1. 1. These public confessions were printed with much fanfare in the mass media, especially in Ettela ^c at, beginning on 1 May 1983 and ending on 17 January 1984. Like the famous Moscow and Slansky show trials of the 1930s and 1950s, these public confessions fueled much speculation. Royalists dismissed them as a smokescreen designed to hide from the West the Islamic Republic's true intention — an alliance with the Soviet Union. The Mojahedin exclaimed that the confessions proved once again their long-standing charge that the Tudeh leaders were "opportunistic," "self-seeking," and "unscrupulous." Other leftists argued that the Tudeh had already moved so close to the Islamic Republic that a gentle nudge was enough to push it completely into the clerical camp. The Tudeh itself claimed that its leaders had been brainwashed through mind-altering drugs supplied by Mossad, MI5, and the CIA. Once the dust settled, however, it became clear that the authorities had obtained these confessions through more direct methods — through brute physical force. Evidence of physical torture, including crushed fingers and hands, was later provided by the first secretary of the Tudeh party. See R. Galindo (Special UN Representative of the Commission on Human Rights), Report on the Human Rights Situation in the Islamic

Republic of Iran (New York: UN, Economic and Social Council, 1990), pp. 32, 42. [BACK]

2. 2. M. Rezvani, ''Shaykh Fazlollah Nuri's Newspaper," Tarikh 1, no. 2 (1977): 159-209. [BACK]

3. 3. On Shaykh Fazlollah Nuri, see A. Kasravi, Tarikh-e Mashruteh-ye Iran (History of the constitutional movement in Iran) (Tehran: Amir Kaber Press, 1961), pp. 415-27; H. Rezvani, Lavayeh-e Aqa-ye Shaykh Fazlollah Nuri (Shaykh Fazlollah Nuri's essays) (Tehran: Naqsh-e Jahan Press, 1982); M. Turkoman, Shaykh-e Shahid Fazlollah Nuri (Martyred Shaykh Fazlollah Nuri) (Tehran: 1983); V. Martin, Islam and Modernism (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1989); A. Arjomand, "The Ulama's Traditionalist Opposition to Parliamentarianism, Middle Eastern Studies 17, no. 2 (Apr. 1981): 174-89. [BACK]

4. 4. I. Afshar, ed., Yaddashtha-ye Tarikhi-ye Mostasher al-Dawleh (The political memoirs of Mostasher al-Dawleh) (Tehran: Ramin Press, 1982), pp. 76-82. [BACK]

5. 5. Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, pp. 10-11. [BACK]

6. 6. R. Khomeini, speech, Ettela ^c at, 27 Nov. 1983; Kayhan-e Hava'i, 21 Dec. 1983. [BACK]

7. 7. R. Khomeini, speech, Ettela ^c at, 3 Jan. 1984. [BACK]

8. 8. A. Mahdavi-Kani, speech, Ettela ^c at, 7 May 1983. [BACK]

9. 9. J. al-Ahmad, Gharbzadegi (The plague from the West) (Tehran: N.p., 1962), pp. 35-36. [BACK]

10. 10. F. Adamiyat, Asheftegi dar Fekri Tarikhi (Confusion in historiography) (Tehran: N.p., n.d.), pp. 1-24. [BACK]

11. 11. R. Khomeini, speech Kayhan-e Hava'i, 28 Dec. 1983. [BACK]

12. 12. "The Anniversary of Shaykh Nuri's Martyrdom," Ettela ^c at, 2 Aug. 1982. [BACK]

13. 13. Ettela ^c at, 2 Aug. 1982. [BACK]

14. 14. E. Browne, The Persian Revolution (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1966), p. 444. [BACK]

15. 15. E. Dillon, "Father and Son — Conservative and Radical: A Gruesome Story," Contemporary Review 96 (Oct. 1909): 510-12. Dillon also cooked up a dramatic story of how a Russian revolutionary woman, whom he called the Joan of Arc of the Persian

revolution, had been instrumental in creating bedlam and overthrowing the lawful authorities. [BACK]

16. 16. M. Malekzadeh, Tarikh-e Enqelab-e Mashrutiyat-e Iran (History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution) (Tehran: Majles Publications, 1943), vol. 6, pp. 132-33. [BACK]

17. 17. For such a view see J. Madani, Tarikh-e Siyasi-ye Mo ^c aser-e Iran (The political history of contemporary Iran) (Tehran: Office of Islamic Publication, 1983), vols. 1-2. This was designed as a textbook for the Revolutionary Guards. For an excellent analysis of changing interpretations of the nineteenth-century protests, see M. Afshari, "The Constitutional Movement, Its Historians, and the Making of the Iranian Populist Tradition," International Journal of Middle East Studies (forthcoming). [BACK]

18. 18. On the intellectuals, see F. Adamiyat, Fekr-e Demokrasi-ye Ejtema ^c -ye dar Nahzat-e Mashruteyat-e Iran (Social Democratic thought in the Constitutional Movement in Iran) (Tehran: Payam Press, 1975). On the merchants, see G. Gilbar, "The Big Merchants and the Persian Revolution of 1906," Asian and African Studies 3 (1977): 275-303. On the guilds, see M. Afshari, "The Pishivaran and Merchants in Pre-Capitalist Iranian Society," International Journal of Middle East Studies 15, no. 2 (May 1983): 133-55. On the liberal aristocrats, see I. Safai, Rahbaran-e Mashrutiyat (Leaders of the constitution) (Tehran: Javedan Press, 1973). On the Armenians, see C. Chaqueri, "The Role and Impact of Armenian Intellectuals in Iranian Politics, 1905-1911," Armenian Review 41, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 1-51. [BACK]

19. 19. M. Bayat, Shi ^c ism in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran (New York: Oxford University Press). [BACK]

20. 20. M. Bamdad, Tarikh-e Rajal-e Iran (History of public figures in Iran) (Tehran: Zavar Press, 1968), vol. 3, pp. 96-97. [BACK]

21. 21. Martin, Islam and Modernism, p. 122. [BACK]

22. 22. V. Martin, "Shaikh Fazlallah Nuri and the Iranian Revolution," Middle Eastern Studies 23, no. 1 (1987): 40-41. [BACK]

23. 23. Ministry of Education, Tarikh-e Mo ^c aser-e Iran (History of contemporary Iran) (Tehran: Ministry of Education Press, 1984), Year 3, pp. 98-99. None of the primary sources that describe the presiding court mention Yeprem Khan. See Browne,

The Persian Revolution, pp. 444-45; Malekzadeh, Enqelab-e Mashrutiyat-e Iran, vol. 6, pp. 118-33; I. Amir-Khizi, Qiyam-e Azerbayjan va Sattar Khan (The Azerbayjan Revolt and Sattar Khan) (Tabriz: Shafaq Press, 1950), p. 39. One contemporary source claimed that there was a dramatic confrontation between Shaykh Nuri and Yeprem Khan, who was observing the trial from the public gallery. The same source, however, claims that two months after the execution, Shaykh Nuri's body was as well preserved as the very day he died. See M. Turkoman, Maktubat, ^c Elamieh-ha, va Chand Gozaresh Peramun-e Naqsheh-e Shaykh Shahid Fazlollah Nuri (The correspondence, proclamations, and some reports on the mission of the martyred Shaykh Fazlollah Nuri) (Tehran: 1983), vol. 2, pp. 285-316. [BACK]

24. 24. Khomeini, Velayat-e Faqih, p. 12-13. [BACK]

25. 25. Malekzadeh, Enqelab-e Mashrutiyat-e Iran, vol. 2, pp. 19-20; Bayat, Shi ^c ism in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, chap. 4; N. Keddie, "Iranian Politics, 1900-1905: Background to Revolution," Middle Eastern Studies 5, no. 2 (May 1969): 153. [BACK]

26. 26. For an unflattering picture of Sattar Khan, see Browne, The Persian Revolution, pp. 441-42. [BACK]

27. 27. British Legation, "Monthly Report for August 1910," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1910/34-950. [BACK]

28. 28. Safai, Rahbaran-e Mashrutiyat, pp. 407-10. [BACK]

29. 29. Browne, The Persian Revolution, pp. 274-75. For a description of the siege and famine, see F. Kazemzadeh, Russia and Britain in Persia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), pp. 532-36. [BACK]

30. 30. H. Katouzian, The Political Economy of Modern Iran (New York: New York University Press, 1981), p. 75. [BACK]

31. 31. S. Ravasani, "How the Gilan Revolution Fell Victim to the Soviet-British Compromise," Iranshahr 3, no. 20 (7 Aug. 1981). See also idem, Nahzat-e Mirza Kuchek Khan Jangali va Avalin Jomhuri-ye Shuravi dar Iran (The movement of Mirza Kuchek Khan Jangali and the first Soviet Republic of Iran) (Tehran: Tous Press, 1984). [BACK]

32. 32. H. Jowdat, Yadbudha-ye Enqelab-e Gilan (Reminiscences of the Revolution in Gilan) (Tehran: Darakhshan Press, 1972). [BACK]

33. 33. Madani, Tarikh-e Siyasi-ye, vol. 1, pp. 83-86. See also I. Fakhrai, Sardar-e Jangal (The forest commander) (Tehran: Javidan Press, 1964). [BACK]

34. 34. Fakhrai, Sardar-e Jangal. [BACK]

35. 35. M. Donohoe, With the Persian Expedition (London: Edward Arnold, 1919), p. 172. This sentiment probably originated during the wartime famine when Kuchek Khan sent food from Gilan to feed the poor of Tehran. See H. Makki, Modarres: Qahreman-e Azadi (Modarres: The hero of freedom) (Tehran: Naqsh-e Jahan Press, 1979), vol. 1, p. 147. [BACK]

36. 36. Donohoe, Persian Expedition, p. 72. [BACK]

37. 37. M. Farrukh, Khaterat-e Siyasi-ye Farrukh (Farrukh's political memoirs) (Tehran: Sahami Press, 1969), p. 15. [BACK]

38. 38. A. Shamideh, "Haydar ^c Omugli," Donya 14, no. 1 (1973): 113-24. [BACK]

39. 39. For the controversy over these negotiations, see Ayandeh 9, nos. 2 and 8-9 (1983). [BACK]

40. 40. For the concept of primitive rebels, see E. Hobsbawm, Bandits (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981); and idem, Primitive Rebels (New York: Norton, 1959). [BACK]

41. 41. The Islamic Republic denies that Kuchek Khan received any foreign assistance, but for assistance from the Central Powers, see A. Kasravi, Tarikh-e Hijdah Saleh-e Azerbayjan (Eighteen-year history of Azerbayjan) (Tehran: Amir Kaber Press, 1978), p. 813. [BACK]

42. 42. Ministry of Education, Tarikh-e Mo ^c aser-e Iran, Year 3, p. 131. [BACK]

43. 43. The British estimated the total forces to be near 1,500. See British Military Attaché to the Foreign Office, "The Situation in Gilan," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1920/34-4907. [BACK]

44. 44. G. Yeqikian, Shuravi va Jonbesh-e Jangal (The Soviets and the Jangali movement) (Tehran: Novin Press, 1984), pp. 324-25. [BACK]

45. 45. K. Amirzadeh, Gomnam-e Azadeh (An obscure freeman) (Tehran: N.p., 1954). See also Yeqikian, Suravi va Jonbesh-e Jangal, pp. 137, 230-31, 340-41; and Jowdat, Yadbudha-ye. [BACK]

46. 46. Yeqikian, Suravi va Jonbesh-e Jangal, p. 11. [BACK]

47. 47. Cited in ibid., p. 335. [BACK]

48. 48. "Kazvin Division Reports," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1920/34-4907. [BACK]

49. 49. Yeqikian, Shuravi va Jonbesh-e Jangal, p. 118. [BACK]

50. 50. Razvani, Nahzat-e Mirza Kuchek Khan. [BACK]

51. 51. Kuchek Khan, "Message to Mojahedin Brothers," in Yeqikian, Shuravi va Jonbesh-e Jangal, pp. 152-60. Fakhrai has reprinted this as "An Unpublished Document from the Forest Commander," Kayhan-e Farhangi 20 (Dec. 1985): 20-21. [BACK]

52. 52. Gauk was a Volga German who had served in the Tsarist legation in Tehran before World War I. During the war, he had been cashiered for misappropriating funds and had been sent to prison in Baku. He joined the Bolsheviks in 1917, returned to Iran with the Red Army in 1920, and soon became Kuchek Khan's translator and close adviser. See Yeqikian, Shuravi va Jonbesh-e Jangal, pp. 60, 363-65. [BACK]

53. 53. Cited by A. Modarresi, "Modarres: A Genius from the Islamic World," Kayhan-e Farhangi 26 (Dec. 1985): 24-31. [BACK]

54. 54. Editor, "Modarres: The Symbol of the Clergy's Struggle against Despotism and Imperialism," Ettela ^c at, 1 Dec. 1982. [BACK]

55. 55. I. Fakhrai, "The Clergy and Revolution," Kayhan-e Farhangi 4, no. 7 (Nov. 1987): 7-11. [BACK]

56. 56. On the trials of the murderers, see Parcham, 25 Oct. 1942. [BACK]

57. 57. British Legation, "Biographies of Leading Personalities in Persia," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1929/34-9405. [BACK]

58. 58. Cited by Editor, "The Martyred Ayatollah Sayyid Hasan Modarres: The Great Man of Religion and Politics," Kayhan-e Farhangi 4, no. 8 (Nov. 1987): 3. Vol. 2 of M. Bahar, Tarikh-e Mukhtasar-e Ahzab-e Siyasi-ye Iran (Short history of Iranian political parties) (Tehran: Amir Kabir Press, 1984), is mostly a record of Modarres's activities in the third through fifth Parliaments. [BACK]

59. 59. British Legation, "Persian Annual Report for 1925," PRO, FO 371/Persia 1926/34-11500. [BACK]

60. 60. For Modarres's parliamentary speeches, see H. Makki, Modarres: Qahreman-e Azadi (Modarres: The hero of freedom) (Tehran: Naqsh-e Jahan Press, 1984), vols. 1-2. [BACK]

61. 61. Bahar, Ahzab-e Siyasi-ye Iran, vol. 2, pp. 26-27. [BACK]

62. 62. Editor, "Commemorating the Death of Ayatollah Ka-

shani — The Great Anti-imperialist Crusader," Ettela ^c at, 14 Mar. 1982. Such biographies ignore completely Kashani's political activities from 1921 until 1941. Some suspected that Kashani received a monthly stipend from Reza Shah throughout his reign. See British Embassy, 24 Jan. 1952, PRO, FO 371/Persia 1952/34-98719. [BACK]

63. 63. J. Emami, cited by M. Fateh, Panjah Saleh-e Naft-e Iran (Fifty years of Iranian oil) (Tehran: Chehr Press, 1956), p. 387. [BACK]

64. 64. Ministry of Education, Tarikh-e Mo ^c aser-e Iran. [BACK]

65. 65. For a summary of National Front criticisms of the Tudeh, see Karnameh-e Mosaddeq va Hezb-e Tudeh (Record of Mosaddeq and the Tudeh party) (Florence: Mazda Press, n.d.), vols. 1-2. See also Eman, "From 21 July to 19 August: Mosaddeq Alone," Showra 10 (Aug. 1985): 37-59. [BACK]

66. 66. See Ruhani, Nahzat-e Imam Khomeini, vol. 1, p. 230. [BACK]

67. 67. The debate about the Tudeh officers and the 1953 coup is somewhat unreal. Even if the Tudeh party had mobilized the military network, it would have had little chance of saving Mosaddeq simply because few of its officers held sensitive field posts. Most were doctors, teachers, engineers, and gendarmerie officers. None commanded a militarized division anywhere near the capital. See E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 338. For a Tudeh account of these crucial days, see N. Kianuri, Hezb-e Tudeh-e Iran va Doktor Mosaddeq (The Tudeh party of Iran and Dr. Mosaddeq) (Tehran: Mardom Press, n.d.), pp. 1-15; M. Javanshir, Tajrabeh-e Best-u-Hasht-e Mordad (Experience of 19 August) (Tehran: Tudeh Press, 1980). Mosaddeqists reject outright the Tudeh account, but much of it sounds plausible. For a Mosaddeqist rejection, see Katouzian, The Political Economy of Iran, pp. 71-72. For a former National Frontist who now accepts the Tudeh account, see E. Mehraban, Barrasi-ye Mokhtasar-e Ahzab-e Burzhuazi-ye Melli-ye Iran (Short investigation into Iran's bourgeois political parties) (Tehran: Paik Press, 1980). For a Fatemi colleague who also accepts much of the Tudeh account, see S. Zabih, The Mossadegh Era (Chicago: Lake View Press, 1981), pp. 120-21. Zabih is especially helpful because he was able to interview CIA officials. [BACK]

68. 68. Cited by R. Namvar, "The Issue of Political Trials," Donya 7, no. 4 (1966): 43. [BACK]

70. 70. For Kashani's denunciation of the ban, see "The Clergy and the Intellectuals in the Oil Nationalization Campaign," Ettela ^c at-e Haftegi, 17 Sept. 1987. [BACK]

71. 71. British Embassy, 14 Nov. 1951, PRO, FO 371/Persia 1951/34-91465. [BACK]

72. 72. R. Zaehner, 15 May 1952, PRO, FO 248/Persia 1952/34-38572. [BACK]

73. 73. M. Gasiorowski, "The 1953 Coup D'Etat in Iran," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19, no. 3 (Aug. 1987): 263. [BACK]

74. 74. R. Zaehner, 22 Feb. 1952, PRO, FO 248/Persia 1952/34-38572. [BACK]

75. 75. Atesh, Qiyam dar Rah-e Saltanat (Uprising for the monarchy) (Tehran: N.p, 1954), pp. 50-56. [BACK]

76. 76. Ayatollah Kashani's press interview is cited by A. Pishdad and H. Katouzian, Nahzat-e Melli-ye Iran va Doshmanan-e An (The patriotic movement of Iran and its enemies) (London: National Movement Press, 1981), p. 15. [BACK]

77. 77. See Iranian Government, Mozakerat-e Majles-e Showra-ye Melli (Proceedings of the Consultative National Parliament) (Tehran: Government Publishing House, 1954), 17th Parliament, 4 Jan. 1953, 19 Jan. 1953, 1 Feb. 1953. [BACK]

78. 78. Ettela ^c at, 10-13 Nov. 1952. [BACK]

79. 79. Pishdad and Katouzian, Nahzat-e Melli-ye Iran, p. 16. [BACK]

80. 80. Left Platform, Fedayan-e Islam (Los Angeles: N.p., 1985), pp. 222-25. The shah did not crush the Fedayan-e Islam until 1955-56, after it tried to assassinate his prime minister, who had signed the Baghdad Pact. [BACK]

81. 81. Ibid., p. 16. [BACK]

82. 82. Cited by Y. Richard, "Ayatollah Kashani: Precursor of the Islamic Republic?" in Religion and Politics in Iran, ed. N. Keddie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), p. 121. [BACK]

83. 83. M. Falsafi, "Fortieth Day of Teacher Motahhari's Martyrdom," Ettela ^c at, 10 June 1979. [BACK]

84. 84. A summary of Ayat's attack on Mosaddeq can be found in

F. Rajaee, "Post-revolutionary Historiography in Iran," in Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism, and Oil, ed. J. Bill and W. Louis (Austin: Texas University Press, 1988), pp. 133-36. [BACK]

85. 85. R. Khomeini, speech, Kayhan-e Hava'i, 28 Dec. 1983. [BACK]