INDEX
A
Administrative Conference of the United States, 211 , 220 , 244 n.12
Administrative costs, 194 -96
Administrative procedures: of ANSI, 97 -98, 261 n.19
and the "balance" of interests, 10 -11, 15 , 125 , 176 -78, 213 -16
and notice and comment requirements, 213 -14, 216 -18
of public versus private sectors, 212 -18
and quickness of rulemaking by FAA, 66 , 86
and time-consuming nature of rulemaking, 63 , 204.
See also Administrative Procedures Act; Consensus decisionmaking
Administrative Procedures Act (APA), 30 , 211 -12, 216 , 244 n.11
Allied Tube and Conduit Corp. v. Indian Head,189 , 233
American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 25 , 26 , 137
American Gas Association (AGA): as creation of a trade association, 124
Gas Appliance Information Network (GAIN), 198
as secretariat of ANSI gas standards, 126
split between staff and members of, 178
varied interests of members of, 130 .
See also American Gas Association Laboratories
American Gas Association Laboratories (AGA Labs), 25 , 26 , 36 , 124 , 126
gas space heaters, standard for, 125 -33
procedures for developing standards, 266 n.12
"review and comment" texts, 126
warning labels, disfavored by, 128 .
See also American Gas Association; Gas space heaters
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 7, 25 , 26
Board of Standards Review, 15 , 98 -99, 126
procedures for certifying standards, 97 -98, 261 n.19
safe work practices task group, 156
Standards Action,98 , 126 , 213
standards affecting the public interest, 22 -23.
See also Consensus decisionmaking
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 7 , 15 , 24 , 25 , 27
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 7 , 12 , 25 , 26 -27
American Society of Mechanical Engineers v. Hydrolevel Corp.,188 -89, 246 n.35, 248 n.8
Antitrust cases: Allied Tube and Conduit Corp. v. Indian Head,189 , 233
American Society of Mechanical Engineers v. Hydrolevel Corp.,188 -89, 246 n.35, 248 n.8
Radiant Burners v. Peoples Gas,188
Antitrust law: as constraint on private standards, 6 , 187 -90
reform, proposals to, 232 -34
and standardization, 12
Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM), 16 , 24 , 178 -79
Attorneys. See Lawyers
Aviation fire(s): Air Canada, 69 -71
FAA standard concerning, 67 -79
and household smoke detectors, 72 -74
NFPA standard concerning, 79 -85
Varig Airlines, 68 .
See also Aviation safety; Fire extinguishers, hand-held
Aviation safety: compared to other methods of transportation, 256 -57n.22
"no risk" approach to, 85
politics of, 186 -87
and rareness of accidents, 75 , 76 -77.
See also Aviation fire(s); Federal Aviation; Administration (FAA); National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
B
Bacow, Lawrence, 15
Banner, Adam Paul, petition to CPSC, 109 , 111 , 118
Bardach, Eugene, 205
Benefit-cost analysis. See Cost-benefit analysis
Blau, Peter, 12 -13
Board of Standards Review, ANSI, 15 , 98 -99, 126
Braeutigam, Ronald, 15
Brand, Donald, 13
Breyer, Stephen, 219
Building code(s): organizations, 22 , 25 , 27 -28, 236
requirements of, 9 , 94 , 108 , 124
C
Capture theory, 9 , 11 -12, 212
limits on application to private sector, 40 , 175 -80, 186
Case studies: and normative classification of outcomes, 170 -73
and "overlap" problem, 32 , 150 , 173 -74, 179 -80
selection of, 31 -35
Case studies, summary evaluations: aviation fire safety, 85 -88
gas space heaters, 143 -45
grain elevators, 63 -64
woodstoves, 117 -19
Chubb, John, 8
Civil Aeronautics Board, 11 , 80
Cohen, David, 150
Comparative institutional advantages, private versus public standards-setting, 17 -20, 193 -207, 226 -30
Comparative safety information, 136 , 229 -30
Compliance: CPSC's difficulties with, in woodstove case, 108 -9
with private standards, forces compelling, 9 , 28 , 94 , 108 , 124
with private standards, misconceptions about, 78 , 114 -16, 163 , 224 -25
and product testing, 183 -84
as rationale for public standards, 224 -25
See also Cost-benefit analysis; Professional ethics; Third-party certification
Comprehensive rationality. See Cost-benefit analysis
Consensus decisionmaking, 17 , 24 -25
and actual outcomes, 214 -16
and canvassing by UL, 97 -99
as "lowest common denominator," 9 , 11 , 24 -25, 176 -77.
See also Administrative procedures
Consumer misuse. See Misuse, consumer
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), 29 -31, 263 n.44
gas space heaters, standard for, 133 -43
judicial review of, 117 , 190 -91
national injury estimates of, 112 -13, 199 -200, 259 n.4
poor reputation of, 34
private standards-setters, interactions with, 8 , 31 , 89 , 223 -24
regulatory philosophy of, 138 -40, 150 -52
and turnover of commissioners, 110
woodstoves, standard for labeling, 109 -17.
See also specific subject areas of CPSC standards
Consumer's Union, 105 , 151 , 176
Cost-benefit analysis: by CPSC, in woodstove proceedings, 113 -14
differences in public and private approaches to, 165 -67, 218 -20
difficulties in using, 171
by FAA, in fire safety proceedings, 76 -78, 187
and "intuition," 166
mandated by statute, 275 n.4
by OSHA, in grain elevator proceedings, 59 -60
proposal to promote, in private sector, 218
reluctance of NFPA to utilize, 219
UL's single effort at, 274 n.3, 277 n.27
D
Decisional costs, of private and public standards-setting, 194 -96
Delegation of authority: and The End of Liberalism (Lowi), 11 , 13 -14
by FAA, to private sector, 67 -68
through adoption of test methods, 114
through codification of accepted business practices, 102 , 155 -56, 183
Deregulation, 4
Design standards: avoidance of, 47 -48
favored by UL, 101 -2
and regulatory philosophy, 153 , 155 -56
"Desk standards." See Underwriters Laboratories (UL): "desk standards" of
Dietz, Thomas, 159
Disclosure: of comparative safety information, 229 -30
minimal impact of, 114
and regulatory philosophy, 156 -57
and warnings, 48 , 97 , 111 , 127 -28
Diver, Colin, 218
Downs, Anthony, 184
Dust control. See Grain elevators
E
Eads, George, 9 , 11 , 31 , 176 , 199 , 231
Economic theory of regulation. See Capture theory
End of Liberalism, The (Lowi), 11
Engineering judgment. See Engineers; Guesswork, educated
Engineers: education of, 236
as "human factors" specialists, 160
"loyal opposition" to, 235
and margins of safety, 82
in private sector, dominance of, 196
professional ethics of, 159 -62.
See also Professional ethics; Regulatory philosophy
Environment, health, and safety regulation. See Protective regulation
Evolution of standards, comparison of public and private sectors, 202 -5
F
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM), 7, 22 -23
and hand-held fire extinguishers, 74 , 84
"False sense of security," arguments invoking, 253 n.49, 271 n.2
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA): advisory circulars, use of, 67 , 69
airplane cabin protection rule, 70 -79
as Congress's scapegoat, 72
delegation to private sector, through engineers, 67 -68
lack of technical knowledge, 86
quickness of rulemaking, 66 , 86
Regulatory Analysis Group, 76 -77
rush to regulate, 86 .
See also Aviation fire(s)
Aviation safety
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), efforts to regulate private standards, 6 , 8 , 10 , 247 n.5
Fieldwork, notes on, 35 -36
Financial Accounting Standards Board, 22
Fire extinguishers, hand-held: flexible nozzles, effectiveness of, 74 , 83
Halon, advantages of, 68 -69, 72 -74, 82
NFPA position on Halon, 82 -83
UL standards for, 74 , 84 , 87 .
See also Aviation fire(s)
Aviation safety
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM)
Florman, Samuel, 161
Forestalling government regulation, 179 -80
G
Garvin, David, 179
Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association (GAMA):
arguments cast in technical terms, 151
petition to revoke CPSC standard, 141 -42
Gas space heaters, 121 -22
and carbon monoxide poisoning, 123 -24
chronic health effects of, 140
consumer misuse of, 151 -52
injuries caused by, 123 -24
legal prohibitions of, 129 -30
and National Fuel Gas Code, 131 , 185
oxygen depletion sensor (ODS) for, 134 -40
safety standards for, 120 -45.
See also American Gas Association Laboratories (AGA Labs)
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)
Government agencies. See Public standards-setting organizations
names of specific government agencies
Grain dust. See Grain elevators
Grain elevators: "action level" for housekeeping, in OSHA standard, 57 -59
explosions in, 41 -42, 44 , 56
housekeeping strategies for, 45 -46, 48 -49
ignition-control strategies for, 42 -45
and lower explosive limit (LEL), 41 -42
National Academy of Sciences (NAS) studies of, 44 , 56 -57, 200
NFPA standard for, 46 -56
OSHA standard for, 56 -63
pneumatic dust-control in, 45 , 48 , 61
safety standards for, public and private, 39 -64
types of, 40 -41.
See also National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
National Grain and Feed Association (NGFA)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Guesswork, educated, 165
and
Guesswork, educated (continued)
judicial review, 191 -92
by NFPA, in aviation fire safety standard, 82
by NFPA, in grain elevator standard, 49
by OSHA, in grain elevator standard, 57 -59
by UL, in woodstove standard, 102 -4
H
Halon. See Fire extinguishers, hand-held
Harter, Philip, 231
Hemenway, David, 6 , 237 , 238
Hirschman, Albert, 8
Hopkins, Thomas, 77
Housekeeping. See Grain elevators
Hunt, Michael, 16
I
"Independent" organizations, 6 , 12 -13, 102 , 126
Indian Head. See Allied Tube and Conduit Corp. v. Indian Head
Industrywide Voluntary Product Standards (Hemenway), 6
Injuries, information about, 198 -200
in case studies, 46 , 106 , 112 -13, 123 , 133 -34
and "mythical numbers," 265 n.7
proposals for improving, 234 -35
Installation codes: as basis for test methods, 151 -52, 181 -82
requiring compliance with private standards, 9 , 94 , 108 , 124
tangled relationship to product standards, 36 , 83 -84, 87 , 99 , 104 , 131 , 236
Insurance companies: National Aircraft Underwriters' Association, 79
participation of, in standards-setting, 47 , 51
role of, in creating UL, 94
role of, in reducing risk, 46 , 80 , 236 -37, 272 n.7
Interaction of public and private standards, 31 , 36 , 89 , 140 , 170 , 227 -28, 230
and the "overlap" problem, 32 , 173 -74.
See also Installation codes; Standards policy
"Interest group model" of administrative law, 212 .
See also Administrative procedures
"Iron law of oligarchy." See Michels, Robert
J
Johnson, Leland, 218 , 275 n.5
Judicial review: as constraint on CPSC, 118 , 191 -92
of CPSC, 117 , 190 -91, 248 n.16
by Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission, 54
of OSHA grain elevator safety standard, 62 -63
K
Kagan, Robert, 205
Kelman, Steven, 16
Knowledge. See Injuries, information about
Research and development
Technical knowledge, advantages of, in private sector
Technical knowledge, lack of, in public sector
L
Labels. See Disclosure
Law. See Antitrust law; Judicial review; Liability law
Lawyers: dominance of, in public agencies, 162 , 196 -97
enforcement ethic of, 162 -63.
See also Professional ethics
Leone, Robert, 13
Liability law: effect on private standards, 50 , 108 , 144 -45, 183 , 190 -91, 199
and "liability-proof" standards, 50 , 53 -54
proposals to reform, 231 -32
Lindblom, Charles, 150
Literature, on standards-setting, 6 , 17
"Logic of collective action." See Olson, Mancur
Lowi, Theodore, 11 -12, 13 -14
M
McConnell, Grant, 10 , 11 , 12
Merrill, William, 94
Missouri Public Interest Research Group, petition to CPSC, 133
Misuse, consumer: difficulties in "testing for," 107 -8, 181 -83
of gas space heaters, 151 -52
of woodstoves, 104 -6.
See also Liability law; Professional ethics; Regulatory philosophy
Moe, Terry, 8
Mosher, Frederick, 158 -59
Mother Jones , 36
N
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), studies of grain elevator safety, 44 , 56 -57
National Bureau of Standards (NBS): budget of, 278 n.24
cost-benefit analysis by, 166
renamed National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 5 ,243 n.8
research by, 91 , 110 , 137 -38, 200 -201, 227 , 235
"scientific" perspective of, 160
survey of private standards, 5 , 7 , 21 , 25
National Electric Code, 28 , 55 , 166 , 184
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 7 , 25 , 28 , 80 , 177 , 244 n.12
accident investigations by, 199
aviation fire extinguishers, standard for, 79 -85
chimneys and venting, standard for, 104 -5
demand for standards of, 24 , 81 , 87 -88, 184 -85
explosion venting, standards for, 54 -55, 251 n.17
Federal Register notices about, 213
grain elevators, standard for, 46 -56
political and institutional forces affecting, 177 , 184 -86
relationship to UL, 83 -84
Standards Council, 81 , 214 , 273 nn.22, 29
time-consuming nature of proceedings, 194 -95.
See also Allied Tube and Conduit Corp. v. Indian Head
Installation codes; National Electric Code; National Fuel Gas Code; specific subject areas of NFPA standards
National Fuel Gas Code, 131 , 185
National Grain and Feed Association (NGFA), 48 , 52 , 58 -59, 168 , 186
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). See National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
National Recovery Act, 13
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), 67 -68
influence of, 186 -87, 234 -35
investigations, expansive approach to, 71 .
See also Aviation safety; Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
"Notice and comment" rulemaking. See Administrative procedures
O
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 29 -30, 35
adoption of private standards, 14
citations based on NFPA standard, 48 , 56
effect of explosions on, 56 -57, 61 -62
enforcement strategy, importance of, 58 -59, 63
and "general duty" clause, 56
grain elevator safety, standard for, 56 -63
political opposition to, 57 , 61
Office of Management and Budget (OMB): and Circular A-119, 6 , 8 , 174 , 224 , 224 n.10
lax review of FAA cabin protection standard, 79
opposition to OSHA grain elevator standard, 61 -63
Olson, Mancur,10 , 245 n.26, 272 n.6
"Orphan" drugs, 181
as analogy for standards policy, 228 -29
Owen, Bruce, 15
Oxygen Depletion Sensor (ODS). See Gas space heaters
P
Paternalism: aversion to, by private sector, 104 -6, 151
endorsement of, by CPSC, 150 -51
niche for public emphasis on, 226 -27.
See also Professional ethics; Regulatory philosophy
Private Power and American Government (McConnell), 10
Private standards, 5 -6
affecting public health and safety, 22 -23
appendixes to, 53 -54, 56 , 190
compliance with, 9 , 95 , 115 -16, 130 -31
conventional wisdom about, 8
CPSC "recognition" of, 8 , 245 n.15
evolution of, 202 -5
FTC proposal to regulate, 6 , 8 , 10 , 247 n.5
interaction with public standards, 33
as "lowest common denominator," 9 , 11 , 24 -25, 176 -77
OSHA adoption of, 14 , 246 nn.42, 43
as prohibitions, 153 -54
proposals to improve, 230 -39
pro-safety influences on, 177 -78
revisions of, 204 -5
and technology-forcing, 154 -55
uniform requirements of, 136
See also Private standards-setting organizations; Standards policy; specific subject areas of standards
Private standards-setting organizations: and aversion to comparative safety ratings, 229
"independent" nature of, 6 , 12 -13, 102 , 126
organizational interests of, 14 -17, 178 -79
profiles of prominent, 25 -28
research and development efforts of, 201
and trade associations, 23 , 33
types of, 23 -24.
See also names of specific standards-setting organizations
Problem definition, comparison of public and private approaches to, 150 -52.
See also Professional ethics; Regulatory philosophy
Product testing. See Third-party certification
Professional ethics: and "enforcement ethic" of lawyers, 162 -63, 224 -25
in the private sector, for promoting safety, 86 , 177 -78, 272 n.8
of "risk professionals," 159
and
Professional ethics (continued)
scientific" perspective, 160 .
See also Engineers; Lawyers; Regulatory philosophy
Protective regulation, 3 -5, 6 , 8 -11
capture theory, limitations of, 11 -17
and number of private compared to public standards, 30 -31
through private standards, 22 -23
through public standards, 29 -31
Public standards: administrative costs of, 194
conventional wisdom about, 3 -5, 6 , 8 -11
effective date of, 157 -58
evolution of, 202 -5
interaction with private standards, 33
niches for, 227 -30
number of, 29 -31
political pressure for, 56 , 71 -72, 85 , 110 , 134
as prohibitions, 153 -54
for technology-forcing, 154 -55.
See also Public standards-setting organizations; Standards policy; specific subject areas of standards
Public standards-setting organizations: approaches to setting standards, 205 -7, 226 -27
credibility problems of, 197 -98
influence of lawyers on, 162 -63
information systems of, 200 , 234 -35
organization of, on issue-by-issue basis, 180
participation in private standards-setting, 223 -24
and protective regulation, 29 -31
requirement to do cost-benefit analysis, 218 -20
research and development by, 201 -2
technical knowledge, lack of, 196 -98.
See also names of specific government agencies
R
Radiant Burners v. Peoples Gas,188
Regulation. See Protective regulation
Regulatory negotiation, 217
Regulatory philosophy: about acceptable solutions, 152 -58
and deference to managers, 155 -56
about disclosure and warnings, 48 , 127 -28, 156 -57
normative implications of, 169 -73
and problem definition, 150 -52
about prohibiting products, 131 , 153 -54
relationship to professional ethics, 158 -63
about technology-forcing, 154 -55.
See also Professional ethics
Research and development: comparison of private and public sector capacity for, 200 -202
by National Academy of Sciences, about grain elevators, 44 , 56 -57
by National Bureau of Standards, 91 , 110 , 137 , 200 -201, 227
by private sector, reluctance to engage in, 183
proposal to influence public, 234 -35
Retroactive effect of standards, 157 -58
disagreement about, in NFPA grain elevator proceedings, 47 , 51 -53, 64
Reuter, Peter, 9 , 31 , 176 , 199
Rhoads, Steven, 71
Rulemaking. See Administrative procedures
Rycroft, Robert, 159
S
Safety: degrees of, reluctance of private sector to evaluate, 136
difficulty in measuring improvements in, 106 , 132 -33
language of, 271 n.2
unlikely advocates of, in private sector, 177 -78.
See also Professional ethics; Regulatory philosophy; specific subject areas of safety standards
Salamon, Lester, 5
Scott, Richard, 12 -13
Simon, Herbert, 212
Social regulation. See Protective regulation
Society of Automotive Engineers, 5 , 7 , 23
Standards Action , ANSI, 98 , 126 , 213
Standards policy, 6 , 8 , 193 , 245 n.15, 277 n.1
Administrative Conference of the United States, recommendations concerning, 211 , 220 , 244 n.12
failures of, 223 -26.
See also Interaction of public and private standards
Standards-setting organizations. See Public standards-setting organizations; Private standards-setting organizations; names of specific organizations
Stewart, Richard, 212 , 248 n.10
Strictness: of NFPA grain elevator standard, 54 -55
and "patterns of preference" in public and private sectors, 165 -69
of potential public standards, difficulty in predicting, 179 -80
of public and private standards-setters, 171 -73, 205 -7
T
Technical knowledge, advantages of, in private sector, 86 -87, 196 -98
Technical knowledge, lack of, in public sector: aviation fire safety, 73 -75, 85 -86
gas space heaters, 133 -34
grain elevators, 56 -57
Technology-forcing, 154 -55, 226 -27
Testing laboratories. See Third-party certification
Third-party certification, 24
and accepted business practice, 183
business considerations in, 104 -5, 180 -84, 201
of gas space heaters, 124
by "nationally recognized" labs, 94 , 95 , 108 , 195
and test results, differences in, 105 -6, 262 n.34
of woodstoves, 103 -5, 108 -9.
See also American Gas Association Laboratories (AGA Labs); Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
Tort law. See Liability law
Trade associations. See Private standards-setting organizations
Transaction costs, of private and public standards-setting, 194 -96
U
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), 7 , 25 , 28 , 34
access to, 36
Aviation Department, 79
canvass process of, 97 -99
comments on FAA proposal, 72 -73
Consumer Advisory Council of, 98
"desk standards" of, 100 , 195 , 261 n.23
Fire Council of, 96 -97
fire extinguishers, standards for, 74 , 83 -84, 87
Internal Revenue Service, legal challenge by, 12 , 95
metal chimneys, standards for, 106 , 189 , 191 , 262 n.36
precedents, use of, 100 -101
"rationale" statements by, 97
regulatory philosophy of, 104 -6, 151
and relationship to ANSI, 97 -98, 178
reputation of, 34 , 248 -249n.18
Standards Department of, 99 , 157 , 218
study of terminal grain elevators by, 46 , 251 n.18
unpublished standards of, 100 -101
woodstoves, standards for, 95 -109.
See also Third-party certification; specific subject areas of UL standards
Underwriters Laboratories of Canada, 80 , 97 , 260 n.16
Unvented gas-fired space heaters. See Gas space heaters
Use codes. See Installation codes
V
Viscusi, W. Kip, 168
Voluntary standards. See Private standards
W
Warning labels. See Disclosure
Who Profits (Leone), 13
Wilensky, Harold, 196
Wilson, James Q., 4 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 158 , 175 , 185 -86
Wolf, Charles, 3
catalytic combustors for, 91
CPSC labeling standard for, 109 -17
creosote hazards from, 91 , 99 , 107 -8
and minimum clearance to combustibles, 91 -92, 103 , 111 , 114
and NFPA standard for chimneys and venting, 104
safety problems with, 92 -94
UL standard for, 94 -109
warning labels for, 97 , 111 , 114
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