1. See Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962); Friedrich A. Hayek, The Mirage of Social Justice, vol. 2 of Law, Legislation, and Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), respectively. For a contrasting view of the American political tradition see, for example, J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). [BACK]

2. See Henry J. Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1978); Sar A. Levitan and Gregory K. Wurzburg, Evaluating Federal Social Programs: An Uncertain Art (Kalamazoo, Mich.: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1979); Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950-1970 (New York: Basic Books, 1984), especially pt. 1. [BACK]

3. Isaiah Berlin, "Two Concepts of Liberty," in Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 118-72, and also pp. xxxvii-lxiii. C. B. Macpherson, Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), chap. 5, particularly pp. 108-19. [BACK]

4. See Robert Sugden, "Hard Luck Stories: The Problem of the Uninsured in a Laissez-Faire Society," Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 201-16. [BACK]

5. For a general discussion of individualism in America see Robert N. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). [BACK]

6. See Stephen M. Davidson and Theodore R. Marmor, The Costs of Living Longer: National Health Insurance and the Elderly (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1980), p. 13. SMI is financed by participant premiums and supplemented by general revenues. All citizens sixty-five or over, not just social security recipients, may enroll at the same subsidized rates. [BACK]

7. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The continue

Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1982), pp. 286-89; and Arthur J. Altmeyer, The Formative Years of Social Security (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), pp. 185-86, 196, and 248-49. [BACK]

8. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom, pp. 187-89. [BACK]

9. Benjamin I. Page, Who Gets What from Government (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), chap. 6. Recent reductions in the number of tax brackets may be expected to reduce the progressiveness of the federal income tax, previously the major contributor to progressivity in the overall American tax structure. [BACK]

10. See Robert E. Goodin, "Freedom and the Welfare State: Theoretical Foundations," Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 156-67; Gaston V. Rimlinger, "Capitalism and Human Rights," Daedalus 112 (Fall 1983): 174-79; Henry Shue, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), particularly his priority principle, pp. 114-19. [BACK]

11. Christa Altenstetter, "Health Policy Making and Administration in West Germany and the United States," Sage Professional Papers in Administrative and Policy Studies, 3 (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1974). [BACK]

12. Lawrence M. Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Objectives of Citizenship (New York: Free Press, 1986), recommends reinitiating much more ambitious limitations on recipients. For examples of such practices, see Frances For Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971); Joan Huggins, "Public Welfare: The Road to Freedom?" Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 177-99, especially pp. 191-92; and Jennifer G. Schirmer, The Limits of Reform: Women, Capital, and Welfare (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1982), pp. 144-45. [BACK]

13. On social programs, contrast the negativism of Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974) with the more open views of Hayek, Mirage of Social Justice; Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose: A Personal Statement (New York: Avon, 1979). That libertarianism is not a mainstream position in America is illustrated by Lloyd A. Free and Hadley Cantril, The Political Beliefs of Americans: A Study of Public Opinion (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1967). [BACK]

14. Many writers have used other terms that are roughly synonymous with this definition. David G. Green, "Freedom or Paternalistic Collectivism?" Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 239-44, following Dewey, uses "effective power"; see also Ralph Barton Perry, ''Liberty in a Democratic State," in Ruth Nanda Anshen, ed. Freedom: Its Meaning (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1940), pp. 265-77. Peter Jones, "Freedom continue

and the Distribution of Resources," Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 217-38, opts for "ability" or "opportunity." Jones's stance is partially consistent with Robert M. McIver, ''The Meaning of Liberty and Its Perversions," in Anshen, Freedom, pp. 278-87, although McIver is concerned to distinguish liberty from welfare and the tyranny associated with one aspect of what Berlin calls positive liberty. Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2d ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), pp. 35-47, uses "self-actualization" in a sense of developing human potential. Before introducing the term developmental liberty (Democratic Theory, chap. 5), Macpherson uses the term power in a nearly synonymous way. [BACK]

15. Contrast Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, chap. 7, with Shue, Basic Rights, pp. 114-19. [BACK]

16. Macpherson notes that in discussions of liberty, equality, and justice one concept frequently "swallows" another, Democratic Theory, pp. 81-82. [BACK]

17. Charles Lockhart, "Values and Policy Conceptions of Health Policy Elites in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Federal Republic of Germany," Journal of Health Policy, Politics and Law 6 (Spring 1981): 100-103. [BACK]

18. Martin Feldstein, "Social Insurance," in Colin D. Campbell, Income Redistribution (Washington, D.C.: AEI, 1977), pp. 71-97. [BACK]

19. Norman Furniss and Timothy Tilton, The Case for the Welfare State: From Social Security to Social Equality (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), chap. 3. [BACK]

20. Lester C. Thurow, "Equity, Efficiency, Social Justice, and Redistribution," in OECD, The Welfare State in Crisis: An Account of the Conference on Social Policies in the 1980s (Paris: OECD, 1981), pp. 137-50. Harold L. Wilensky, "Democratic Corporatism, Consensus, and Social Policy: Reflections on Changing Values and the 'Crisis' of the Welfare State," in OECD, Welfare State in Crisis, pp. 185-95, particularly pp. 190-91. See also Robert Kuttner, The Economic Illusion: False Choices Between Prosperity and Social Justice (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984). [BACK]

21. See Sheldon Danziger, Robert Haveman, and Robert Plotnick, "How Income Transfer Programs Affect Work, Savings, and Income Distribution: A Critical Review," Journal of Economic Literature 19 (September 1981): 975-1028, particularly pp. 995-99. [BACK]

22. Henry J. Aaron, Economic Effects of Social Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1982), pp. 31-34 and 53-66. [BACK]

23. For commentary on the results of early experiments see David Kershaw and Jerilyn Fair, The New Jersey Income Maintenance Experi- soft

ment (New York: Academic Press, 1977); Peter Rossi and Katherine C. Lyall, Reforming Public Welfare: A Critique of the Negative Income Tax Experiment (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1976); Joseph A. Pechman and P. Michael Timpane, eds. Work Incentives and Income Guarantees: The New Jersey Negative Income Tax Experiment (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1975); the symposium in Journal of Human Resources 9 (Spring-Fall 1974). See also Walter Williams, "The Continuing Struggle for a Negative Income Tax: A Review Article," Journal of Human Resources 10 (Fall 1975): 427-44. On later experiments see the symposia in Journal of Human Resources 14 (Fall 1979), on the Gary experiment; and 15 (Fall 1980), on the Seattle and Denver experiments. On the latter, see also Philip K. Robins et al., eds., A Guaranteed Annual Income: Evidence from a Social Experiment (New York: Academic Press, 1980). [BACK]

24. See Lester C. Thurow, The Zero-Sum Society: Distribution and the Possibilities for Economic Change (New York: Basic Books, 1980), p. 86; John E. Schwarz, America's Hidden Success: A Reassessment of Twenty Years of Public Policy (New York: Norton, 1983); and Danziger, Haveman, and Plotnick, "Income Transfer Programs," pp. 995-99. [BACK]

25. Compare with Leonard Goodwin, Do the Poor Want to Work? A Social-Psychological Study of Work Orientations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1972), and Goodwin, Causes and Cures of Welfare: New Evidence on the Social-Psychology of the Poor (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1983). [BACK]

26. See Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon, 1957), pp. 114-15. [BACK]

27. Wilensky, "Democratic Corporatism"; Aaron, Economic Effects of Social Security, pp. 31-34 and 53-66. [BACK]

28. See Murray, Losing Ground, pp. 47-48; Danziger, Haveman, and Plotnick, "Income Transfer Programs." [BACK]

29. See Murray, Losing Ground, p. 212, on "the law of unintended rewards." [BACK]

30. Feldstein, "Social Insurance." For an explanation of the shift to a pay-as-we-go form, see Martha Derthick, Policymaking for Social Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1979), pp. 142-44 and 232-37; Jill S. Quadagno, "Welfare Capitalism and the Social Security Act of 1935," American Sociological Review 49 (October 1984): 632-47, particularly p. 644. [BACK]

31. Arthur M. Okun, Equality and Efficiency: The Big Tradeoff (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1975), p. 98. [BACK]

32. Aaron, Economic Effects of Social Security, pp. 29-31; Danziger, Haveman, and Plotnick, "Income Transfer Programs," pp. 1005-06. break [BACK]

33. See the related argument in James Tobin, "Considerations Regarding Taxation and Equality," in Campbell, Income Redistribution , pp. 129-30. [BACK]

34. David Vogel, "Why Businessmen Distrust Their State: The Political Consciousness of American Corporate Executives," British Journal of Political Science 8 (January 1978): 45-78. [BACK]

35. See Quadagno, "Welfare Capitalism," p. 638. [BACK]

36. Compare with Gary P. Freeman, "Social Security in One Country? Foreign Economic Policies and Domestic Social Programs," paper presented at the 1983 annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, September 1-4. [BACK]

37. As, for example, in James S. Fishkin, Justice, Equal Opportunity, and the Family (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), and Okun, Equality and Efficiency , respectively. [BACK]

38. See Douglas Rae et al., Equalities (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), chap. 6; Jennifer L. Hochschild, What's Fair? American Beliefs About Distributive Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), chap. 6; Sidney Verba and Gary R. Orren, Equality in America: The View From the Top (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), chap. 4. [BACK]

39. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 3-5 and 13-16. [BACK]

40. See Stanley Lebergott, The American Economy: Income, Wealth, and Want (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), particularly chap. 1; Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York: Basic Books, 1986). [BACK]

41. I am using what Rae et al., Equalities , p. 81, call a means-regarding conception of equality of opportunity rather than a prospect-regarding conception. That is, rather than assuring equal prospects for success, as a lottery might, this conception legitimizes—through performance-related criteria—unequal success. [BACK]

42. Fishkin, Justice , chaps. 3 and 4. [BACK]

43. Christopher Jencks et al., Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effects of Family and Schooling in America (New York: Basic Books, 1972); Christopher Jencks et al., Who Gets Ahead?: The Determinants of Economic Success in America (New York: Basic Books, 1979), especially chap. 3; Robert Coles, Children in Crisis , vol. 2, Migrants, Sharecroppers, and Mountaineers (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971). [BACK]

44. See Robert A. Dahl and Edward R. Tufte, Size and Democracy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1973); David Miller, "Democracy and Social Justice," British Journal of Political Science 8 (January 1978): 1-19; T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Sociol- soft

ogy at the Crossroads and Other Essays (London: Heinemann, 1963), pp. 67-127. [BACK]

45. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy , 3d ed. (New York: Harper, 1950). [BACK]

46. Sidney Verba, Norman H. Nie, and Jae-on Kim, Participation and Political Equality: A Seven-Nation Comparison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978). [BACK]

47. Scholars differ on the importance of various political arenas and resources and thus in their evaluation of which groups are most influential. See, for example, the pluralist interpretation of David B. Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion (New York: Knopf, 1951); and particularly as developed by Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? Democracy in an American City (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961). For revisions of the pluralist interpretation, see Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1960); Theodore Lowi, The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic in the United States (New York: Norton, 1979). C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956) offers the elitist perspective; for contemporary Marxist insights, see Ralph Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society (New York: Basic Books, 1969); Nico Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes , trans. Timothy O'Hagan (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1975). The corporatist view is exemplified by Philippe C. Schmitter, "Modes of Interest Intermediation and Models of Societal Change in Western Europe," Comparative Political Studies 10 (April 1977): 7-38. A state-centered conception is advanced by Eric Nordlinger, On the Autonomy of the Democratic State (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981). [BACK]

48. See Brian Berry, The Liberal Theory of Justice: A Critical Examination of the Principle Doctrines in "A Theory of Justice" by John Rawls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 56-57. [BACK]

49. Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy , trans. Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949). [BACK]

50. Jan Narveson, "Human Rights: Which, If Any, Are There?" in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman, eds., Nomos 23: Human Rights (New York: New York University Press, 1981), p. 177. [BACK]

51. Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, The New Class War: Reagan's Attack on the Welfare State and Its Consequences (New York: Pantheon, 1982), chaps. 2-4. [BACK]

52. Emphasis follows C. B. Macpherson, "Justice and Human Rights," Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas, November 16, 1982. See also his "Economic Penetration of Political Theory," Journal of the History of Ideas 39 (January-March 1978): 101-8. break [BACK]

53. Charles A. Beard, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States (1913; rpt. New York: Free Press, 1965), p. 324. [BACK]

54. John H. Brittain, Inheritance and the Inequality of Material Wealth (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1978). [BACK]

55. C. B. Macpherson, "Human Rights as Property Rights," Dissent 24 (January 1977): 72-77. [BACK]

56. See Aaron Wildavsky, Speaking Truth to Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), pp. 174-77. [BACK]

57. On British feelings about the NHS, see Lockhart, "Values and Policy Conceptions," p. 101. On Sweden, see Furniss and Tilton, Case for the Welfare State , chap. 4. [BACK]

59. Joel Feinberg, "The Nature and Value of Rights," in Joel Feinberg and Hyman Gross, eds., Philosophy of Law , 2d ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1980), pp. 270-82, especially p. 278. See also Jack Donnelly, "Human Rights and Human Dignity: An Analytic Critique of Non-Western Conceptions of Human Rights," American Political Science Review 76 (June 1982): 303-16; David Miller, Social Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), pp. 257-72. [BACK]

60. Henry Rogers Seager, Social Insurance: A Program of Social Reform (New York: Macmillan, 1910); Isaac Max Rubinow, Social Insurance, With Special Reference to American Conditions (New York: Henry Holt, 1913); Roy Lubove, The Stuggle for Social Security, 1900-1935 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968). [BACK]

61. Jerry R. Cates, Insuring Inequality: Administrative Leadership in Social Security, 1935-54 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983), especially chap. 5. [BACK]