1. Joan Hideko Fujimura, "Bandwagons in Science: Doable Problems and Transportable Packages as Factors in the Development of the Molecular Genetic Bandwagon in Cancer Research" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1986). [BACK]

2. This includes sixty-nine published in the 1970s (twenty with Duesberg as first author) and fifty-nine in the 1980s (eighteen as first author). Medline dates back to 1965. (In some cases, Medline does not include references to book chapters or to foreign journals, so it may understate an author's publication history.) [BACK]

3. See Eugene Garfield, Citation Indexing—Its Theory and Application in Science, Technology, and Humanities (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979), esp. 244 ff. For a skeptical perspective on the use of citation counts, see David Edge, "Quantitative Measures of Communication in Science: A Critical Review," History of Science 17 (June 1979): 102-134. [BACK]

4. Duesberg was born in 1936, Gallo in 1937. Duesberg received his Ph.D. in 1963, the same year that Gallo received his medical degree. [BACK]

5. Robert Teitelman, "The Baffling Standoff in Cancer Research," Forbes, 15 July 1985, 110. [BACK]

6. Peter H. Duesberg, "Activated Proto-Onc Genes: Sufficient or Necessary for Cancer?" Science 228 (10 May 1985): 669-677. [BACK]

7. Peter H. Duesberg, "Retroviruses as Carcinogens and Pathogens: Expectations and Reality," Cancer Research 47 (1 March 1987): 1199-1220, quotes from 1199-1200. [BACK]

8. Peter Duesberg, interview by author, tape recording, Berkeley, Calif., 28 September 1992. [BACK]

9. Duesberg, "Retroviruses as Carcinogens and Pathogens," 1212-1213. [BACK]

10. Ibid., 1215. [BACK]

11. See Bruno Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1987), 40-41. [BACK]

12. John Lauritsen, "First Things First: Some Thoughts on the `AIDS Virus' and AZT," New York Native, 1 June 1987, 1, 14-16 (cover story). [BACK]

13. This was a section heading in Lauritsen's article (ibid., 14). For debates surrounding the safety and efficacy of AZT, see part two of this book. [BACK]

14. Latour, "Science in Action," 44. [BACK]

15. Lauritsen, "First Things First," 14-15. [BACK]

16. John Lauritsen, "Saying No to HIV: An Interview with Prof. Peter Duesberg, Who Says, `I Would Not Worry about Being Antibody Positive,'" New York Native, 6 July 1987, 1, 17-25 (cover story), quote from 24. [BACK]

17. Ibid., 21. [BACK]

18. Ibid. [BACK]

19. James Kinsella, Covering the Plague: AIDS and the American Media (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1989), 46. [BACK]

20. Charles Shively, "AIDS and Genes," Gay Community News, 4 October 1987, 3, 13, 14. [BACK]

21. Katie Leishman, "AIDS and Insects," The Atlantic, September 1987, 56-72, quote from 71. [BACK]

22. "Channel 4 Programme Challenges Established Theories on Aids," Origin Universal News Services, 12 November 1987. [BACK]

23. Peter Duesberg, "A Challenge to the AIDS Establishment," Bio/Technology 5 (November 1987): 1244. [BACK]

24. See, for example, Duesberg's brief appearance as a quotable authority in John Crewdson, "Weak Immune System May Open AIDS Door," Chicago Tribune, 20 December 1987, 1. [BACK]

25. Lori Kenschaft, "Why Look at HIV?" Gay Community News, 20 December 1987, 3. See also "Scientist Disputes HIV Theory of AIDS," Bay Area Reporter, 24 December 1987, 16. [BACK]

26. Celia Farber, "AIDS: Words from the Front," Spin, January 1988, 43-44, 73. [BACK]

27. Duesberg was referring to an incident that had occurred in August the previous year, when arsonists set fire to the Florida home of three antibody-positive hemophiliac brothers after the family waged a successful legal battle to keep the boys from being excluded from public school. See David L. Kirp et al., Learning by Heart: AIDS and Schoolchildren in America's Communities (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers, 1989), 1-4. [BACK]

28. Farber, "AIDS: Words from the Front," 73. [BACK]

29. William Booth, "A Rebel without a Cause of AIDS," Science 239 (25 March 1988): 1485. [BACK]

30. Peter H. Duesberg, "In Pursuit of Harmless Viruses: The Last Stand of the Microbe Hunters," Raum & Zeit 1, no. 5 (1990): 4-8, quote from 6. [BACK]

31. Ibid., 5, 7-8. [BACK]

32. Pierre Bourdieu, "The Specificity of the Scientific Field and the Social Conditions of the Progress of Reason," Social Science Information 14 (December 1975): 19-47, esp. 30. [BACK]

33. Duesberg, "In Pursuit of Harmless Viruses," 1. [BACK]

34. Joe Nicholson, "AIDS Experts on Wrong Track: Top Doc," New York Post, 7 January 1988, 9. [BACK]

35. Phillip M. Boffey, "A Solitary Dissenter Disputes Cause of AIDS," New York Times, 12 January 1988, C-3. [BACK]

36. Joel N. Shurkin, "The AIDS Debate: Another View," Los Angeles Times, 18 January 1988, II-4. [BACK]

37. Anthony Liversidge and Celia Farber, "AIDS: Words from the Front," Spin, February 1988, 56-57, 67, 70. [BACK]

38. Booth, "A Rebel without a Cause of AIDS," 1485. [BACK]

39. Liversidge and Farber, "AIDS: Words from the Front," 57, 67. [BACK]

40. Ibid., 57. [BACK]

41. Ibid., 67. [BACK]

42. Quote of the Week, Gay Community News, 27 December 1987, 2. [BACK]

43. Evidence on progression from a state of asymptomatic HIV infection to an AIDS diagnosis came primarily from combined retrospective and longitudinal studies of gay men whose blood samples were taken initially for hepatitis B vaccine trials in the early 1980s but were subsequently analyzed for HIV antibodies. As time passed, more and more of these HIV-infected men developed AIDS, leading scientists to boost upward both their predictions of the percentage of infected people who would eventually sicken and their assessments of the mean time between infection and the onset of illness. [BACK]

44. David Perlman, "Positive AIDS Tests for Half of Gays in Study," San Francisco Chronicle, 1 January 1986. [BACK]

45. These developments are discussed in detail in part two of this book. [BACK]

46. Randy Shilts, "Theory That AIDS Is a `Super Syphilis,'" San Francisco Chronicle, 13 January 1988, A-7. [BACK]

47. Caden Gray, "Biologist Brings Message to Castro," San Francisco Sentinel, 15 January 1988, 7. [BACK]

48. Roger Rapaport, "Dissident Scientist's AIDS Theory Angers Colleagues," Oakland Tribune, 31 January 1988, B-4. [BACK]

49. Ann Giudici Fettner, "Dealing with Duesberg: Bad Science Makes Strange Bedfellows," Village Voice, 2 February 1988, 25. [BACK]

50. Quote of the Week, Gay Community News, 7 February 1988, 2. [BACK]

51. Fettner, "Dealing with Duesberg," 25. [BACK]

52. Jack Anderson, "AIDS Researcher Won't Confront Alternate Theory," Newsday, 9 February 1988, 64. [BACK]

53. Booth, "Rebel without a Cause of AIDS," 1486. [BACK]

54. Philip M. Boffey, "Reagan Names 12 to Panel on AIDS," New York Times, 24 July 1987, A-12. [BACK]

55. Drew Hopkins, "Peter Duesberg and the Media," Christopher Street, April 1988, 59. [BACK]

56. Katie Leishman, "The AIDS Debate That Isn't," Wall Street Journal, 26 February 1988, 14 (op-ed). [BACK]

57. My account of the AmFAR forum is based primarily on the summary prepared from a transcript and published as: Harold S. Ginsberg, "Scientific Forum on AIDS: A Summary (Does HIV Cause AIDS?)," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1 (April 1988): 165-172. [BACK]

58. Quoted in Kathleen McAuliffe, "The Etiology of AIDS," AIDS Targeted Information Newsletter 2 (May 1988): 1-3 (editorial). [BACK]

59. Ginsberg, "Scientific Forum on AIDS," 168. [BACK]

60. Michael Specter, "Panel Rebuts Biologist's Claims on Cause of AIDS," Washington Post, 10 April 1988, A-4. [BACK]

61. Ginsberg, "Scientific Forum on AIDS," 169. [BACK]

62. Ibid., 170. [BACK]

63. Ibid., 172. [BACK]

64. Ann Giudici Fettner, "Duesberg's AIDS Theories Get Scrutiny from Peers," San Francisco Sentinel, 15 April 1988, 6; John Lauritsen, "Kangaroo Court Etiology," New York Native, 9 May 1988, 14-19. [BACK]

65. An exception was Michael Specter's article in the Washington Post, a short but hard-hitting piece that left little doubt about Specter's opinion that Duesberg had lost the debate (Specter, "Panel Rebuts Biologist's Claims"). [BACK]

66. William Booth, "Duesberg Gets His Day in Court," Science 240 (15 April 1988): 279. [BACK]

67. Rebecca Ward, "Mainstream Scientists Confront Unorthodox View of AIDS," Nature 332 (14 April 1988): 574. [BACK]

68. Peter Duesberg, "AIDS and the `Innocent' Virus," New Scientist, 28 April 1988, 34-35. [BACK]

69. "And Yet It Kills," New Scientist, 14 April 1988, 17 (editorial). [BACK]

70. Harvey Bialy, letter to Daniel Koshland, 2 March 1988. [BACK]

71. W. Blattner, R. C. Gallo, and H. M. Temin, "Blattner and Colleagues Respond to Duesberg," Science 241 (29 July 1988): 514-517, quote from 517. [BACK]

72. Robert Gallo, interview by author, tape recording, Bethesda, Md., 3 November 1994. [BACK]

73. W. Blattner, R. C. Gallo, and H. M. Temin, "HIV Causes AIDS," Science 241 (29 July 1988): 515. [BACK]

74. Peter Duesberg, "Duesberg's Response to Blattner and Colleagues," Science 241 (29 July 1988): 515-516, quote from 516. [BACK]

75. Drew Hopkins, "Peter Duesberg and the Media," Christopher Street, April 1988, 52-59; Thomas Ryan, "AIDS as Career," Christopher Street, May 1988, 28-35. [BACK]

76. Rex Wockner, "Dissident Scientists Battle AIDS Dogmas," In These Times, 4 May 1988, 5. [BACK]

77. "Alternative Therapy" (segment by Spencer Michels, KQED San Francisco), MacNeil/Lehrer News Hour, 3 May 1988. [BACK]

78. Jack Anderson, "Doubts Raised about Virus as a Cause of AIDS," Newsday, 27 June 1988, 54. [BACK]

79. Jeff Miller, "AIDS Heresy," Discover, June 1988, 63. [BACK]

80. "Alternative Therapy." [BACK]

81. Ryan, "AIDS as Career," 32. [BACK]

82. Robert C. Gallo, "HIV—The Cause of AIDS: An Overview on Its Biology, Mechanisms of Disease Induction, and Our Attempts to Control It," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1 (December 1988): 521-535, quotes from 523. [BACK]

83. Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Confronting AIDS: Update 1988 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988), vi. [BACK]

84. Ibid., 33. [BACK]

85. Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic, Report of the Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Epidemic, Submitted to the President of the United States, June 24, 1988 (Washington, D.C., 1988), xvii. [BACK]

86. William Booth, "AIDS Paper Raises Red Flag at PNAS," Science 243 (10 February 1989): 733. [BACK]

87. Evelleen Richards, Vitamin C and Cancer: Medicine or Politics? (New York: St. Martin's, 1991), 90-91, 178-180. [BACK]

88. Peter H. Duesberg, "Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: Correlation but Not Causation," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 86 (February 1989): 755-764. [BACK]

89. Peter H. Duesberg, "AIDS Epidemiology: Inconsistencies with Human Immunodeficiency Virus and with Infectious Disease," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 88 (February 1991): 1575-1579. [BACK]

91. Anthony Liversidge, "PNAS Publication of AIDS Article Spurs Debate over Peer Review," The Scientist, 3 April 1989, 1, 4, 5, 19. [BACK]

92. For a discussion of debates about causation at the conference that took place in Montreal the previous year, see Paula A. Treichler, "AIDS, HIV, and the Cultural Construction of Reality" in The Time of AIDS: Social Analysis, Theory, and Method, ed. Gilbert Herdt and Shirley Lindenbaum (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), 65-98. [BACK]

93. Montagnier presented his case formally in: M. Lemaître et al., "Protective Activity of Tetracycline Analogs against the Cytopathic Effect of the Human Immunodeficiency Viruses in CEM Cells," Research in Virology 141 (January-February 1990): 5-16. [BACK]

94. Philip J. Hilts, "Evidence Is Said to Increase on Microbe's Role in AIDS," New York Times, 22 June 1990, A-18. [BACK]

95. Michael Miller, "Doctors Offer Witch's Brew of Alternative Aids Treatments," Reuters Library Report, 22 June 1990. This report carried a San Francisco dateline. [BACK]

96. "The AIDS Catch" (documentary produced and directed by Joan Shenton, shown on Channel 4, British television), Meditel Productions, 5 March 1990. [BACK]

97. Jad Adams, AIDS: The HIV Myth (New York: St. Martin's, 1989). [BACK]

98. "The AIDS Catch." [BACK]

99. Peter H. Duesberg and Bryan J. Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction? Immunosuppressive Behavior, Not HIV, May Be the Cause of AIDS," Heritage Foundation Policy Review, summer 1990, 40-51. [BACK]

100. Bryan Ellison, interview by author, Berkeley, Calif., 1 October 1992. [BACK]

101. Adam Meyerson, "Is HIV the Cause of AIDS?" Heritage Foundation Policy Review, fall 1990, 70 (editor's introduction to a special letters section). [BACK]

102. Duesberg and Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction?" 41. [BACK]

103. Ibid., 43. [BACK]

104. Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Mobilizing against AIDS (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1989), app. B. First printed in the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 36, suppl. 1 (14 August 1987): 3S-15S [BACK]

105. Ibid., 288. [BACK]

106. Duesberg and Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction?" 46. [BACK]

107. Robert S. Root-Bernstein, "AIDS and Kaposi Sarcoma Pre-1979," Lancet 335 (21 April 1990): 969 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

108. Duesberg and Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction?" 48. [BACK]

109. Both Duesberg and Ellison agreed in retrospect that it was Ellison who advocated inclusion of the immune overload argument, while Duesberg at this point became suspicious of the linkage between sexual practices and AIDS. See the discussion of the evolution of Duesberg's causal argument after this point, in chapter 4. [BACK]

110. Duesberg and Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction?" 49. [BACK]

111. This decidedly odd reference to malnourished homosexuals is perhaps an allusion to the "gay bowel syndrome," which was often mentioned in the early medical literature on AIDS during the heyday of the immune overload hypothesis (see chapter 1). [BACK]

112. Duesberg and Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction?" 48. [BACK]

113. John Lauritsen, letter to Peter Duesberg, 27 March 1990. [BACK]

114. Duesberg and Ellison, "Is the AIDS Virus a Science Fiction?" 49. [BACK]

115. Ibid., 50-51. [BACK]

116. Ibid. [BACK]

117. Howard M. Temin, "Proof in the Pudding," Heritage Foundation Policy Review, fall 1990, 71-72 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

118. Warren Winkelstein Jr., "Evidence for HIV," Heritage Foundation Policy Review, fall 1990, 71 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

119. Michael Fumento, "Duesberg Injected," Heritage Foundation Policy Review, fall 1990, 80-81 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

120. Peter H. Duesberg and Bryan J. Ellison, "Peter H. Duesberg and Bryan J. Ellison Respond," Heritage Foundation Policy Review, fall 1990, 81-83 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

121. Ibid. [BACK]

122. Alfred S. Evans, "Does HIV Cause AIDS? An Historical Perspective," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2 (April 1989): 107-113; Peter Duesberg, "Does HIV Cause AIDS?" Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2 (October 1989): 514-515 (letter to the editor); Alfred S. Evans, "Author's Reply," Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2 (October 1989): 515-517 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

123. Evans, "Does HIV Cause AIDS?" 107, 112. [BACK]

124. Duesberg cited a New York Native article by Joseph Sonnabend in his "HIV Is Not the Cause of AIDS"; he cited Celia Farber, Katie Leishman, and John Lauritsen in Duesberg, "Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome"; he cited Jad Adams, Farber, and Lauritsen in P. H. Duesberg, "AIDS: Non-Infectious Deficiencies Acquired by Drug Consumption and Other Risk Factors," Research in Immunology 141 (January 1990): 5-11; and so on. [BACK]

125. Robert Root-Bernstein, "Do We Know the Cause(s) of AIDS?" Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 33 (summer 1990): 480-500. [BACK]

126. Robert Gallo, Virus Hunting (New York: Basic Books, 1991). [BACK]

127. Ibid., 276, 277. [BACK]

128. Gallo, interview. [BACK]

129. Gallo, Virus Hunting, 286, 296. [BACK]

130. Ibid., 285, 289. [BACK]

131. Garry Abrams, "Hero or Heretic? Peter Duesberg, One of the Country's Top Virus Specialists, Risks Reputation with Theory That HIV Doesn't Cause AIDS," Los Angeles Times, 21 May 1991, E-I. [BACK]

132. Kim Painter, "A Controversial 'Spin' on AIDS," USA Today, 21 March 1989, D-5. [BACK]

133. Charles Trueheart, "Down at the Healers," Washington Post, 24 July 1990, E-7. [BACK]

134. Nathaniel S. Lehrman, "AIDS Controversy and the Media," Lies of Our Times, July-August 1991, 20. [BACK]

135. John Lauritsen, "Science by Press Release," New York Native, 21 August 1989, 20-22; John Lauritsen, "The 'AIDS' War: Censorship and Propaganda Dominate Media Coverage of the Epidemic," New York Native, 12 August 1991, 14-18. [BACK]

136. Michael C. Botkin, "The Great KS Debate," Bay Area Reporter, 29 August 1991, 19, 24. [BACK]

137. Ralph Garrett, "Blind Trust," San Diego Gay Times, 20 June 1991, 16 (letter to the editor). [BACK]

138. Stephen Hilgartner, "The Dominant View of Popularization: Conceptual Problems, Political Uses," Social Studies of Science 20 (August 1990): 519-539, quote from 522. [BACK]

139. See note 124 above. [BACK]

140. Hilgartner, "Dominant View of Popularization," 524. [BACK]