-image, will not form part of this study, which focuses on Islamic cultures. [BACK]

22. Leprun, Le Théâtre des colonies, 130-131. [BACK]

23. Frants Jourdain, L'Histoire de l'habitation humaine (Paris, 1889), 2. [BACK]

24. E. Godeau, "L'Histoire de l'habitation," in Revue de l'Exposition universelle de 1889, 1:781. [BACK]

25. Charles Garnier and A. Ammann, L'Habitation humaine (Paris, 1892), iii. [BACK]

26. Godeau, "L'Histoire de l'habitation," 80. [BACK]

27. L'Exposition de 1889, guide illustré (Paris, 1889), 90; also see Debora Silverman, "The 1889 Exhibition: The Crisis of Bourgeois Individualism," Oppositions 8 (Spring 1977): 80. [BACK]

28. See chapter 1, nn. 2-3 and the discussion pp. 17-18. [BACK]

29. Garnier and Ammann, L'Habitation humaine, iii-iv. [BACK]

30. Garnier and Ammann, 26. [BACK]

31. Garnier and Ammann, 715-716. [BACK]

32. Garnier and Ammann, 723-724. [BACK]

33. Garnier and Ammann, 744. [BACK]

34. Garnier and Ammann, 740. [BACK]

35. Victor Champier, "Les 44 habitations humaines," in Revue de l'Exposition universelle de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 1:115-116 and 121. For further discussion of the pavilions, see chapter 6. [BACK]

36. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 193; Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 3:74-75; Leprun, Le Théâtre des colonies, 138. [BACK]

37. Delort de Gleon, La Rue du Caire à l'Exposition universelle de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 9. [BACK]

38. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 193; Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 3:74-75. [BACK]

39. Gleon, La Rue du Caire, 9. [BACK]

40. Gleon, 7. [BACK]

41. Gleon, 11. [BACK]

42. Gleon, 10. [BACK]

43. Gleon, 11. [BACK]

44. Gleon, 10. This is an early instance of a Western art collector's obsession with saving non-Western art that is not valued by the indigenous—a phenomenon James Clifford calls salvage paradigm. See Hal Foster, ed., Discussions in Contemporary Culture, 121-130. [BACK]

45. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'exposition de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 65. [BACK]

46. Muhammad Amin Fikri, Irshad al-alibba ila mahasin 'uruba (The guide to the virtues of Europe) (Cairo, 1892), quoted in Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge and New York, 1988), 1. [BACK]

47. G. Lenôtre, Voyage merveilleux à l'exposition de 1889 (Paris, 1889), 11 (quoted in Louca, Voyageurs et ecrivains, 193). [BACK]

48. Emile Godeau, "Promenade à la rue du Caire," in Revue de l'Exposition universelle de 1889, 1:155. [BACK]

49. Quoted in Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt, 2. [BACK]

50. Gilmore-Holt, Elizabeth, ed., The Expanding World of Art, 1874-1902 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1988), 69. [BACK]

51. Léon Dussert, "Le Palais algérien," in Revue de l'Exposition universelle de 1889, 1:206. [BACK]

52. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:139-140. [BACK]

53. Quoted in Rydell, All the World's a Fair, 65. [BACK]

54. Rydell, 62. [BACK]

55. World's Fair (Chicago, 1893), 3. [BACK]

56. Chicago Tribune, 7 May 1893. [BACK]

57. The Vanishing White City, caption. [BACK]

58. Chicago Tribune, 28 May 1893. [BACK]

59. Chicago Tribune, 5 April 1893. [BACK]

60. Chicago Tribune, 28 May 1893. [BACK]

61. Johnson Rossiter, ed., A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (New York, 1897), 1:505-506. [BACK]

62. The Vanishing White City, caption. [BACK]

63. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 16 January 1893. [BACK]

64. The Vanishing White City, caption. [BACK]

65. The Vanishing White City, caption. [BACK]

66. The location of the colonial displays was much debated in 1900. It was argued that since France's overseas possessions had increased considerably since the previous exposition in 1889, the area reserved for the colonies in the Trocadéro Park was insufficient. One editorial proposed the Tuileries gardens for part of the colonial exhibition, linking the colonial displays to the future of French colonialism: "It is crucial to startle the Metropolitans by introducing them to the products and resources . . . that our colonies offer them . . . to evoke in their hearts the firm desire to exploit . . . all these riches." See S. Arnaud, "Projet d'exposition coloniale en 1900," L'Exposition des colonies, 1 December 1897, 7. [BACK]

67. A. Quantin, Exposition du siècle (Paris, 1900), 165. [BACK]

68. Leprun, Le Théâtre des colonies, 148-149. [BACK]

69. L'Illustration, 20 September 1900; G. de Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900 (Paris, 1900), no. 16:18. [BACK]

70. G. Moynet, "L'Exposition tunisienne," L'Exposition de Paris, 2:279-280. [BACK]

71. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900. [BACK]

72. L'Illustration, 15 September 1900. [BACK]

73. Norma Evenson, Paris: A Century of Change, 1878-1978 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1979), 136-138. [BACK]

1. A French journalist's remarks on the Ottoman residential pavilion in the 1867 exhibition suggest Western fantasies about Muslim home life. After describing the main room of the Pavillon du Bosphore (to be discussed later), the journalist added: "Here the contemplative Muslim enjoys his kief, allowing hours to pass smoking his chibouk or the narghile and drinking coffee, letting his gaze wander from the vault ornamented with arabesques to the golden latticework to the brightly colored glasswork" (Saint-Félix, "Les Installations d'Orient dans le parc," in L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 38). [BACK]

2. On Parvillée, see Beatrice St. Laurent, "Léon Parvillée: His Role as Restorer of Bursa's Monuments and His Contribution to the Exposition Universelle of 1867," in H. Batu and J.-L. Bacque-Grammont eds., L'Empire ottomane, la république de Turquie, et la France (Istanbul, 1986), 247-282. [BACK]

3. Léon Parvillée, Architecture et décoration turques (Paris, 1874), ii. [BACK]

4. Parvillée, 2. [BACK]

5. Parvillée, iii-iv. [BACK]

6. Quoted in Michael Darby, The Islamic Perspective (London, 1983), 62. [BACK]

7. Anatole de Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," Gazette des architectes et du bátiment (special issue), Paris, 1867. Baudot was a leading rationalist architect and a former student of Viollet-le-Duc. Among his buildings in Paris is St. Jean de Montmartre, a pioneer building whose structural members are of exposed reinforced concrete. [BACK]

8. Baudot, 260. [BACK]

9. Perhaps the only exception is Celal Esad, who in 1907 called for a careful documentation of Ottoman monuments, which were to be studied for their underlying "principles"—a reference to Viollet-le-Duc's thought. See Celal Esad, "Osmanli mimarisi," Ikdam, 3 January 1907. [BACK]

10. Théophile Gautier, L'Orient (Paris, 1902), 2:88. [BACK]

11. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 165. [BACK]

12. References are to Çinili Kösk (1472) in the Topkapi Palace gardens and Köprülü Amcazade Hüseyin Pasa Yalisi (1698) in Kanlica on the Bosphorus. [BACK]

13. Saint-Félix, "Les installations d'Orient dans le parc," 38. [BACK]

14. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 268. [BACK]

15. Saint-Félix, "Les Installations d'Orient dans le parc," 38. [BACK]

16. The only other example of a bath in an exposition setting was in Vienna in 1873. See Basiret no. 779, 14 Ramazan 1289 (15 November 1872). [BACK]

17. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 268-269. [BACK]

18. L'Esposizione universale di Viena, no. 2:11; no. 10:74; no. 19:145. [BACK]

19. Basiret, no. 779, 14 Ramazan 1289 (15 November 1872). [BACK]

20. The Dream City: A Portfolio of Photographic Views from the World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), caption. [BACK]

21. David Burg, Chicago's White City of 1893 (Lexington, Ky., c. 1976); The Dream City, caption. As David Gebhard has pointed out, this pavilion inspired Frank Lloyd Wright, whose Winslow House in River Forest, Illinois, designed in 1893 and completed in 1894, showed striking similarities to the Ottoman building: it too had an overhanging roof, a band of windows, and terra-cotta ornament under the eaves. Gebhard has traced other parallels between Wright's early houses and the Ottoman pavilion, for example in the skylight of his own house (1895) in Oak Park, Illinois (which also repeated the pattern of squares on the exterior facades of the Ottoman building) and in the hipped roof, terra-cotta band, and arched openings of the Isidore Heller House and in the Joseph Husser House (1899), both in Chicago. Indeed, the overhanging roof and the band of terra-cotta with windows right under the roof became features of his Prairie Houses. See David Gebhard, "A Note on the Chicago Fair of 1893 and Frank Lloyd Wright," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 18, no. 2 (May 1959): 63-65. [BACK]

22. Le Figaro, 16 May 1900. [BACK]

23. The Parisian Dream City (St. Louis, Mo., 1900), caption. [BACK]

24. Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 9. [BACK]

25. Le Figaro, 16 May 1900; George Riat, La Rue des nations (Paris, 1901), 4. [BACK]

26. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 8:42. [BACK]

27. Edmond, L'Egypt à l'Exposition, 177. [BACK]

28. Edmond, 179-180. [BACK]

29. L'Illustration, 22 July 1867. [BACK]

30. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 190-191. [BACK]

31. L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 55. [BACK]

32. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 196; Alfred Normand also saw the careful

      study of decorative patterns, which ''highlight further the brilliance of precious materials," as a typical feature of Arab monumental architecture. See Norman, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, 7. [BACK]

33. Edmond, 214-215. [BACK]

34. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 101. [BACK]

35. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 271. [BACK]

36. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 184; Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 97. [BACK]

37. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 98. [BACK]

38. L'Illustration, 29 June 1867 and 27 July 1867. [BACK]

39. The Illustrated London News, 3 August 1867. [BACK]

40. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiositiés de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:98-99; Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 99. [BACK]

41. Baudot, "Exposition universelle de 1867," 274. [BACK]

42. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 11. [BACK]

43. Mariette, Description du Parc égyptien, 11-12. [BACK]

44. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 18. [BACK]

45. Edmond, 91-92. [BACK]

46. Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:92. [BACK]

47. L'Illustration, 31 August 1878; Clovis Lamarre and Charles Fliniaux, L'Egypte, la Tunisie, le Maroc à l'exposition de 1878 (Paris, 1878), 134-136. [BACK]

48. Mariette, La Galerie de l'Egypte ancienne, 1. [BACK]

49. Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains, 190-191. [BACK]

50. Chicago Tribune, 16 May 1893. [BACK]

51. Le Figaro, 17 June 1900; Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 198. [BACK]

52. L'Exposition de Paris, 3:6. [BACK]

53. C. Perrouchot, "L'Exposition universelle de 1867, le parc étranger," L'Illustration, 9 March 1867. [BACK]

54. Livre Chaix, guide du visiteur à l'Exposition universelle de 1878, 98, quoted in Le Livre des expositions universelles, 1851-1989 (Paris, 1983), 291. [BACK]

55. S. de Vendières, L'Exposition universelle de 1878 illustrée (Paris, 1879), 15. [BACK]

56. L'Exposition de Paris, 2:215. [BACK]

57. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 11:78. [BACK]

58. Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 154. [BACK]

59. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 11:79. [BACK]

60. L'Illustration, 16 June 1900; Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 155. The text of the inscription read:

The government of His Highness the Shah erected this pavilion in honor of the 1900 Universal Exposition. The palaces it contains will call to

mind the art of lost centuries as well as testifying to the progress of the present one. The whole world stands breathless with admiration before the gigantic work to which France gathered all the nations by a gracious act of hospitality. If the Persian pavilion displays only a small portion of the products of Persia, it bears in itself a precious treasury: the warm wishes that she [Persia] has for the prosperity and glory of France. The poet Zaka el Molk was happy to write these lines in Teheran and sign them in honor of this beautiful city of Paris, the land which nourishes all sciences and all arts. [BACK]

61. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. II:79. Islamic architecture is distinguished by the use of inscriptions on wall surfaces and details. See Oleg Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1973), 208-209. [BACK]

62. Van Millingen used this phrase in reference to the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. See A. van Millingen, Constantinople (London, 1906), 205. [BACK]

63. L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 411-412. [BACK]

64. Normand, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, 9. [BACK]

65. L'Illustration, 9 March 1867; Normand, 12-14; A. Chirac, "Le Palais du bey," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 39-42; Hippolyte Gautier, Les Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:51-53. [BACK]

66. Lamarre and Fliniaux, L'Egypte, la Tunisie, le Moroc, 54. [BACK]

67. L'Illustration, 3 August 1878. [BACK]

68. C. Perrouchot, "L'Exposition universelle de 1867, le parc étranger," L'Illustration, 9 March 1867. [BACK]

69. Normand, L'Architecture des nations étrangères, 14. [BACK]

70. L'Illustration, 3 August 1878. [BACK]

71. Lamarre and Fliniaux, L'Egypte, la Tunisie, le Moroc, 62-63. [BACK]

72. Dr. A. Warner, "L'Exposition de l'Algérie, trophée de la colonie," L'Exposition universelle de 1867 illustrée, 182-183. [BACK]

73. Vendières, L'Exposition universelle de 1878 illustrée, 15. [BACK]

74. L'IIlustration, 10 August 1878. [BACK]

75. L'Illustration, 26 October 1878. [BACK]

76. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:224. [BACK]

77. Paris illustrée (1889): 449. [BACK]

78. Quantin, Exposition du siècle, 165. [BACK]

79. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 16:16. [BACK]

80. The emphasis on wines indicates how the French changed the agricultural patterns of the Algerian countryside by substituting grapes for cereals. [BACK]

81. Gustave Regelsperger, "L'Exposition coloniale, le pavillon d'Algérie," in L'Exposition de Paris, 3:193. [BACK]

82. L'Illustration, 29 September 1900. [BACK]

83. Monod, L'Exposition universelle de 1889, 2:244. [BACK]

84. G. Moynet, "L'Exposition tunisienne," in L'Exposition de Paris, 2:280. [BACK]

85. Because non-Muslims were not allowed to enter mosques, Saladin, in designing the interior, had to rely on photographs taken by an Arab. He did measure the exterior of the building himself, however. See G. Moynet, "L'Exposition tunisienne," in L'Exposition de Paris, 2:279. [BACK]

86. L'Illustration, 15 September 1900. [BACK]

87. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900. [BACK]

88. Le Figaro, 19 May 1900. [BACK]

89. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 8:46. [BACK]

90. Louis Hautecoeur, L'Architecture classique en France (Paris, 1957), 7:384. [BACK]

91. Le Figaro, 16 May 1900. [BACK]

92. Saladin's publications include Voyage en Tunisie, Géographie de la Tunisie, Rapport sur deux missions archéologiques, Monographe sur la Mosquée Sidi Okta à Kairouen, and Histoire d'architecture musulmane. See E. Delaire, Les Architectes élèves de l'École des Beaux-Arts, 2d ed. (Paris, 1907), 378. [BACK]

93. Jacques Brévet architecte, 1832-1900 (Paris, n. d.), 8. [BACK]

94. Jacques Brévet, 55. [BACK]

95. Delaire, Les Achitectes, 245. [BACK]

96. Albert Ballu wrote extensively on the antiquities of the region. Among his books are Guide de Timgad (1897), Les Ruines de Timgad (1897-1903), Les Ruines de Timgad, sept années de découvertes (1911), and Les Monuments antiques de l'Algérie (1894). [BACK]

97. Pierre Courthion, "L'Architecture à l'exposition coloniale," Art et décoration 55 (July-December 1931): 37. [BACK]

98. Rabinow, French Modern, 46. [BACK]

99. César Daly, "Discours prononcé au nom des anciens élèves de Félix Duban," Funerailles de Félix Duban, ed. César Daly (Paris, 1871), 33; quoted in Neil Levine, "The Romantic Idea of Architectural Legibility: Henri Labrouste and the Neo-Grec," in The Architecture of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, ed. Arthur Drexler (New York, 1977), 328; quoted in Rabinow, 46. [BACK]

100. The terms are Paul Ricoeur's in History and Truth, trans. C. A. Kelbley (Evanston, Ill., 1965), 271-284. [BACK]

101. Hippolyte Gautier, Leo Curiosités de l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 2:86. [BACK]

102. Another aspect of this redefinition was the shift from Turkish to Arabic in official documents. The last treaty between France and Tunis to be written in Turkish dates from 1824. See Brown, The Surest Path, 15. [BACK]

103. Edmond, L'Egypte à l'Exposition, 178. [BACK]

104. I am thinking of the questions Edward Said asked in the last pages of Orientalism (325-326):

How does one represent another culture? What is another culture? Is the notion of a distinct culture (or race, or religion, or civilization) a useful one, or does it always get involved either in self-congratulation (when one discusses one's own) or hostility and aggression (when one discusses the "other")? Do cultural, religious, and racial differences matter more than socio-economic categories, or politicohistorical ones? How do ideas acquire authority, "normality," and even the status of "natural" truth? [BACK]

1. The analogy to international expositions has been made earlier by Timothy Mitchell in Colonizing Egypt, 17. [BACK]

2. Rifat Önsoy, "Osmanli Imparatorlugu'nun katildigi ilk uluslararasi sergiler ve Sergi-i Umumi-i Osmani (1863 Istanbul Sergisi)" (First international expositions participated in by the Ottoman Empire and the General Ottoman Exposition), Belleten 47, no. 185 (January 1983): 208; Ruzname-i ceride-i havadis (Daily journal of news), 4 Recep 1279 (25 December 1862). [BACK]

3. Ruzname-i ceride-i havadis, 5 Cemazielahir 1279 (28 November 1862). [BACK]

4. Önsoy, "Ilk uluslararasi sergiler," 209. [BACK]

5. Önsoy, "Ilk uluslararasi sergiler," 210. [BACK]

6. Osman Nuri [Ergin], Mecelle-i umur-u belediye, 1:738; Salaheddin Bey, La Turquie à l'Exposition universelle, 26. [BACK]

7. Önsoy, "Ilk uluslararasi sergiler," 210. [BACK]

8. Salaheddin Bey, La Turquie à l'Exposition universelle, 27. The Egyptian obelisk, dating from the sixteenth century B.C., and the Serpent Column from the fifth century B.C. were placed on the Hippodrome in the fourth century A.D. [BACK]

9. Önsoy, "Ilk uluslararasi sergiler," 231-234. [BACK]

10. Basbakanlik Arsivi, Irade, Dahiliye, no. 37141. [BACK]

11. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 6 March 1893. [BACK]

12. Düstur (Ankara, 1939), 6:1435; The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 4 September 1893. [BACK]

13. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 27 March 1893. [BACK]

14. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 4 September 1893. [BACK]

15. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 27 March 1893. [BACK]

16. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 29 May 1893. [BACK]

17. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 27 March 1893. [BACK]

18. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 4 September 1893. [BACK]

19. Basbakanlik Arsivi, Yildiz, Kisim 31, Evrak 1933, Zarf 45, Kutu 82, 19 Sefer 1311 (1 September 1893). [BACK]

20. D'Aronco Architetto (Milan, 1982), 56. [BACK]

21. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 11 September 1893. [BACK]

22. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 18 September 1893. [BACK]

23. The Levant Herald and Eastern Express, 12 March 1894. [BACK]

24. Florian Pharaon, Le Caire et la haute Egypte (Paris, 1872), 1. [BACK]

25. On Saint-Simonists and Egypt, see Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et rénaissance nationale, 189-198. [BACK]

26. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt, 17. [BACK]

27. Quoted in Ahmed Chafik Pasha, L'Egypte moderne et les influences étrangères (Cairo, 1931), 43. [BACK]

28. Telegram from the khedive to Nubar Pasha, 2 August 1869, quoted in Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de l'Egypte moderne (Cairo, 1937), 3:193. [BACK]

29. President Grant of the United States was invited but declined because of obligations at home. [BACK]

30. G. Douin, Histoire du rèegne du khédive Ismail, 2:436-438. [BACK]

31. Quoted in Douin, 439. [BACK]

32. Douin, 449. [BACK]

33. Douin, 460. [BACK]

34. Quoted in Douin, 435. [BACK]

35. Douin, 435. [BACK]

36. The Illustrated London News, 11 December 1869. [BACK]

37. Douin, Histoire du règne, 461-465. [BACK]

38. Pharaon, Le Caire et la haute Egypte, 45. [BACK]

39. Pharaon, 45-46. [BACK]

40. Quoted in Douin, Histoire du négne, 453. [BACK]

41. Pharaon, Le Caire et la haute Egypte, 46. [BACK]

42. The Illustrated London News, 11 December 1869. [BACK]

43. Charles Blanc, Voyage de la haute Egypte (Paris, 1876), 346, quoted in Douin, Histoire du régne, 461. [BACK]

44. Douin, Histoire du régne, 461-462 and 465. [BACK]

45. Douin, 462 and 465; The Illustrated London News, 1 December 1869, 598; Pharaon, Le Caire et la haute Egypte, 47. [BACK]

46. Pharaon, Le Caire et la haute Egypte, 49. The opera in Cairo was inaugurated at this time. Isma'il Pasha had asked Verdi to write a special opera for the occasion, but Verdi turned him down. A year later, however, he accepted the com-

      mission and composed Aida, collaborating with the Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, the commissioner of the 1867 exposition for Egypt. The Temple of Philae, which had served as the model for one of the Egyptian pavilions in 1867, also was incorporated into the first scene that Mariette designed for Aida . See Edward Said, "The Imperial Spectacle," Grand Street (Winter 1987): 82-104. [BACK]

47. Nil, 7 October 1869, quoted in Douin, Histoire du régne, 470. [BACK]

1. Gülru Necipoglu-Kafadar, "Plans and Models in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Architectural Practice," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 45, no. 3 (September 1986): 224-243. [BACK]

2. One of the early examples demonstrating Western architects' interest in Islamic buildings is J. B. Fisher von Erlach's Entwurff einer historischen Architectur (1725). Numerous other drawings by European architects followed, among them the work of Napoleon's army of savants, published in the Description de l'Egypte; Lewis Vulliamy (1810s); Pascal Xavier Coste (1830s); F. V. J. Arundale (1830s); C. F. M. Texier (1830s and 1840s); and Owen Jones (1840s-1870s). For a selective survey of British architects who studied Islamic architecture and were influenced by it, see Darby, The Islamic Perspective . [BACK]

3. Leon Parvillée's Architecture et décoration turques and Jules Bourgoin's Les Arts arabes (Paris, 1873) are the outstanding examples of this viewpoint. Working with detail drawings, both authors analyzed the geometric principles of ornament. Parvillée was less systematic and persistent, whereas Bourgoin undertook a classification of the rules of ornamental designs. [BACK]

4. The premise of "theory" in Islamic architecture was denied by architectural historians until recently. Because research on the topic, led by the Soviet scholars N. B. Baklanov and M. S. Bulatov and in this country by Lisa Golombek, Oleg Grabar, Renata Holod, and Gülru Necipoglu-Kafadar, is in an early stage, it does not lend itself to conclusions. As Holod has argued in Theories and Principles of Design in the Architecture of Islamic Societies (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), looking for an Islamic architectural theory that corresponds, for example, to Roman and Renaissance theories is not appropriate; a new set of criteria might be necessary. [BACK]

5. Dogan Kuban, "Sinan," Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architecture (New York, 1982), 4:71. [BACK]

6. Cafer Efendi, Risale-i Mimariyye: An Early Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Treatise on Architecture, facsimile with translation and notes by Howard Crane (Leiden and New York, 1987), 59-20 and 26. [BACK]

7. Necipoglu-Kafadar, "Plans and Models," 242. [BACK]

8. This practice was not unusual in late nineteenth-century Westerns architecture, which welcomed any stylistic addition to its repertoire. See, for example, J. Guadet, Eléments et théorie de l'architecture (Paris, 1894). [BACK]

9. Robert Ilbert and Mercedes Volait, "Neo-Arabic Renaissance in Egypt," Mimar, no. 13 (1984): 33. Delort de Gleon's Rue du Caire in the 1889 Paris exposition should be understood in this context. As a correction to the rapidly changing local architecture, Gleon had proposed an "authentic" street, unaffected by modernization. See La Rue du Caire, chapter 2. [BACK]

10. Ilbert and Volait, 26. [BACK]

11. Frantz Bey, quoted in Ilbert and Volait, 30. [BACK]

12. Ilbert and Volait, 33-34. [BACK]

13. François Béguin, Arabisances (Paris, 1983), 20. [BACK]

14. J. J. Deluz, L'Urbanisme et l'architecture d'Alger (Algiers, 1988), 10-11. The ruthlessness of the process, which extended from palaces to religious monuments, was expressed in an Algerian song:

O regrets for Algiers, for its palaces.

And for its forts which were so beautiful!

O regrets for its mosques, for the prayers prayed there,

And for their marble pulpits,

From which the lightning flashes of the faith came.

O regrets for its minarets, for the songs sung from them,

For its  talbas,  for its schools, and for those who read the Qur'an!

O regrets for its  zaviyas,  whose doors were closed.

. . .

They have broken down the walls of the  janissaries'  barracks,

They have taken away the marble, the balustrades, and the benches:

And the iron grills which adorned its windows

Have been torn away to add insult to our misfortunes.

. . .

Al-Qaisariya has been named Plaza

And to think that holy books were sold and bound there.

They have rummaged through the tombs of our fathers,

And they have scattered their bones

To allow their wagons to go over them.

Their horses tied in our mosques . . .

      Quoted in A. A. Heggoy, The French Conquest of Algiers, 1830, in Algerian Oral Tradition (Athens, Ohio), 1986, 22-23. [BACK]

15. Deluz, L'Urbanisme et l'architecture d'Alger, 28-32. [BACK]

16. Lyautey, quoted in Béguin, Arabisances, 20; Rabinow, French Modern, 311. [BACK]

17. Rabinow, 312. "Simple contours and facades" are Marshal Lyautey's words, quoted in Rabinow. [BACK]

18. Darby, The Islamic Perspective, 61-62. [BACK]

19. Owen Jones, "Gleanings from the Great Exhibition of 1851," Journal of Design and Manufactures (June 1851), quoted in Darby, 102. [BACK]

20. Owen Jones, The Grammar of Ornament (London, 1856), 1. [BACK]

21. Jones's monumental monograph on this palace was published in the 1840s. See: Owen Jones, Plans, Elevations, Sections, and the Details of the Alhambra (London, 1842-46). [BACK]

22. Darby, The Islamic Perspective, 105. [BACK]

23. Owen Jones's work was introduced to French architects by César Daly in a series of articles in 1844-1845: César Daly, "L'Alhambra," Revue de l'architecture et des travaux publics 5 (1844): 97-105 and 529-538, and 6 (1845): 7-14. [BACK]

24. Clay Lancaster, "Oriental Forms in American Architecture, 1800-1870," The Art Bulletin 29, no. 3 (September 1947): 183-193; G. S. Bernstein, In Pursuit of the Exotic: Islamic Forms in Nineteenth-Century American Architecture, Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1968, 88-151. [BACK]

25. James O'Gorman, The Architecture of Frank Furness (Philadelphia, 1973), 41. [BACK]

26. William A. Coles, "Richard Morris Hunt and His Library as Revealed in the Studio Sketchbooks of Henry Van Brunt," Art Quarterly 30 (Fall-Winter 1967): 227-228 and 236 n. 10. [BACK]

27. Henry Van Brunt, "Cast Iron in Decorative Architecture," The Crayon 6 (1859): 20. [BACK]

28. O'Gorman, The Architecture of Frank Furness, 36-37. [BACK]

29. This building was demolished in 1935 to be replaced by a new Trocadéro Palace for the 1937 International Exposition, designed by Jacques Carlu, Louis-Hippolyte Boileau, and Léon Azéma. [BACK]

30. M. B. E., "Social Aspects of the Paris Exhibition," Fraser's, August 1878, 209-210, quoted in Elizabeth Gilmore-Holt, ed., The Expanding World of Art, 1874-1902 (New Haven, Conn., and London, 1988), 19. [BACK]

31. Reports of the United States Commissioners 2:151. [BACK]

32. Paul Sédille, quoted in Louis Hautecoeur, Paris (Paris, 1972), 2:557. [BACK]

33. Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, "Les Bâtiments de l'Exposition universelle de 1878: Le Palais de Trocadéro," L'Art 14 (1878): 195-198, quoted in Gilmore-Holt, 24. [BACK]

34. M. B. E., "Social Aspects of the Paris Exhibition," quoted in Gilmore-Holt, 19. [BACK]

35. David Van Zanten, in Wim De Wit, ed., Louis Sullivan: The Function of Ornament (New York and London, 1986), 106. [BACK]

36. Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan, "The Transportation Building," A Week at the Fair (Chicago, 1893), 47-48, quoted in Gilmore-Holt, 89. [BACK]

37. Adler and Sullivan, quoted in Gilmore-Holt, 88-89. [BACK]

38. The writings of Owen Jones helped to shape the intellectual foundations of Sullivan's architecture. Sullivan's understanding of ornament is similar to Jones's, and his repertoire borrows from Grammar of Ornament (the American edition was published in 1889). A more direct influence was Frank Furness, for whom Sullivan had worked in 1873. Sullivan collected Islamic art objects—among them Persian rugs. See John Sweetman, The Oriental Obsession (Cambridge, London, New York, 1988), 237-241. Although there is no direct evidence that Sullivan's architecture was influenced by the Islamic pavilions, the possibility exists because Islamic architecture at the European fairs had already had an impact on European architectural theory and practice. Given Sullivan's interest in non-Western sources, it is reasonable to believe that he might have followed the discussions of the Islamic pavilions at the fairs while he was a student in Paris. [BACK]

39. The letter is quoted by David Van Zanten in DeWit, Louis Sullivan , 106-109. [BACK]

40. H. L. Sullivan, Kindergarten Chats and Other Writings (New York, 1947), 187-189. [BACK]

41. Mamluk architecture in Cairo, for example, has elaborate exterior facades. [BACK]

42. Schuyler, "Last Words about the World's Fairs," 271-301. [BACK]

43. Charles Mulford Robinson, "The Fair as Spectacle," in Johnson Rossiter, ed., A History of the World's Columbian Exposition (New York, 1897), 1:500. [BACK]

44. Dmitri Tselos, "The Chicago Fair and the Myth of the Lost Cause," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 26, no. 4 (December 1967): 264-265. [BACK]

45. Quoted by David Van Zanten in De Wit, Louis Sullivan, 106-109. [BACK]

46. Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: A Critical History (New York, 1980), 56. For Sullivan's "view of the democratic vista," see Louis Sullivan, The Autobiography of an Idea (New York, 1922), 260-284. [BACK]

47. Wailly, A travers l'exposition de 1900, no. 7:51. [BACK]

48. Wailly, no. 7:52. [BACK]

49. Wailly, no. 7:51. [BACK]

50. Wailly, no. 7:54. [BACK]

51. Wailly, no. 7:57. There are strong parallels between the Palace of Electricity and the Porte Binet, the main entryway to the 1900 exposition. Designed by architect René Binet, this entryway was composed of a dome with arches, framed by two minarets. For a discussion of this structure, see Debora Silver-

      man, Art Nouveau in Fin-de-Siècle France (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989), 288-293. [BACK]

52. Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art, 210-211. [BACK]

53. Donald Martin Reynolds, ed., Selected Lectures of Rudolf Wittkower: The Impact of Non-European Civilizations on the Art of the West (Cambridge and New York, 1989), 2. [BACK]