1. Private initiatives are frequently influenced by public policy; see, for example, Edward J. Harpham, "Private Pensions in Crisis: The Case for Radical Reform," Faculty Working Paper no. 8507, Center for Policy Studies, University of Texas at Dallas, January 1984. Henry Shue, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence, and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 37-46, shows considerable ingenuity in reducing the practical complexities of extending socioeconomic rights in developing nations, and I drew on his examples in chapter 2. But his arguments cannot directly be applied to advanced industrial societies. [BACK]

2. On the difficulties of complex action in American public programs, see Aaron Wildavsky, Speaking Truth to Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), pp. 41-61. For an exten- soft

sion of his reservations see E. E. Savas, Privatizing the Public Sector: How to Shrink Government (Chatam House, N.J.: Chatam House, 1982). For examples of similar problems in the private sector, see John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), pp. 315-17. [BACK]

3. David Miller, Social Justice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), pp. 136-43. [BACK]

4. See Ivan D. Illich, Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health (New York: Bantam, 1977). [BACK]

5. William Leiss, The Limits of Satisfaction: An Essay on the Problem of Needs and Commodities (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), pp. 27-28, 63-67, 92-93. [BACK]

6. Richard M. Coughlin, Ideology, Public Opinion, and Welfare Policy: Attitudes Toward Taxes and Spending in Industrialized Societies (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1980). [BACK]

7. See Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 105-8; Miller, Social Justice , pp. 136-43; and Lee Rainwater, What Money Buys: Inequality and the Social Meaning of Income (New York: Basic Books, 1974). [BACK]

8. T. H. Marshall, Social Policy (London: Hutchinson, 1965), pp. 177-79. [BACK]

9. See, for example, Gary Freeman, "Presidents, Pensions, and Fiscal Policy," in James P. Pfiffner, ed., The President and Economic Policy (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1986), pp. 135-59. [BACK]

10. Samuel P. Huntington, American Politics: The Promise of Disharmony (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 22. [BACK]

11. See Friedrich A. Hayek, The Mirage of Social Justice , vol. 2 of Law, Legislation, and Liberty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976); Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman, Free to Choose: A Personal Statement (New York: Avon, 1979). Hayek finds it reasonable that we choose to mitigate such suffering in this way, but he denies that it is just to do so or that these public programs can be appropriately construed as rights. Not all libertarians accept these measures as appropriate; see Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974), particularly chap. 7. [BACK]

12. Compare with Daniel Bell, "The End of American Exceptionalism," in Nathan Glazer and Irving Kristol, eds., The American Commonwealth—1976 (New York: Basic Books, 1976), particularly pp. 207-9. Resistance to this trend is particularly obvious in the area of public education. See Jennifer L. Hochschild, The New American Dilemma: Liberal Democracy and School Desegregation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984). break [BACK]

13. See G. John Ikenberry and Theda Skocpol, "Expanding Social Benefits: The Role of Social Security," Political Science Quarterly 102 (Fall 1987): 389-416; Jill S. Quadagno, "Welfare Capitalism and the Social Security Act of 1935," American Sociological Review 49 (October 1984): 632-47, especially pp. 636-38 and 642-44. [BACK]

14. This point is developed extensively by Kathi V. Friedman, Legitimation of Social Rights and the Western Welfare State: A Weberian Perspective (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981). [BACK]

15. See Joel F. Handler, Reforming the Poor: Welfare Policy, Federalism, and Morality (New York: Basic Books, 1972), pp. 34 and 130-31. [BACK]

16. Quadagno, "Welfare Capitalism," p. 640. See also Edward R. Tufte, Political Control of the Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978). [BACK]

17. Jan Narveson, "Human Rights, Which, If Any, Are There?" in J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman, editors, Nomos 23: Human Rights (New York: New York University Press, 1981), p. 177. [BACK]

18. Theda Skocpol and G. John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1983), p. 90. For variations on this idea in different contexts, see Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol, "Why Not Equal Protection? Explaining the Politics of Public Social Welfare in Britain and the United States, 1880s-1920s," paper presented at the 1983 annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Detroit, September 2, pp. 60-69; Peter Flora and Arnold J. Heidenheimer, eds., The Development of Welfare States in Europe and America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1981); Gaston V. Rimlinger, Welfare Policy and Industrialization in Europe, America, and Russia (New York: Wiley, 1971), especially chap. 4; Howard M. Leichter, A Comparative Approach to Policy Analysis: Health Care Policy in Four Nations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), especially chap. 5; Paul Adams, Health of the State (New York: Praeger, 1982); Hugh Heclo, Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden: From Relief to Income Maintenance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), particularly chap. 6; Charles Lockhart, ''Explaining Social Policy Differences Among Advanced Industrial Societies," Comparative Politics 16 (April 1984): 335-50; Tufte, Political Control; and Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1971). [BACK]

19. Heclo, Modern Social Politics, pp. 288-93, offers doubts about the efficacy of social-program platforms in electoral competition; see as well Harold L. Wilensky et al., Comparative Social Policy: Theories, Methods, Findings (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985), p. 33. Tufte, Political Control, discusses the per- soft

ceptions of elites, and Piven and Cloward, Regulating the Poor, analyze the American situation. [BACK]

20. Rimlinger, Welfare Policy and Industrialization, chap. 4. [BACK]

21. Piven and Cloward, Regulating the Poor . [BACK]

22. On medical-care providers, see Theodore R. Marmor, The Politics of Medicare (Chicago: Aldine, 1970), pp. 67, 86, and 122-23. On housing programs, see Joseph A. Califano, Jr., Governing America: An Insider's Report from the White House and the Cabinet (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), p. 331. On education, see E. A. Kelly, "Defederalization of Education," in Anthony Champagne and Edward J. Harpham, eds., The Attack on the Welfare State (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1984), pp. 165-76. [BACK]

23. For background on the generalizations that follow, see Lawrence M. Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Free Press, 1986); Peter Townsend, Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979); and Jennifer G. Schirmer, The Limits of Reform: Women, Capital, and Welfare (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1982). [BACK]

24. See Richard D. Coe, "A Preliminary Empirical Examination of the Dynamics of Welfare Use," in Martha S. Hill, Daniel H. Hill, and James N. Morgan, eds., Five Thousand American Families—Patterns of Economic Progress, Volume 9: Analyses of the First Twelve Years of the Panel on Income Dynamics (Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 1981), p. 132; Ken Auletta, The Underclass (New York: Random House, 1982). Winfred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), p. 113, suggests that AFDC may be an exception to this generalization. [BACK]

25. Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963). See also Handler, Reforming the Poor, pp. 34-38; Leonard Beeghley, Living Poorly in America (New York: Praeger, 1983), chaps. 4 and 6. [BACK]

26. See, for example, Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Knopf, 1973), p. 83. [BACK]

27. See Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, p. 182; Townsend, Poverty in the United Kingdom; Wilensky, Welfare State, pp. 95-96; Beeghley, Living Poorly; and Mead, Beyond Entitlement . [BACK]

28. On this point compare Wildavsky, Speaking Truth to Power, pp. 41-61, with Diana B. Dutton, "Explaining the Low Use of Health Services by the Poor: Costs, Attitudes, or Delivery Systems," American Sociological Review 43 (June 1978): 348-68. [BACK]

29. Charles Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950- hard

1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984), p. 212. Similarly, some West German conservatives protested that increases in medical-care and sick-pay benefits for blue-collar workers would encourage malingering; see William Safran, Veto-Group Politics: The Case of Health Insurance Reform in West Germany (San Francisco: Chandler, 1967). These claims were not borne out; see Christa Altenstetter, "Health Policy Making and Administration in West Germany and the United States," Sage Professional Papers in Administrative and Policy Studies, 3 (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1974). [BACK]

30. These generalizations draw on background provided by Lester M. Salamon, "Rethinking Public Management: Third-Party Government and the Changing Forms of Government Action," Public Policy 29 (Summer 1981): 255-75; Lester M. Salamon, Welfare: The Elusive Consensus—Where We Are, How We Got There, and What's Ahead (New York: Praeger, 1978), especially chap. 4; Gordon Chase, "Implementing a Human Service Program: How Hard Will It Be?" Public Policy 27 (Fall 1979): 385-435. [BACK]

31. Hochschild, New American Dilemma, shows, for example, that in the case of school desegregation sharp policy changes backed by active leadership were more apt to succeed than incremental efforts. [BACK]

32. Coughlin, however, finds that citizens in many advanced societies have lower regard for recipients of unemployment benefits or family allowances, regardless of program design features, than for elderly pensioners; see Ideology, Public Opinion, and Welfare Policy, p. 118. [BACK]

33. See Robert E. Goodin, "Freedom and the Welfare State: Theoretical Foundations," Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 149-76, particularly pp. 156-57; Joan Huggins, "Public Welfare: The Road to Freedom?" Journal of Social Policy 11 (April 1982): 177-99, especially pp. 191-92; and Schirmer, Limits of Reform, pp. 144-45. [BACK]

34. On the former point see Greg J. Duncan and James N. Morgan, "Persistence and Change in Economic Status and the Role of Changing Family Composition," in Hill, Hill, and Morgan, Five Thousand Families, pp. 1-44; Handler, Reforming the Poor; Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, particularly pp. 61 and 194-95. On the latter see Sar A. Levitan, Martin Rein, and David Marwick, Work and Welfare Go Together (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972); Murray, Losing Ground . [BACK]