1. See Kayalı, “Elections,” 273–77. [BACK]

2. Selahaddin, 40. [BACK]

3. HHS. PA 38/355. Pinter to Aehrenthal (Beirut, 10 January 1912). [BACK]

4. HHS. PA 38/354. Pinter to Berchtold (Beirut, 3 April 1912). [BACK]

5. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Bompard to MAE, no. 178 (20 March 1912). [BACK]

6. BBA. BEO 302292. The Ministry of the Interior to Grand Vizier (16 March 1912). [BACK]

7. PRO. FO 195/2415. Consul J. G. Lorimer to Lowther, fol. 296–304 (Baghdad, 6 March 1912). In contrast, the government encouraged tribes in Basra—presumably won over to the government cause—to register and considered sending delegations to the Peninsula to enable the tribes to participate. See Prätor, 19–20. [BACK]

8. For measures taken by the government to undermine the Liberal candidate for Sidon, Kamil Bey al-As‘ad, and to win him back to the Unionist camp, see HHS. PA 38/354 (see note 4). Similarly, for pressures exerted on the Liberal notable of Damascus, ‘Ata Pasha Bakri, see HHS. PA 38/355. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 24 April 1912). [BACK]

9. See Rashid Khalidi, “The 1912 Election Campaign in the Cities of bilad al-Sham,” IJMES 16 (1984): 461–71. [BACK]

10. HHS. PA 12/205. Pallavicini to Aehrenthal (12 March 1912). [BACK]

11. See Khalidi, “1912 Election,” 466, and “‘Uraysi,” in Buheiry, 44–45. [BACK]

12. Feroz Ahmad, “The Agrarian Policy of the Young Turks, 1908–1918,” in Bacqué-Grammont and Dumont, 278. [BACK]

13. Salibi, 205–6. [BACK]

14. HHS. PA 38/354 (see note 4). [BACK]

15. Engin Akarlı, The Long Peace (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), 61, 127, 187–192. [BACK]

16. Salibi, 205. [BACK]

17. On the role of port workers and their links with the Unionists during the boycott, see Donald Quataert, Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881–1908 (New York: New York University Press, 1983), 141. [BACK]

18. HHS. PA 38/354. Pinter to Berchtold (Beirut, 14 March 1912). In an earlier report Pinter refers to the CUP’s support among the “lowest popular classes” and “unsavory elements” such as boaters and porters. Pinter to Aehrenthal (Beirut, 1 February 1912). [BACK]

19. Michael Johnson, Class and Client in Beirut (London: Ithaca Press, 1986), 17. [BACK]

20. BBA. DH-SYS 53/46. The Court-Martial General to the Ministry of the Interior (April 17, 1912). The specific pamphlet was titled Açık Söz: Hürriyet ve İtilâf Fırkasının Makasidini Yanlış Anlayanlara İzahat ve Red-i İtirazat (Kustantiniye [İstanbul]: Hikmet Matbaası, 1330 [1912]), of which 20,000 copies were printed and distributed. For accusations about Libya, see p. 12. [BACK]

21. Kayalı, “Elections,” 276; Khalidi, “1912 Election,” 462. [BACK]

22. The British consul in Aleppo estimated the size of one such rally in Aleppo at 80,000. PRO. FO 195/2429. Fontana to Lowther (Aleppo, 2 May 1912). [BACK]

23. Haqqi al-‘Azm, Haqa’iq ‘an al-intikhabat al-niyabiyya (Cairo, 1912); Kurşun, 66–67. [BACK]

24. See BBA. DH-SYS 83–1/2–16 (31 March 1912) on CUP attempts to censure the governor of Latakia because of violence against Entente supporters in that city. [BACK]

25. The offer of the Musul candidate and ex-deputy Dawud Yusfani, for example, to be admitted as a Unionist candidate at the eleventh hour was turned down. PRO. FO 195/2415, fol. 323–38. Lorimer to Lowther (Baghdad, 4 June 1912). [BACK]

26. PRO. FO 195/2389. Lowther to Grey (draft) (Constantinople, 26 March 1912). [BACK]

27. Sixty-six out of 288 in 1908, 77 out of 284 in 1912 (Prätor, 27–29). [BACK]

28. Prätor, 47. [BACK]

29. Ibid., 33. [BACK]

30. Ahmad, Young Turks, 106–7. [BACK]

31. BBA. BEO 306762 (305252, 305838). Grand Vizier to all state agencies (1 October 1912). [BACK]

32. Prätor, 62–63. [BACK]

33. BBA. BEO 310332. Grand Vizier to the Ministry of the Interior (30 January 1913). This document was drafted after the CUP takeover in January and referred to past policy. [BACK]

34. Among them Dr. Nazım (perennial member of the CUP’s central committee), Halil (head of the CUP’s parliamentary group), and Rahmi (influential Salonika deputy, later governor of İzmir). Menteşe, 34. [BACK]

35. Menteşe, 34. The new government suspended martial law but soon had to reinstate it. See Ahmad, Young Turks, 109. [BACK]

36. BBA. BEO Defter 112, no. 1123 (24 July 1912). [BACK]

37. The governor recommended that the request of Shukri al-‘Asali and Ahmad Kurd ‘Ali, coeditor of the closed Al-muqtabas with his brother Muhammad, regarding reopening of the seditious paper, be denied. BBA. BEO 305092. Grand Vizier to the Ministry of the Interior (4 August 1912). [BACK]

38. On the organization and program of the party, see Tauber, Emergence, 121–34, and Duri, 277–80. [BACK]

39. James Paul Thomas, “The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916: Its Genesis in British Policy” (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1971), 4. See Khalidi, British Policy, 113–86, on an extensive discussion of Anglo-French railway agreements of 1909–10, which marked the beginnings of the partition of Syria among the two powers. [BACK]

40. PRO. FO 195/2433. Lowther to consuls of Beirut, Damascus, Jerusalem, Aleppo (confidential), fol. 19 (Pera, 26 June 1912). [BACK]

41. James Jankowski, “Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism, 1908–1922,” in Origins of Arab Nationalism, ed. Khalidi et al., 255–56. [BACK]

42. Thomas Philipp, The Syrians in Egypt, 1725–1975 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1985), 114. [BACK]

43. PRO. FO 195/2446. Grey to Lowther, fol. 66 (25 November 1912). [BACK]

44. BBA. BEO 309692 (266893). Governor Edhem to the Grand Vizier (9 November 1912). [BACK]

45. Ibid. Grand Vizier to Beirut (25 November 1912). [BACK]

46. PRO. FO 195/2444. Devey to Lowther (14 November 1912). [BACK]

47. PRO. FO 195/2445. C. Leonard Woolley to Consul Fontana. Enclosure in Fontana to Lowther, no. 78 (14 December 1912). Also PRO. FO 195/2445. Lowther to Foreign Office (İstanbul, 31 December 1912). [BACK]

48. US 867.00/1455. Theodore J. Stuve to Hollis. Enclosure in Hollis to Secretary of State (23 December 1912). [BACK]

49. HHS. PA 38/354. Pinter to Berchtold (Beirut, 6 December 1912). [BACK]

50. PRO. FO 195/2446. Hough to McGregor (8 November 1912). Enclosure in McGregor to Lowther (Jerusalem, 8 November 1912). [BACK]

51. HHS. PA 38/354. Pinter to Berchtold (23 November 1912). [BACK]

52. See, for example, PRO. FO 195/2446, fol. 17. Captain Cuthbert Hunter (?) to Lowther (19 November 1912); HHS. PA 38/354. Pinter to Berchtold (28 November 1912). [BACK]

53. PRO. FO 195/2446. Mallet (for the Secretary of State) to Lowther, fol. 43 (12 December 1912). [BACK]

54. PRO. FO 195/2446. Cumberbatch to Lowther, fol. 36–42 (4 December 1912). [BACK]

55. On role of Fa’iq al-Mu’ayyad in pro-Arab caliphate propaganda, see HHS. PA 38/354 (see note 51). [BACK]

56. Ibid. [BACK]

57. The authorities cracked down on a committee in Damascus that favored British occupation and arrested six members. Shafiq al-Mu’ayyad and ‘Izzat Pasha, who were known to be the originators of this group and were in Damascus at the time of the arrests, fled to Egypt. HHS. PA 38/359. Ranzi to Berchtold (5 January 1913). [BACK]

58. PRO. FO 195/2446. Cumberbatch to Lowther, fol. 53 (31 December 1912). The consul was personally involved in establishing contacts between Egyptian authorities and Syrians. See Khalidi, British Policy, 266. [BACK]

59. Shaw and Shaw, 295. [BACK]

60. BBA. BEO 309692. Governor Edhem to the Grand Vizierate (25 December 1912). [BACK]

61. Zeine, Arab Nationalism, 89. [BACK]

63. Tauber, Emergence, 135–51; Johnson, 61. [BACK]

64. HHS. PA 38/359. Ranzi to Berchtold (8 February 1913). See enclosure to same for a list of Damascene reform proposals. For Beirut’s proposals, see Tauber, Emergence, 138–39. [BACK]

65. US 867.00/523. Willoughby-Smith to Secretary of State (14 April 1913). Enclosure: “Projet de Reforms à appliquer au Vilayet de Beyrouth” (31 January 1913). [BACK]

66. Birinci, 202. [BACK]

67. Ahmad, Young Turks, 134. [BACK]

68. BBA. BEO Sadaret Defterleri 922, no. 75 (13 February 1913). [BACK]

69. HHS. PA 38/359. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 24 February 1913). [BACK]

70. HHS. PA 38/358. Dandini to Berchtold (8 March 1913). [BACK]

71. HHS. PA 38/359 (see note 69). [BACK]

72. HHS. PA 38/358 (see note 70). [BACK]

73. On the persistence of the idea of British annexation in Aleppo, see Kha lidi, British Policy, 284. [BACK]

74. US 867.00/492. Captain Fletcher to Secretary of Navy (16 February 1913). Enclosure in Navy Department to Secretary of State (8 March 1913); HHS. PA 38/358. Pinter to Berchtold (27 March 1913). [BACK]

75. PRO. FO 195/2451/484. Cumberbatch to Lowther (Beirut, 27 March 1913). [BACK]

76. On other resignations from public offices, see Tauber, Emergence, 141. [BACK]

77. PRO. FO 195/2451/484 (see note 75); Salibi, 207; Samir Seikaly, “Shukri al-‘Asali: A Case Study of a Political Activist,” in Origins of Arab Nationalism, ed. Khalidi et al., 89–90. [BACK]

78. US 867.00/517. Willoughby-Smith (vice consul-general in charge) to Secretary of State (?), no. 426 (14 April 1913). [BACK]

79. Tauber, Emergence, 157–68. The reform movement in Basra strived to unify the shaykhs of Mesopotamia in a struggle “for local autonomy, if not for absolute independence of the Turkish government.” US 867.00/517. Sauer to Secretary of State (Baghdad, 17 March 1913). [BACK]

80. HHS. PA 38/356. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 22 April 1913). [BACK]

81. HHS. PA 38/358. Pinter to Berchtold (23 April 1913). [BACK]

82. PRO. FO 195/2414 (31 January 1912). [BACK]

83. PRO. FO 195/2390. Lowther to Grey (25 September 1912). Enclosed in the report is a clipping from the Liberté of the same date reporting on the CUP’s consideration of Jawish’s case. [BACK]

84. After the January 1913 takeover of the government by the CUP, Kamil traveled to Egypt, where he waited for his moment to reclaim his former post. [BACK]

85. Egyptian Gazette, 22 April 1913. “The Khalifate.” Enclosed in US 867.00/535. Willoughby-Smith to Secretary of State (28 April 1913). [BACK]

86. Egyptian Gazette, 15 April 1913. “Turks and Arabs.” Enclosed in US 867.00/527. Willoughby-Smith to Secretary of State, April (?), 1913. [BACK]

87. Ibid. Quotes Alexandria Consul General Donald Andreas Cameron, Egypt in the Nineteenth Century (London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1898). [BACK]

88. HHS. PA 38/358. Pinter to Berchtold (Beirut, 23 April 1913). [BACK]

89. HHS. PA 38/359. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 22 April 1913). Also, PRO. FO 195/2452/1831. Lowther to the Foreign Office (Pera, 21 April 1913). [BACK]

90. HHS. PA 12/206. Pallavicini to Berchtold (13 May 1913). [BACK]

91. See, for instance, the petition from the mayor of the Bab district of Aleppo regarding the removal of the kadı. BBA. DH-MTV 60/48 (25 July 1913). [BACK]

92. BBA. DH-MTV 60/35 (8 May 1913). [BACK]

93. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9, fol. 450. Boppe to Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (26 May 1913). See chapter 1 for a similar proposal in 1897 by von der Goltz, who had been responsible for the reorganization of the Ottoman army in the 1890s and was to command Ottoman forces in their Arabian campaigns during World War I. [BACK]

94. Ibid. [BACK]

95. AA. Türkei 134/Bd. 32, no. 171. Wangenheim to B. Hollweg (Therapia, 29 May 1913). [BACK]

96. PRO. FO 195/2453/2368. L[owther] to [FO], no. 475 (Pera, 26 May 1913). [BACK]

97. BBA. DH-KMS 15/7 (16 February 1913). [BACK]

98. HHS. PA 38/358. Pering to Berchtold (17 May 1913). Enclosure: Da‘wa ila ebna’ al-umma al-‘arabiyya. Signed by ‘Awni ‘Abd al-Hadi, Jamil Ma’luf, Nadra Mutran, Muhammad al-Mahmasani, ‘Abd al-Ghani al-‘Uraysi, Sharl Debbas, Shukri Ghanem, Jamil Mardam. See also Tauber, Emergence, 179. [BACK]

99. Tauber, Emergence, 183–84. [BACK]

100. HSS. PA 38/358 (see note 98). [BACK]

101. Zeine, Arab Nationalism, 92; Antonius, 114–17. See Al-mu’tamar for the proceedings of the Congress. [BACK]

102. Salibi, 210. [BACK]

103. It is interesting and surprising that Midhat Şükrü’s memoirs do not mention his own involvement in negotiations with the Arab leaders. Mithat Şükrü Bleda, İmparatorluğun Çöküşü, ed. Turgut Bleda (İstanbul: Remzi, 1979). [BACK]

104. Prätor, 220. [BACK]

105. Zeine, Arab Nationalism, 93; Mousa, Al-haraka, 39. [BACK]

106. Salibi, 210. [BACK]

107. Fourteen Liberal leaders who had fled the country were sentenced to death in absentia. These included Sabahaddin, Şerif Pasha, and Gümülcineli İsmail. See Ahmad, Young Turks, 130; Birinci, 210; Danişmend, İzahlı, 397; Fahri Belen, 20. Yüzyılda Osmanlı Devleti (İstanbul: Remzi, 1973), 178. [BACK]

108. US 867.00/556. Hollis to Secretary of State (Beirut, 24 June 1913). [BACK]

109. See, for instance, the letter sent to İstanbul by Osman Nashashibi and other Jerusalem residents. PRO. FO 195/2451/484. Hough to Marling (Jerusalem, 1 July 1913). [BACK]

110. For his career until 1913, see Bostan, 17–36. Sa‘id Halim Pasha’s biography in a recent modern Turkish edition of his works is largely based on Bostan’s M.A. thesis, the precursor of his book. See Sa‘id Halim Pasha, Buhranlarımız ve Son Eserleri, ed. M. Ertuğrul Düzdağ (İstanbul: İz Yayıncılık, 1991), xiii–xviii. Excerpts of his work and a synoptic biography occur also in İsmail Kara, ed., Türkiye’de İslâmcılık Düşüncesi, 2d ed. (İstanbul: Risale, 1987), 1:73–174. [BACK]

111. Bostan, 34. [BACK]

112. AA. Türkei 165/Bd. 35/36, no. 93. Loytved-Hardegg to Bethmann-Hollweg (Haifa, 26 July 1913). [BACK]

113. Mousa, 38. [BACK]

114. Conservative notables were cajoled with promises such as salary increases to religious students and functionaries, improvement of the waterways in the holy city of Medina, and the opening of a medical school in Damascus. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 10. Mutius to Bethmann-Hollweg (Beirut, 4 September 1913). [BACK]

115. HHS. PA 38/359. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 5 November 1913). [BACK]

116. HHS. PA 38/359. Ranzi to Berchtold (Damascus, 16 October 1913). [BACK]

117. AA. Türkei 177/Bd. 10, no. 122. Loytved-Hardegg to Bethmann-Hollweg (Haifa, 26 September 1913). [BACK]

118. US 867.00/566. Sauer to Embassy (Baghdad, 9 June 1913). Reported by Ravndal to Secretary of State (31 July 1913). [BACK]

119. US 867.00/592. Vice-consul to Secretary of State (Baghdad, 12 November 1913). [BACK]

120. The deputy-governor for Basra, İzzeddin, reported the “extraordinary assistance” that Talib rendered in mollifying the crowds who stormed the post office with their petitions. İzzeddin added that great services could be expected from Talib in the upcoming elections. BBA. DH-KMS 63/43 (11 October 1913). [BACK]

121. Tunaya, Siyasal Partiler, 106–10. [BACK]

122. MAE. Turquie, N.S. 9. Bompard to MAE (Pera, 3 November 1913). [BACK]

123. HHS. PA 38/358. Dandini to Berchtold (Aleppo, 12 November 1913). [BACK]

124. The Egyptian Gazette, 25 April 1913. “Turks and Arabs.” Enclosure in Willoughby-Smith to Secretary of State (Beirut, 6 May 1913). In Baghdad government organs denounced decentralist agitation as being “against the principles of the Muslim religion which stands for unity.” US 867.00/548. Sauer to Embassy (Baghdad, 3 May 1913). [BACK]

125. Landau, Pan-Islam, 80–83. [BACK]

126. William L. Cleveland, Islam against the West (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985), xvii. Shakib Arslan was the brother of Amin Arslan, whom we encountered as the leader of the Turco-Syrian Committee at the end of the nineteenth century. Amin was elected deputy to Parliament for Latakia in the by-election of June 1909. [BACK]

127. Jawish was the president of the committee entrusted with the mission of establishing the university. BBA. DH-KMS 5/24. The Ministry of the Interior to the Muhafız of Medina (19 November 1913). Martin Strohmeier, Al-kulliya as-salahiya in Jerusalem (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner [Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft], 1991), 8–12. [BACK]

128. BBA. BEO 318545. From ‘Abd al-‘Aziz Jawish, Shakib Arslan, and Ahmad Zafar to the Grand Vizierate (6 December 1913). [BACK]

129. On Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa, see Philip Hendrick Stoddard, “The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911–1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1963); Ergun Hiçyılmaz, Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa (İstanbul: Ünsal, 1979). [BACK]