Index
A
Abbott (pharmaceutical company), 324
Abbott, Andrew, 438 n.19
on academic researchers, 215
on advisory jurisdictions, 339
on the germ theory, 58
on the professions, 23 , 372 n.113
Aboulker, Jean-Pierre, 301
Abraham, John, 375 n.155
Abrams, Donald: on activism, 341
on clinical trials, 248
on ddI licensing, 277
forms the County Community Consortium, 217
Abrams, Garry, 140
academic freedom, 176
accelerated approval program, 315 -16. See also conditional approval program
Acker, Caroline Jean, 375 n.147
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. See AIDS
ACTG (AIDS Clinical Trials Group), 340
activist involvement in, 290 -91
ACTG 016 trial, 237
ACTG 019 trial, 237 -40
ACTG 076 trial, 325
ACTG 318
activism: cancer movement, 348 -49
environmental movement, 351
of Haitians, 66
of people with hemophilia, 289 -90
against paternalism, 222 . See also ACT UP; AIDS movement; feminist health movement; gay movement; social movements; treatment activism
actor-network theory of scientific knowledge, 18
ACT UP (AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power), 219 -21
accused of racism, 291
chapters worldwide, 219
demonstration at NIH headquarters, 287
identity politics of, 21
involvement in the ACTG, 284 -87
meetings by consensus, 220
negotiations with the FDA, 226
people of color in, 291
rifts within, 291 -94
street theater of, 247
Western vs . alternative medicine, 293 -94.
See also specific chapters
ACT UP/Boston, 220
ACT UP/Chicago, 292
ACT UP/Golden Gate, 349
ACT UP/Houston, 219
ACT UP/Los Angeles, 220
ACT UP/New Orleans, 219
ACT UP/New York: "AIDS Treatment Research Agenda," 281
dominance of, 220
"FDA Action Handbook," 224 -25
Media Committee, 225
Treatment & Data Committee, 293
Women's Action Committee, 292
Women's Caucus, 292 .
See also TAG
ACT UP/Portland, 292
ACT UP/San Francisco, 294
ACT UP/Seattle, 219
ACT UP/Underground, 299 -300
acyclovir (herpes medication), 182
Adam, Barry D., 364 n.36
Adams, Jad, 140
advisory jurisdictions, 339
Advocate (California newsmagazine), 356
Africa, 162
HIV-2 in, 208
suspected as source of AIDS, 259
Africa-Americans: marginalization of, 66
as underrepresented in clinical trials, 259
African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV), 100 -101
Agosto, Moisés, 352
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): "AIDS virus" terminology, 392 n.51
epidemiology of, 364 n.33
fear/prejudice engendered by, 395 -96 n.27
first reports of, 45 -48
without HIV, 160 -63
literature on social aspects of, 38 -41
longterm survivors of, 306
markets of, 316 (see also T cells)
natural history of, 251
progression of, 396 n.43
rationale for name of, 55
spread/rise of, 325
stages of, 283 -84
stigma of, 78
surveillance definition of, 289
transmissibility of, 96
AIDS: From the Beginning (JAMA) , 101 -2
AIDS Action Pledge (later called ACT UP/San Francisco), 219
AIDS activism.
See AIDS movement; treatment activism
AIDS-associated retrovirus.
See ARV
"The AIDS Catch" (documentary), 138
AIDS Clinical Trials Group.
See ACTG
AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power.
See ACT UP
AIDS education, 413 n.5
AIDS movement, 370 n.87
activitists' dependence on biomedicine, 14
AZT disapproved by some members of, 149
and body as symbol of selfhood, 21
decline of, 326 -28
diversity of, 8
effects on doctor-patient relationship, 346 -47
expertification within, 350 -53
"Founding Statement of People with AIDS/ARC," 206
fractures within, 133
on genocide-by-neglect, 221 -22
and patient autonomy, 222
"Patient's Bill of Rights," 206
and sexual politics, 20 -21
as shaped by clinical picture of AIDS, 10
as shaped by epidemiology of AIDS, 10 -11
"victim" label rejected by, 206 .
See also ACT UP; treatment activism
AIDS Quilt, 225
AIDS research: basic research, 318 -22
cooperation between researchers, 211 -12
literature on, growth of, 388 n.2
monetary investment in, 113
pace of, 429 n.4
racial limits of, 261
viral hypothesis and citations to Gallo, 87 (table)
AIDS Research (journal), 134
"AIDS Research at the NIH" (Gonsalves and Harrington), 297 -99
AIDS testing.
See blood screening test
AIDS Treatment Activist Conference, 291
AIDS Treatment Evaluation Units.
See ATEUs
AIDS Treatment News .
See ATN
AIDS Treatment Registry (New York City), 250
The AIDS War (Lauritsen), 169
Albert, Edward, 377 n.166
alternative conference (1992; Amsterdam), 154
alternative press, 174
Altman, Dennis, 442 n.68
Altman, Lawrence: on AIDS, 297
blames activists, 311
on Concorde trial, 304 -5
on the gay lifestyle, 46
on Koch's postulates, 95
Alzheimer's disease, 348
AMA. See American Medical Association amantadine (flu medication), 182
American Academy for the Advancement of Science, 169
American Foundation for AIDS Research.
See AmFAR
American Medical Association (AMA), 100
Task Force on AIDS, 102 .
See also Journal of the American Medical Association
AmFAR (American Foundation for AIDS Research), 397 n.65
Ammann, Arthur, 83 -84
Anderson, Jack, 125
And the Band Played On (Shilts), 38 -39
Annals of Internal Medicine , 358
antibiotics, 134
antibody test.
See blood screening test
antigen overload hypothesis. See immune overload hypothesis
Anti-Infective Advisory Committee (FDA), 200
antimoniotungstate (HPA-23), 188
antisense therapy, 306
Antiviral Advisory Committee (FDA), 316
approves indinavir, ritonavir, and saquinavir, 324
antiviral drugs, 36 .
See also specific drugs
apoptosis, 155
Apple, Rima D., 363 n.30
archeological model of analysis, 357
Arksey, Hilary, 367 n.67
Armstrong, David, 370 n.94
Armstrong, Jana, 382 n.33
Arno, Peter, 438 n.21
Aronowitz, Stanley, 362 n.9
Aronson, Naomi, 366 n.60
Arras, John D., 412 n.93
ARV (AIDS-associated retrovirus), 77 .
See also HIV-1
Ascher, Michael, 164
ASFV (African Swine Fever Virus), 100 -101
Asians, drug metabolization in, 260
ATEUs (AIDS Treatment Evaluation Units), 210 -11
Atlanta, incidence of AIDS in, 259
ATN (AIDS Treatment News ), 349
on Concorde trial, 303 -4
authority, 373 n.123
of activists, 342
of doctors, 190
of experts, 5 -6
of knowledge, 2 -3
moral, 172
of professionals, 268 -69
scientific, 368 n.76
suspicion toward, 242 .
See also credibility
autoimmune mechanisms, 284
autonomy: of patients, 310
professional, 269
of science, 363 n.24
azidothymidine.
See AZT
AZT (azidothymidine; brand name Retrovir; generic name zidovudine), 418 n.16
ACTG 076 trial, 325
for AIDS patients, 213
for asymptomatic HIV positives, 300 -305
Burroughs Wellcome supplies AZT free to AIDS patients, 198 -99
Concorde trial, 333 -34
cost of, 199
criticized by AIDS movement, 401 -2 n20
criticized by HIV dissenters, 299
European-Australian Collaborative Group study, 311
harmfulness of, 148
history of, 214
ineffectiveness of, 148 -49
as prolonging life, 430 n.22
Protocol 016 trial, 237
Protocol 019 trial, 237 -40
replacement with better drugs, expectation of, 243
side effects from, 266
as slowing AIDS progress, 237 -40
toxicity of, 302 -3
and viral mutation, 265 . See also clinical trials; combination therapy
B
Balogh, Brian, 438 n.9
Baltimore, David, 283
Barnes, Barry, 366 n.54
Barr, David, 318
on ACTG 308
on the CCG, 293
on conditional approval, 274
on ddI licensing, 278
on leaving ACT UP, 292
on uncertainty, 344
Barron's , 315
Barry, David, 204
basic research, 318 -22
bath houses, 134
Baudrillard, Jean, 362 n.10
Bay Area Physicians for Human Rights, 187
Bay Area Reporter (San Francisco), 145
Bayer, Ronald, 378 n.170
Bayer Company (Germany), 184
Beecher, Henry, 189
Bell, Alan P., 382 n.28
Benford, Robert D., 440 n.48
on social movements, 372 n.113
Berg, Marc, 372 n.112
Berkowitz, Richard, 65
Best, Joel, 372 n.117
b2 microglobulin, 271
Bethell, Tom, 159
Bialy, Harvey, 174
Bihari, Bernard, 218
Bilstad, James, 272
Biological Chemistry (journal), 442 n.10
biomedical researchers: clash with biostatisticians, 314
and the monocausal/microbial theory, 58
respect for activists, 337 -39
biomedicine: distrust of, 6 -7
ideological function in capitalist society, 58
lay intervention in, 298 -99 (see also treatment activism);
and the professions, 372 n.113
and women, 288 -89.
See also biomedical researchers; clinical trials; doctors
Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy , 147
biostatisticians: clash with researchers, 314
on subgroup analysis, 433 n.82
support of activists, 262 -63
on surrogate markers, 271
black boxes, in fact construction, 331
blacks. See African-Americans
Blanchard, Franois, 411 n.74
Blattner, William, 124
Bledstein, Burton J., 371 n.108
blood screening test, 391 n.44
anonymous testing, 393 n.62
licensed by FDA, 182
and positive/negative polarization, 93
U.S. government applies for patent for, 72
blood transfusion, 134 -35
as immunosuppressive, 61
studies of, 124
Bloor, David, 442 n.2
Bodewitz, Henk J. H. W., 375 n.155
body, as symbol of selfhood, 21
Body Positive, 126
Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, 282
Boffey, Philip, 114 -15
Boggs, Carl, 369 n.87
Booth, William, 128
bootleg drugs, 267 -68
Bor, Robert, 388 n.1
Bosk, Charles, 412 n.97
Botkin, Michael, 279
boundary work, 24
Bourdieu, Pierre, 438 n.11
on autonomy of science, 363 n.24
conception of science, 367 -68 n.76
on fields, 437 n.1
Brady, Judy, 440 n.53
Brandt, Allan, 383 n.52
Brandt, Edward, 95 -96
Braverman, G'dali, 327
Breast Cancer Action (San Francisco), 349
breast cancer activism, 348 -49
Brennan, Robert O., 47
Brint, Steven, 362 n.7
Bristol-Myers Squibb, 276
Britain, attitude toward treatment in, 245 -46
Broder, Samuel, 282
Bronski, Michael, 62
Brook, Itzhak, 213
Brown, Helene, 207
Brown, Phil, 368 n.80
Buckley Jr., William F., 187
Budd, Richard W., 442 n.8
Buffleben, Gracia, 349
Bunders, Joske, 368 n.80
Burkett, Elinor, 379 n.174
Burlington, Bruce, 250 -51
Burroughs Wellcome, 423 n.104
and AZT trials, 312
on ddC, 279
donates money to treatment activists, 299 -300
marketing of AZT, 299
merges with Glaxo, 323
profits from Retrovir (AZT), 240
supplies free AZT to AIDS patients, 198 -99
Bury, Michael, 363 n.27
Buurma, Henk, 375 n.155
buyers clubs, 267 -68
Byar, David, 262 -63
C
Caiazza, Stephen, 126
California Political Review (journal), 159
Callen, Michael, 168
death of, 169
disapproves of AZT, 302
on pentamidine, 218
on promiscuity, 63 -64
on self-reliance, 65
Calman, Kenneth, 151
Cambrosio, Alberto, 366 n.52
cancer, 207
activism, 348 -49
Kaposi's sarcoma, 133
Cancer Research , 190
cancer research, 211
Community Clinical Oncology Program, 217
doctor-researchers, 215
candidiasis, 132
Caplan, Arthur L., 374 n.142
Casper, Monica J., 372 n.112
Cassileth, Barrie R., 207
causation: conceptions of, 52 -53
vs . correlation, 148
and dose-response relationship, 76
and latency period, 76
vs . pathogenesis, 157
and ratio of disease rates, 76
and treatment effectiveness, 168
web of, 57 .
See also Koch's postulates
causation controversy, 379 n.173
and closure, 166 -70
coverage by British press, 150 -52
and social attitudes, 31
vs . treatment controversy, 177 -78.
See also Duesberg, Peter
CCC (County Community Consortium; San Francisco), 218
CCG (Community Constituency Group), 294
CDC (Centers for Disease Control): on AIDS without HIV, 162 -63
definition/diagnosis of AIDS, 391 n.44
on epidemiology of early cases, 47
first reports on AIDS, 45 -46
on Haitians with AIDS, 56
on hemophiliacs with PCP, 56
on HIV hypothesis, 83
naming the disease AIDS, 55
CD4. See T cells
CD4 + T-lymphocytopenia (ICL), 163
CFS. See chronic fatigue syndrome
Chalmers, Thomas, 267
Cheng, Ben, 326
Chermann, Jean Claude, 185
Chesler, Mark A., 440 n.47
children, 136
AZT administered to pregnant women, 325
AZT not available for, 423 n.104
as underrepresented in clinical trials, 260
chimpanzees: with AIDS, 209
studies of, 87 -90
cholera, blame for, 53
Chou, Danny, 405 n.100
Christopher Street (magazine), 125
chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), 348
Chronicle of Higher Education , 144
Citizens for Medical Justice (later called ACT UP/San Francisco), 219
Clarke, Adele, 375 n.153
clinical trials: accrual of subjects, 252
ACTG 016 trial, 237
ACTG 019 trial, 237 -40
ACTG 076 trial, 325
ACTG 318
activist involvement in design of, 439 n.33
ATEUs established, 196
and control of access to drugs, 227 -28
cooperation of subjects in, 249
definitiveness of, 343
entry criteria for, 251
as "gold standard" in biomedicine, 196 -98
intent-to-treat analysis, 313 -14
interpretation of, 34
large-scale, 317
and meaningful/important questions, 251 -52
minorities, women, and children in, 339 -40
multiple medications prohibited in, 254
numbers of, 197
objectivity of, 345
and parallel track program, 236 -37
phases of, 273
placebo effects of participating in, 193
pragmatic vs . fastidious, 342
as providing access to new treatments, 197 -98
as representing reality, 273
science studies literature on, 374 -75 n.147
vs . treatment, 202
and uncertainty, 343 -46. See also AZT
ethics of clinical research
placebos in clinical trials
Clinton, Bill, 326
closure of controversy, 334
CMV (cytomegalovirus) infections, 132
CMV retinitis, 235
co-citation analysis, 388 n.2
cofactors, 306
Montagnier on, 284 .
See also immune overload hypothesis
Cohen, Cathy, 414 n.41
on people of color in ACT UP, 289
Cohen, Jean, 370 n.96
Cohen, Jon, 406 n.114
cohort studies, 203
Colby, David C., 377 n.166
Collins, Harry, 442 n.4
on core set of experts, 17 -18
on scientific certainty, 411 n.82
on scientific controversy, 171
on scientific credibility, 242
on role of experiments, 167
Comaroff, Jean, 370 n.92
combination therapy, 265 -80
ACTG 279
ACTG 318
and buyers clubs, 267 -68
ddC, 279
and early intervention, 322
and surrogate markers, 270 -76
3TC, 322 -23
Committee of Ten Thousand, 290
Community-Acquired Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia, 47
community-based trials, 438 n.22
Community Clinical Oncology Program, 217
Community Constituency Group. See CCG
Community Research Initiative (New York City), 217 -19
Competitive Policy Institute, 223
Compound Q (tricosanthin), 257 -58
Conant, Marcus, 268
Concorde trial, 333 -34
conditional approval program, 273 -75.
See also accelerated approval program
condoms, 96 -97
Conference of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (1985), 91 -92
Confronting AIDS (Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences), 126 -27
Connor, Steve, 151 -52, 376 n.158, 386 n.92
The Search for the Virus , 39
Conrad, Peter, 388 n.136
conservatives' support of Duesberg, 158 -59
conspiracy theories: embraced by New York gay community, 242
genetic engineering by CIA or U.S. Army, 96
genocide, 259
swine fever, U.S. government cover-up of, 101
voodoo, 66
constitutive vs . contingent forum, 171 -72
controversy in science, 333 -34
closure of, 334
Cook, Timothy E., 377 n.166
Cooper, Ellen, 262
on surrogate markers, 275
Corea, Gena, 408 n.20
on women and AIDS, 288
correlation, 148
Corti, Jim (Dextran Man), 416 n.60
Cotton, Deborah, 313
Council on Scientific Affairs (AMA), 82 -83
County Community Consortium. See CCC
Cowley, Geoffrey, 162
Cox, Spencer, 316
Cozzens, Susan, 368 n.80
Craib, Kevin, 165
Cramer, Jacqueline, 368 n.80
credibility, 333 -34
of activists, 335 -39
consequences of achieving, 336
conversion of, 142
and credentials, 334 -35
crisis, 7
definition of, 361 n.2
and democracy, 176 -77
and doctors' social location, 16
fragility of, 16
of leaders within social movements, 351
markers of, 337 -39
and the media, 335 (see also
Continued on next page
Continued from previous page
specific publications )
monopolization of, 173
moral, 336
and power, 25
struggles, 330
tactics for establishing or undercutting, 335 -36
and trust, 25
and uncertainty, 331 -34.
See also authority
Crewdson, John, 70
CRI (Community Research Initiative; New York City), 217 -19
Crigler, Ann N., 377 n.166
Crimp, Douglas, 416 n.71
Crowley III, William Francis Patrick, 438 n.7
cryptosporidiosis, 132
cultural capital, 12
culture of critical discourse, 438 n.7
Curran, James, 161
cytocidal DNA chain terminators, 148
See also AZT
cytokines, 306
cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections, 132
D
Daily Telegraph (London), 150
Dallas, incidence of AIDS in, 259
Dalton, Harlon L., 377 n.168
Darrow, William, 382 n.29
Dawid, Igor, 146
ddC (dideoxycytidine), 272
ACTG 318
licensing of, 278 -80
ddI (dideoxyinosine), 268
licensing of, 276 -78
Dean, Malcolm, 152
Delaney, Martin, 175
on AZT, 307
on basic research, 321
on drug regulation, 274 -75
on Duesberg, 174
on experimental-drug use, 188 -89
founds Project Inform, 188 -89
optimism of, 296
researches Compound Q, 257 -58
supports Gallo, 155
on surrogate markers, 271 -72
on tat inhibitor, 296
dementia, 147
D'Emilio, John, 364 n.36
Des Jarlais, Don C., 378 n.168
democracy: and credibility, 176 -77
and public engagement with science, 350 -53
Dennenberg, Risa, 292
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 67
D'Eramo, James, 99
Dextran Man (Jim Corti), 416 n.60
d4T, 315
diarrhea, 132 -33
diazepam (Valium), 282
Di Chiro, Giovanna, 368 n.80
dideoxycytidine. See ddC
dideoxyinosine. See ddI
difference, markers of, 352
Discover (magazine), 125
Discovering (Root-Bernstein), 153
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 67
Dobson, Jesse, 295
doctor-patient relationship: and the educated patient, 207
effects of AIDS movement on, 346 -47
and the feminist health movement, 9 -10
in gay communities, 205
models of, 346
doctors: authority of, 373 n.123
autonomy of, 268 -69
credibility of, 16
dependence on, 7
divided loyalties of, 215 -16
gay, 187
as patients' liaison to biomedicine, 16
vs . researchers, 432 n.65
tolerance of buyers clubs, 268
Donohew, Lewis, 442 n.8
Douglas, Mary, 422 n.91
drug-AIDS hypothesis, 158
Duesberg on, 145 -50
nitrite inhalants, 133
drug underground, 267 -68
drug users: AIDS among, 148
considered "bad" research subjects, 259
proposal to supply clean needles to, 93
as underrepresented in clinical trials, 259 .
See also drug-AIDS hypothesis
Dubler, Nancy Neveloff, 440 n.43
Dubos, René, 405 n.106
Duesberg, Peter, 170
admired in gay community, 117 -18
on African AIDS, 162
AIDS establishment response to, 126
appears in Dispatches documentaries, 112
appears in "The AIDS Catch" documentary, 130
on AZT's harmfulness, 149
continued on next page
continued from previous page
Duesberg, Peter (continued )
background/training of, 395 n.4
cited by others, 106
on cohort studies, 167
conservatives' support of, 158 -59
credentials of, 157
credibility of, 156 -57
discovers src, 106
drug-AIDS hypothesis of, 158
on epidemiology and correlation, 405 n.100
on Gallo, 116
on gay lifestyle, 399 n.109
heretic/maverick image of, 152 -53
homophobia, accused of, 158
interviewed by Farber, 112 -13
interviewed by Lauritsen, 110 -11
Inventing the AIDS Virus , 169
on the media, 176
motives of, 159
newspaper coverage of controversy, 144 -46
offers to be injected with HIV, 138
on oncogene theory, 107
Outstanding Investigator Grant not renewed, 144
on profit motive behind HIV hypothesis, 158
on public scrutiny of science, 177
publishes in Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy , 147
publishes in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 127 -29
rejects HIV hypothesis, 123 -25
"Retroviruses as Carcinogens and Pathogens," 109
on retroviruses as harmless, 114
on risk-AIDS hypothesis, 131 -37
on syncytia, 209
volume of articles by, 394 n.2.
See also causation controversy
Dugdale, Anni, 375 n.147
Durack, David T., 47 -48
Duster, Troy, 423 n.110
Dutton, Diana, 368 n.80
E
early intervention, 322 .
See also treatment
ecological model of illness, 57 -58
Edgar, Harold, 411 n.79
on ethics of clinical research, 190
Edge, David, 394 -95 n.3
Ehrenreich, Barbara, 362 n.16
Ehrenreich, John, 362 n.16
Eigo, Jim, 230
on AIDS research, 248 -49
on body as site for elaborating activism, 21
on clean data, 256
on clinical trials, 264
on Fauci, 236
on the FDA, 224 -25
on parallel track program, 236
on placebos, 251
Elbaz, Gilbert, 439 n.31
on ACT UP/New York City, 220
on lay experts, 293
Elford, Jonathan, 388 n.I
Eliasoph, Nina, 371 n.104
Ellenberg, Susan, 341
on subgroup analysis, 313
on surrogate markers, 271
Ellison, Bryan J., 162
on immune overload hypothesis, 399 n.109
on risk-AIDS hypothesis, 131 -37
Emke, Ivan, 377 n.166
Engelhardt Jr., H. Tristram, 374 n.142
enrollment of allies, in scientific controversies, 373 n.121
environmental movement, 351
epidemiology, 405 n.100
correlation, 124 -25
criticism of, 61 -62
and focus on promiscuity of gay men, 49
and lifestyle politics, 49 -53
Epstein, Barbara, 441 n.64
Epstein, Steven, 406 n.114
Epstein-Barr virus, 108
equipoise in clinical trials, 251
Erni, John Nguyet, 376 n.165
Escoffier, Jeffrey, 382 n.26
Essex, Myron (Max), 70
ethics of clinical research: control of access to drugs, 227 -28
entry criteria, 253 -63
equipoise, 251
prevention counseling, 413 n.5
prohibition against patients' taking multiple medications, 254
subjects' rights vs. benefit to society, 248 .
See also placebos in clinical trials
etiology. See causation
European-Australian Collaborative Group study, 311
Evans, Alfred, 138
expanded access, 340
experimenters' regress, 15
experts: authority of, 5 -6
community-based, 97
core set of, 17 -18
and democracy, 350 -53
dependence on, 15
distrust of, 5 -7
maintaining legitimacy, 16 -17
manufacture of, 337
patients as, 9
power of, 4
vs . laypeople, 350
within social movements, 342
Eyerman, Ron, 368 n.80
Ezrahi, Yaron, 407 n.132
F
Factor 56
Fain, Nathan, 98
Farber, Celia, 176
Farmer, Paul, 385 n.87
Fauci, Anthony: on AIDS vaccine, 182
assumption of AIDS/gay link, 56
on AZT, 240
on the CCG, 290
on community-based research, 219
on covert infection of lymphoid cells, 164
criticized by activists for incompetence, 236
on drug testing, 261
on Duesberg, 170
on HIV hypothesis, 115
on the media, 175
and National Conference on Women and HIV Infection, 289
supports activists, 338
supports parallel track program, 236 -37
on surrogate markers, 316
FDA (Food and Drug Administration): accelerated approval of drugs, 315 -16
Anti-Infective Advisory Committee, 200
Antiviral Advisory Committee, 316
AZT approved by, 199
blood screening test licensed by, 182
and buyers clubs, 223 -24
clinical trials required for drug licensing, 408 n.12
compassionate-use approval of drugs, 222
conditional approval of drugs, 273 -74
criticized by activists, 222 -26
criticized by conservatives, 223
d4 T approved by, 315
on HIV hypothesis, 83
ignores buyers clubs, 269
pentamidine approved by, 218
on surrogate markers, 275 -76
Treatment Investigational New Drugs, 222
women in clinical trials, attitude toward, 340
"FDA Action Handbook," 224 -25
Fee, Elizabeth, 364 n.30
Feenberg, Andrew, 441 n.63
Feiden, Karyn, 438 n.21
Feigal, David, 278
Feinberg, Mark, 283
Feinstein, Alvan, 255
feminist health movement, 205
Feorino, Paul, 391 n.37
Fettner, Ann, 122
fever, 147
field, definition of, 437 n.1
Fields, Bernard, 320
Figert, Anne E., 371 n.101
Filardo, W., 443 n.12
Financial Times , 151
Fineman, Norman, 412 n.84
Fischl, Margaret, 284
flu (influenza A), 182
fluoridation controversy, 174
Food and Drug Administration. See FDA
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938), 185
Fortin, Alfred J., 394 n.84
Foucault, Michel, 382 n.26
on genealogical research, 357
on the microphysics of power, 4
on the power of professionals, 23
on sexuality, 20
Foundation for Alternative AIDS Research (Netherlands), 154
"Founding Statement of People with AIDS/ARC," 206
Fox, Daniel M., 378 n.170
Fox, Rene C., 432 n.65
Frader, Joel, 412 n.97
framing, 285
Francis, Donald, 89
Frankel, Henry, 374 n.140
Franke-Ruta, Garance, 352
Franks, Pat, 383 n.42
freedom of thought, 176
Friedland, Gerald, 239
Friedman, Samuel R., 378 n.168
Friedman-Kien, Alvin, 160 -61
Freidson, Eliot, 381 n.17
on professional authority, 205
Fujimura, Joan, 391 n.41
on the causation controversy,
contiued on next page
continued from previous page
378 -79 n.173
on Duesberg, 405 n.100
on oncogene theory, 105
Fumento, Michael, 161 -62
G
Gaceta Médica de México , 27
Galison, Peter, 374 n.142
Gallo, Robert, 395 n.4
on activists, 338
on animal retrovirus/cancer link, 67
awards received by, 106
on chimpanzee studies, 87 -88
cited by others, 443 n.15
commitment to doctrine of specific etiology, 69
discovers HTLV-I and HTLV-II, 67 -68
on Duesberg, 140
on etiology vs. pathogenesis, 123 -24
on future treatment possibilities, 306
on HHV-6, 139
on HTLV, 73
on HTLV-III, 387 n.120
on immune overload theory, 68 -69
interviewed in New York Native , 99 -100
on Koch's postulates, 99
Montagnier's LAV sample found in viral cultures, 386 n.107
on progress in AIDS research, 66 -67
publishes in Science with 80
publishes in Science with Montagnier, 70
serology studies by, 87
Virus Hunting , 138
Gamson, Joshua, 414 n.41
on ACT UP, 220
Gamson, William, 369 n.83
ganciclovir, 235
Garfield, Eugene, 443 n.14
Garrett, Laurie, 436 n.149
Garrett, Ralph, 141
Garrison, Jayne, 296
Gaventa, John, 441 n.63
gay community: acceptance of HIV hypothesis, 95 -97
AIDS/gay link, reactions to, 53 -55
antibody status as identity marker in, 93
desperation/despondency in, 296
discrimination against, 187
Duesberg admired by some in, 117 -18
lifestyle in, 382 n.29
marginalization of, 66
mistrust of medical profession, 64 -65
in New York City, antiauthoritarian skepticism of, 242
quarantine, fear of, 393 n.62
safe sex practiced in, 96 -97
Gay Community News (GCN : Boston weekly), 356
on Duesberg, 118
on HIV hypothesis, 98
on transmissibility of AIDS, 62
Gay Compromise Syndrome, 47
gay lifestyle, politics of, 380 n.15
gay men: AIDS linked with, 47 -50
bias against, 96
blamed for AIDS, 63 -64
drug use as cause of AIDS in, 148
identity as medicalized, 64
lifestyle of, 382 n.29
literature on sexually transmitted diseases among, 50
opportunistic infections, at risk for, 48
promiscuity as cause of AIDS in, 380 n.15
and social difference, 261
Gay Men's Health Crisis (New York City), 299
Treatment News , 305
gay movement, 187
Duesberg admired by some in, 117 -18
and group identity, 11
leadership decimated by AIDS, 65
pink-triangle symbol of, 222
political power of, 65
and positive identity, 64
response to desperation, 117
and sexual liberation, 54
suspicious of medical profession, 11 -12, 54 .
See also AIDS movement; treatment activism
gay press, 174 . See also specific publications
Gays Against Genocide, 302 -3
GCN . See Gay Community News
Geary, Jim, 62
Geltmaker, Ty, 377 n.167
genealogical model of analysis, 357 -58
Genentech Corp. (San Francisco), 349
gene therapy, 306
genocide-by-neglect, 221 -22
germs. See monocausal/microbial model of illness
Gerson, Elihu M., 367 n.73
Giddens, Anthony, 366 n.58
Gieryn, Thomas F., 428 n.107
Gilbert, Walter, 130
Gilder, Eric, 378 n.171
Gilman, Sander, 377 n.165
Gitlin, Todd, 437 n.6
Glass, Judy, 95
Glaxo Welcome, 325
GMHC. See Gay Men's Health Crisis
Goedert, J. J., 102
Goffman, Erving, 381 n.20
on the management of spoiled identity, 11
Goldhaber, Michael, 441 n.63
gonorrhea, blame for, 53
Gonsalves, Gregg, 353
"AIDS Research at the NIH," 297 -99
Goodell, Rae, 407 n.132
on media emphasis of credentials, 335
Gordon, Deborah, 372 n.111
Gottlieb, Michael, 380 n.15
Gouldner, Alvin, 438 n.7
Grady, Christine, 379 n.175
Gramsci, Antonio, 365 n.43
Greaves, Wayne, 261
Greenlee, Edwin, 388 n.2
GRID (Gay-Related Immune Deficiency), 381 n.19
Griesemer, James R., 367 n.73
on boundary objects, 418 n.16
Groopman, Jerome, 237
Group for the Scientific Reappraisal of the HIV/AIDS Hypothesis, 158
guerrilla clinics, 267 -68
Guilfoy, Christine, 98
Guillén, Mauro F., 378 n.170
Gusfield, Joseph R., 387 -88 n.135
H
Haase, Ashley, 163
Habermas, Jürgen, 370 n.87
Haitians: activism of, 66
AIDS among, 56
poverty/malnutrition among, 61
susceptibility to tropical infections, 61
and swine fever hypothesis, 100
Halperin, David, 20 -21
Hammonds, Evelynn, 377 n.168
Harada, Shinji, 89
Haraway, Donna, 442 n.7
Harding, Sandra, 362 n.9
Harrington, Mark, 345
on the ACTG, 285
on ACTG 318
on activism, 353
"AIDS Research at the NIH," 297 -99
on combination therapy, 314
on ddI, 270
on the FDA, 226
on methodology, 319
on surrogate markers, 271
Haseltine, William, 282
Hawkes, Nigel, 154
Healy, Bernadine, 348
Heckler, Margaret, 186 -87
press conference announcement of HTLV-III as cause of AIDS, 182
press conference prediction of vaccine, 72
Heimoff, Steve, 161
Helms, Jesse, 52
helper T cells.
See T cells
hemophilia, people with, 135
activism of, 289 -90
PCP among, 56
hepatitis B, 182
Heritage Foundation, 223
herpes, 182
Hershaft, Alan M., 375 n.154
Herzlich, Claudine, 377 n.166
Heyman, Jason, 294
HHV-6 (human herpes virus, number six), 139
HHV-7 (human herpes virus, number seven), 306
Hilgartner, Stephen, 371 n.106
Hirsch, Martin, 314
Hirsch, Michael, 163
Hirschauer, Stefan, 412 n.87
historical controls, 251
HIV antibodies, 108 .
See also blood screening test
HIV-1 (human immunodeficiency virus; commonly called HIV),
as cause of AIDS, 126 -27
AIDS without HIV, 160 -63
antibody/AIDS correlation, 148
causal role endorsed/assumed in New York Times , 95
and chimpanzee studies, 108
and latency period, 137
and macrophages, 209
and manageable illness, 281
profit motive alleged by Duesberg, 114
qualified vs. unqualified causation claims, 358 -60
rejected as cause of AIDS, 169 (see also
continued on next page
continued from previous page
Duesberg, Peter)
scientific/social investment in, 160
serology studies, 88 -89
simian model lacking, 108
as a social fact, 91 -93.
See also causation controversy; T cells
HIV-2, 208
HIV wasting syndrome, 133
Ho, David, 322
Hodel, Derek, 267
Hodgkinson, Neville, 150 -51
Hoffman, Eric, 366 n.52
Hoffman, Lily M., 368 n.79
Hoffman-LaRoche, 317
activists disgusted with, 308
conducts trials of protease inhibitors, 323
tat inhibitor research delays, 308 -9
Hollender, Marc H., 412 n.87
Hollibaugh, Amber, 408 n.20
homosexual: etymology of, 51 .
See also gay community; gay men; gay movement; lesbians
homosexual "recovery" organizations, 159
Hopkins, Drew, 160
Horton, Meurig, 379 n.174
Horwitz, Jerome, 192
Hoth, Daniel, 326
on cancer and AIDS therapies, 324
on clinical trials, 340
Houston, incidence of AIDS in, 259
HPA-23 (antimoniotungstate), 188
HTLV (human T-cell leukemia virus), 73
HTLV-I, 391 n.37
HTLV-II, 68
HTLV-III (later called HIV): advanced by Gallo as cause of AIDS, 387 n.120
announced by Heckler as cause of AIDS, 182
discovered by Gallo, 71
renamed HIV, 77
similarity to LAV, 71 -72.
See also HIV-1
Hudson, Rock, 392 n.51
human herpes virus, 306
human immunodeficiency virus.
See HIV-1
Human Retrovirus Subcommittee (of the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses), 77
human T-cell leukemia virus.
See HTLV
human T-cell lymphotropic retroviruses.
See HTLV
Hunt, Scott A., 437 n.165
I
Iacono, Suzanne, 368 n.79
ICL (CD4+ T-lymphocytepenia), 163
identity: activist, 287 -88
collective, 373 n.121
construction of, 21 -22
construction of antagonist, 328
gay, 64
antibody status as market of, 93
politics of, 219
spoiled, 11
transformed by medical treatment, 239
immune overload hypothesis, 48
advocated by Sonnabend, 134
and assumptions about gay men, 51 -52
endorsed by Duesberg and Ellison, 133 -34
evidence lacking for, 61 -62
as homophobic, 118
vs. monocausal model of illness, 57 .
See also cofactors
Independent (British newspaper), 151
indinavir, 324
induction period. See latency period
Indyk, Debbie, 376 n.161
on autonomy of AIDS patients, 206
on grassroots AIDS publications, 195
on resource mobilization, 20
on spread of knowledge, 23
Infectious Diseases Society of America, 236
influenza A, 182
informed consent, 7
Institute of Medicine (of National Academy of Sciences): Confronting AIDS , 126 -27
integrase inhibitors, 323
intent-to-treat analysis, 313 -14
inter-Company Collaboration for AIDS Drug Development, 326
interferon, 191
International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses, 77
International Conference on AIDS, First (1985; Atlanta), 187
International Conference on AIDS, Fifth (1989; Montreal), 246
International Conference on AIDS, Sixth (1990; San Francisco), 265 -66
International Conference on AIDS, Seventh (1991; Florence), 258
International Conference on AIDS, Eighth (1992; Amsterdam), 297
International Conference on AIDS, Ninth (1993; Berlin), 309
International Conference on AIDS, Tenth (1994; Yokohama), 320
International Conferences on AIDS, 138
interpretation of studies, 34 -35
interpretative flexibility, in scientific findings, 333
In These Times (newsweekly), 125
Inventing the AIDS Virus (Duesberg), 169
isoprinosine, 188
J
Jaffe, Harold, 391 n.37
JAMA . See Journal of the American Medical Association
James, John, 299
on clinical trials, 270
on combination therapy, 267
on community-based research, 217
on ddI, 273
on the FDA, 269
founds ATN , 194 -95
on Hoffman-LaRoche and tat inhibitors, 296
on the NIH, 285
optimism about new drugs, 282
on parallel track program, 273
on the rhetoric of good science, 256
on surrogate markers, 304
Jamison, Andrew, 368 n.80
Jasanoff, Sheila, 439 n.37
on regulatory science, 277
Jasper, James M., 417 n.97
Jenness, Valerie, 378 n.168
John Birch Society, 223
Johnson, Philip, 169
Johnson, Ron, 261
Johnston, Hank, 370 n.87
Jones, James H., 409 n.30
Jonsen, Albert R., 414 n.28
Joseph, Stephen, 32
Journal of the American Chemical Society , 442 n.10
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) , 358
AIDS: From the Beginning , 101 -2
criticism of the viral hypothesis, 59
Jurrist, Charles, 64
Just, Marion R., 377 n.166
K
Kahn, Arthur D., 379 n.174
Kaposi's sarcoma, 133
Kaposi's Sarcoma Research and Education Foundation.
See San Francisco AIDS Foundation
Karpf, Anne, 407 n.135
Katz, Jay, 432 n.65
Kefauver-Harris amendment, 408 n.12
Kennedy, Ted, 299
Kessler, David, 316
on protease inhibitors, 324
on women in clinical trials, 340
Kingman, Sharon, 386 n.92
The Search for the Virus , 39
Kingston, Tim, 302
Kinsella, James, 394 n.79
Kirp, David L., 396 n.27
Kistenberg, Cindy J., 415 n.44
Kitsuse, John I., 373 n.117
Klandermans, Bert, 369 n.82
Kleidman, Robert, 441 n.64
Kline, Ronald, 375 n.153
Kling, Rob, 368 n.79
Knorr-Cetina, Karin D., 366 n.49
Koch, Robert, 75
Koch's postulates, 390 n.28
as irrelevant, 167
reformulation of, 121
Kolata, Gina, 320
Koshland, Daniel, 123
Kramer, Larry, 219
on AIDS reserach, 304
on the FDA, 222
on genocide-by-neglect, 221
Kramer, Shira, 76
Krause, Richard, 76
Kriese, H., 370 n.87
Krim, Mathilde, 217
Krimsky, Sheldon, 441 n.63
Krippendorff, Klaus, 442 n.8
Kumari, Lalita, 443 n.12
Kwitny, Jonathan, 438 n.21
on Corti, 416 n.60
L
Lagakos, Stephen, 317
Lancaster, W., 443 n.12
Lancet (British journal), 358
on AZT, 301
early conjectures
continued on next page
continued from previous page
on AIDS, 52
on HIV hypothesis, 83
Lapierre, Dominique, 412 n.96
Laraña, Enrique, 370 n.87
Larson, Magali Sarfatti, 372 n.108
Lasagna, Louis, 232
latency period: of AIDS, 396 n.43
as criterion of causation, 76
Latinos, as underrepresented in clinical trials, 258
Latour, Bruno, 420 n.41
actor-network theory of scientific knowledge, 18
on black boxes, 28
on credibility in science, 336
on enrollment, 373 n.121
on obligatory passage points, 15
on scientists' power, 384 n.67
Lauritsen, John, 122
The AIDS War , 169
disapproves of AZT, 299
on drug use in gay community, 134
on Duesberg, 141
LAV (lymphadenopathy-associated virus): announced as cause of AIDS, 71 -72
discovered by Montagnier, 69 -71
found in Gallo's viral cultures, 77
vs . HTLV, 70
renamed HIV, 77
similarity to HTLV-III, 71 -72.
See also HIV-1
Law, John, 361 n.2
laypeople: participating in science, 336 -337
vs . experts, 292 -93, 350 . See also social movements
L drugs, 295
leftists, criticism of medicine/industry, 7
Leibowitch, Jacques, 69
Lein, Brenda, 349
Leishman, Katie, 140
Leith, William, 151
leprosy, blame for, 53
Lesbian and Gay Health Conference (1988; Boston), 224
lesbians: bias against, 65
and the feminist health movement, 188
stigmatized by association, 78 . See also gay men
gay movement
Levi, Jeffrey, 418 n.8
Levine, Carol, 424 n.118, 440 n.43
Levine, Robert, 263 , 409 n.27, 424 n.118, 440 n.43
Levy, Jay, 72
on cofactors, 306
isolation of ARV, 77
Leydesdorff, Loet, 368 n.80, 441 n.63
Lies of Our Times , 141
Lilly, Frank, 119
Limoges, Camille, 366 n.52
Link, Derek, 327
Lipset, Seymour Martin, 362 n.8
Lipton, Jack P., 375 n.154
Liversidge, Anthony, 140
Lo, Clarence Y. H., 365 n.41, 385 n.86, 417 n.83
Lo, Shyh-Ching, 129
Long, Iris, 229
long-term survivors, 306
Los Angeles Times , 356
on Duesberg, 161 -62
on the virus theory, 59
Lou Gehrig's disease, 348
Lundberg, George, 297
Lupton, Deborah, 370 n.94, 382 n.27
Lurie, P., 379 n.175
Lyme disease, 348
lymphadenopathy, 147
lymphadenopathy-associated virus. See LAV
lymph nodes, covert infection in 164
lymphoma, 132
Lymphomed, 218
lymphopenia, 147
Lynch, Michael, 64
Lyons, John S., 376 n.159
Lyotard, Jean-Francois, 362 n.10
M
McAdam, Doug, 365 n.41-42
McAllister, Matthew Paul, 371 n.104, 377 n.166
MacArthur grants, 153
McCarthy, J. D., 364 n.35, 365 n.41, 369 n.85
McKean, Aldyn, 306
McKenna, Joan, 117 -18
Macleans (Canadian magazine), 154
MacNeil/Lehrer News Hour , 125
macrophages, 282
Maddox, John, 164
magic bullets, 57 -58
Markle, Gerald, 363 n.29, 369 n.81, 415 n.56
on resource mobilization, 20
Marks, Harry, 374 -75 n.147, 408 n.11, 424 n.14
on clinical trials, 197
on doctors vs . researches, 255
on drug evaluation, 185 , 408 n.12
Martin, Brian, 361 n.2, 392 n.60, 441 n.63, 442 n.3
on fluoridation controversy, 174
Martin, Emily, 39
Marx, Jean, 193
Mason, James, 101
Mass, Lawrence, 54
on epidemiology, 61 -62
on gay men's promiscuity as cause of AIDS, 46
on medical advice, 65
on virus as cause of AIDS, 56
Masur, Henry, 47
Matthews, J. Rosser, 375 n.147
Mausner, Judith S., 76
Maver, Robert, 143
media: credibility and, 335
gay/alternative press, 174
journalists' dependence on sources, 175 -76
journalists' professional orientation, 372 n.113. See also specific publications
medicine, field of. See biomedicine
doctors
Meditel Productions, 174
Medline database, 106 , 394 n.2
Mehan, Hugh, 369 n.84
Meier, Paul, 278
Meldrum, Marcia Lynn, 375 n.147
Meltzer, Monte S., 209
Melucci, Alberto, 21 , 369 n.83, 370 n.87
on social movements, 346
Merck, 324
Merigan, Thomas, 346
Merton, Robert K., 363 n.24
"Methodological Issues in AIDS Clinical Trials" (symposium), 253
Meyer, David S., 365 n.40, 440 n.48
microbes. See monocausal/microbial model of illness
Mildvan, Donna, 46
Mineshaft (New York City bath house), 134
Mitsuya, Hiroaki, 192
Monette, Paul, 207
monocausal/microbial model of illness: criticism of, 57
dominance of, 58
vs . immune overload hypothesis, 57
left-wing rejection of, 158 . See also viral hypothesis
monogamy, 63 , 97 . See also promiscuity of gay men
mononucleosis, 108
Montagnier, Luc: alleged defection of, 154 -55
on autoimmune mechanisms, 184
cited by others, 388 -89 n.8
on cofactors, 284
discovers HIV-2, 208
discovers LAV, 69 -71
on Duesberg, 152
LAV antibodies study, 88 -89
on mycoplasma, 155
publishes LAV research in Science , 70
sends LAV sample to Gallo, 71
Montini, Theresa, 367 n.70, 432 n.65
Moore, Kelly, 368 n.79, 369 n.81
Morris, Aldon D., 370 n.87
movements: cancer movement, 348 -49
environmental movement, 351
Haitian movement, 66
hemophiliac movement, 289 -90. See also AIDS movement
feminist health movement
gay movement
social movements
Mueller, Carol McClurg, 370 n.87
Mueller, Mary-Rose, 40 , 379 n.174
on community-based research, 216
Mukerji, Chandra, 366 n.59
Mulkay, Michael, 366 n.49
Mullis, Kary, 169
multiple chemical sensitivity, 348
Murbach, Ruth, 411 n.74
Murdoch, Rupert, 150 . See also specific newspapers
Murray, Stephen, 40 , 362 n.19, 381 n.19, 382 n.31, 415 n.42
muscular dystrophy, 348
mycoplasmas, 140
N
Names Project AIDS Quilt, 225
National Academy of Sciences (NAS): Confronting AIDS , 126 -27. See also Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
National Breast Cancer Coalition, 348 -49
National Cancer Institute (NCI), 298
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects, 189 -90
National Conference on Women and HIV Infection (1990), 292
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. See NIAID
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 298
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 298
National Institutes of Health. See NIH
National Medical Association, 262
National Public Radio, 154
National Research Council (of the National Academy of Sciences), 32
National Task Force on AIDS Drug Development, 325 -26
Native. See New York Native
Nature , 358
Naturwissenschaften , 27
Navarre, Max, 363 n.25
NCI (National Cancer Institute), 213
Neapolitan disease, 60
Nelkin, Dorothy, 362 n.7, 365 n.44, 366 n.62, 368 n.77, 371 n.101, 416 n.74, 417 n.97
neopterin, 271
Neuman, W. Russell, 377 n.166
New Age therapies, 14
New England Hemophilia Foundation, 290
New England Journal of Medicine , 358
on AZT, 311
on drug testing/approval, 262 -63
on ethics of clinical research, 189
on HIV hypothesis, 91
New Scientist (British publication), 123
Newsweek , 356
on AIDS exiles, 188
on the gay lifestyle, 48
New York Native , 356
on AZT, 241
on chronic fatigue syndrome, 162
credibility of, 156
Gallo interviewed in, 99 -100
on medical uncertainty, 62 -64
skepticism about HIV hypothesis, 99 -101
on swine fever hypothesis, 100 -101
New York Post , 114
New York Times , 356
announces LAV as cause of AIDS, 72
on AZT, 300
on competition in science, 72 -73
on Duesberg, 114 -15
HIV hypothesis endorsed/assumed in, 360
on Lo's mycoplasma findings, 92
on NIAID, 210
NIAID (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases), 298
on ACTG 307 -8
incompetence of, 218
Nicholson, Joe, 114
NIH (National Institutes of Health), 196
activists study research of, 297 -98
ACT UP demonstrates at headquarters of, 287
ends clinical trials of AZT early, 198
issues guidelines for prescribing AZT, 240
Office of AIDS Research, 299
treatment recommendations, 310
nitrite inhalants (poppers), 133
noncompliance of patients, 249
non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors, 295 , 429 n.4
NPR, 254
nucleoside analogues. See AZT
ddC
ddI
d4T
3TC
Nussbaum, Bruce, 379 n.174, 384 n.62, 409 n.35, 410 n.52, 413 n.8, 414 n.34, 417 n.85, 425 n.29
on ACTG meetings, 286
NYQ (magazine), 145
O
Oakland Tribune , 118
obligatory passage points, 336
Office of Research Integrity (of the Health and Human Services Dept.), 386 n.107
oncogene theory, 105
oncology. See cancer research
"one disease, one cause, one cure." See monocausal/microbial model of illness
Oppenheimer, Gerald M., 378 n.172, 381 n.21
Ortleb, Chuck, 140
on chronic fatigue syndrome, 162
as controversial figure, 101
disapproves of AZT, 299
promotes Duesberg, 111
on swine fever hypothesis, 100 -101
Ostrom, Neenyah, 155
Outweek (magazine), 270
P
Pahwa, Savita, 90
Paicheler, Geneviéve, 378 n.170
Palca, Joseph, 145
Panem, Sandra, 378 n.170
parallel track program, 340
Pasteur Institute (Paris): on HIV hypothesis, 84
LAV antibodies study, 88 -89
LAV discovered at, 69 -72 (see also Montagnier, Luc)
patent dispute with U.S. government over blood screening test, 77
paternalism, activism against, 222
pathogenesis, 283
vs . etiology, 157
and viral load, 316 -17
patients: activism of, 348 -50
education of, 10
noncompliance of, 249
self-help groups, 9. See also activism
treatment activism
"Patient's Bill of Rights," 206
Patton, Cindy, 39 , 373 n.126, 377 n.168, 380 n.13, 381 n.18, 383 n.42, 393 n.63, 427 n.89
on AIDS activism, 408 n.18
Paul, William, 320
Pauling, Linus, 127 -128
Payne, Kenneth, 40 , 362 n.19, 381 n.19, 382 n.31
PCP (Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia), 218
among hemophiliacs, 56
PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 306
pentamidine, aerosolized, 218
Penthouse , 27
Perrow, Charles, 378 n.170
Petersen, James, 363 n.29, 369 n.80, 415 n.56, 441 n.63
on resource mobilization, 20
Petrow, Steven, 383 n.42
Phair, John, 338
pharmaceutical companies, 326 . See also specific companies
Philadelphia, incidence of AIDS in, 259
Phillips, David, 22
physicians. See doctors
Physicians for Human Rights, 54
Pickering, Andrew, 366 n.49
Pierret, Janine, 377 n.166, 378 n.170
Pinch, Trevor, 362 n.11, 366 n.49, 367 n.68, 375 n.153, 437 n.3, 439 n.37
on scientific controversy, 171
on value of experiments, 167
Pinching, Anthony, 309 -10
Pinn-Wiggins, Vivian, 262
placebos in clinical trials: activists' criticism of, 214
activists' support of, 251
function/effectiveness of, 250
vs . historical controls, 251
and noncompliance, 204
as unethical, 245
PNAS . See Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. See PCP
pneumonia, 147 . See also PCP
Poirier, Richard, 378 n.171
Policy Review (Heritage Foundation publication), 141
publishes Duesberg and Ellison article on risk-AIDS hypothesis, 138
polio vaccine, 201
Pollak, Michaël, 378 n.170
polymerase chain reaction. See PCR
poppers. See nitrite inhalants
Popular Health Movement, 205
Porter, Theodore M., 375 n.155, 410 n.53
power, microphysics of, 4
President's Commission on the HIV Epidemic, 218 -19
Preston, Richard, 436 n.149
prevention guidelines, 96 -97
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) , 358
refuses to publish Duesberg, 146
publishes Duesberg, 146
Proctor, Robert N., 362 n.9
professions: authority of, 268 -69
autonomy of, 269
logic of practice, 372 n.113
and the medical field, 23 -24
sociology of, 23 -24
programmed cell death, 155
Project AIDS International, 302
Project Inform (San Francisco), 299
on accelerated approval, 316
advocates early intervention, 243
criticizes AZT dissenters, 243
criticizes HIV dissenters, 159
on ddI licensing, 277
founding/goals of, 233 -34
Immune Restoration Think Tank, 320 -21
PI Perspectives , 243
receives funds from Burroughs Wellcome, 299 -300
researches Compound Q, 257 -58
on surrogate markers, 271 -72
promiscuity of gay men, as cause of AIDS, 63 -64
protease inhibitors, 323
Protocol 016 (AZT trial), 237
Protocol 019 (AZT trial), 237 -40
p24 (protein), 271
Public Health Service, 189
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906), 185
Purtilo, David, 60
PWA Coalition, 217
PWA Health Group (New York City), 267
Q
Quayle Competitiveness Council, 274
Quimby, Ernest, 377 n.167
Quinn, Sandra Crouse, 423 n.102
QW (New York-based magazine), 155
R
Randomized clinical trial. See clinical trials
Rawling, Alison, 389 n.8
Ray, Laurence J., 377 n.165
Reagan administration, 221
regulation, of pharmaceutical drugs, 339 -40. See also FDA; treatment activism
regulatory science, 277
Relman, Arnold, 258
researchers: vs . doctors, 255 , 432 n.65
respect for activists, 337 -39
research on AIDS. See AIDS research
resource mobilization, 20 , 365 n.41
Restivo, Sal, 422 n.91
Rethinking AIDS (Root-Bernstein), 169
retinitis, 235
Retinitis Pigmentosa Society (Germany), 10
Retrovir. See AZT
retroviral hypothesis. See viral hypothesis
retroviruses, 183
cancer-causing, 105
Duesberg on, 107
suspected as cause of AIDS, 69 -71. See also ARV; HIV-1; HTLV; LAV
Reuters, 150
Reuters Financial Report , 151
reverse transcriptase, 295
ribavirin (antiviral drug), 188
ribonucleic acid (RNA), 67
Richards, Evelleen, 128 , 367 n.67, 375 n.147, 433 n.91, 437 n.3, 442 n.3
on clinical trials, 343
Richman, Douglas, 284
ACTG 266
on ACTG 314
on activists, 338
on AZT, 311
on clinical trials, 249
on Concorde trial, 333 -34
Rier, David, 368 n.80, 376 n.161
on autonomy of AIDS patients, 206
on grassroots AIDS publications, 195
on resource mobilization, 20
on spread of knowledge, 23
right-wing support of Duesberg, 158 -59
risk: autonomy of patients, 222
and regulatory science, 35 -38
risk-AIDS hypothesis, 131 -37
risk groups, 134 -35, 364 n.33. See also specific groups
ritonavir, 324
RNA (ribonucleic acid), 67
Roland, Michelle, 257
on activists, 343
on clinical-trial design, 248
on doctors, 347
Rolston, Adam, 377 n.167, 414 n.41, 416 n.71
Root-Bernstein, Robert, 143
credibility of, 156
Discovering , 153
Rethinking AIDS , 169
Rosenberg, Charles, 40 , 362 n.12, 381 n.20, 383 n.35
Rothman, David, 215 , 362 n.18, 379 n.174, 411 n.79
on ethics of clinical research, 190
RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury) Association (United Kingdom), 10
Ruzek, Sheryl, 10
Ryan, Thomas, 160
Rycroft, Robert W., 368 n.80, 441 n.65
S
safe sex, 96 -97
Saint (New York City bath house), 134
St. Mark's Baths (New York City), 134
Salahuddin, S. Zaki, 86 -87
Salk, Jonas, 284
Sande, Merle, 310 -11
San Francisco AIDS Foundation (formerly Kaposi's Sarcoma Research and Education Foundation), 242
San Francisco Examiner , 296
San Francisco Men's Health Study, 167
San Francisco Sentinel , 155
San Juan, Puerto Rico, incidence of AIDS in, 259
saquinavir, 324
Scarce, Michael, 382 n.27
Schable, Charles 200
Schaffer, Simon, 375 n.153, 437 n.3
on public nature of science, 7 -8
Schneider, Beth E., 364 n.39, 377 n.167, 428 n.90
Schneider, Joseph W., 364 n.38, 373 n.117, 382 n.26
Schneider, William, 362 n.8
Schooley, Robert, 323
Schroeder, Pat, 260
Schudson, Michael, 372 n.113
Schulman, Sarah, 327 -28
science: and authority, 350 -51, 368 n.76
black boxes in fact construction, 331
boundaries of, 331 -32
certainty in, 411 n.82
controversy in, 333 -34
democratization of, 441 -42 n.68
distrust of, 5 -7
isolation of, 8
mavericks in, 152 -54
public confidence in, 6 , 362 n.8
public nature of, 176 -77
purity/autonomy of, 319 , 363 n.24
specialization in, 350
threats to legitimacy of, 17 . See also biomedical researchers; credibility; researchers; sociology of science
Science (journal), 358
on AZT, 245
on the Duesberg controversy, 169 -70, 406 n.114
Gallo's Science article cited in, 81
on Lo's mycoplasma findings, 92
Science Citation Index , 358 , 443 n.13
Sclove, Richard, 350
Scott, Pam, 442 n.3
The Search for the Virus (Connor and Kingman), 39
Seidman, Steven, 78 , 378 n.171
Seitzman, Peter, 62 -63
Self, C., 376 n.159, 388 n.2, 443 n.12
self-help groups, 347
selfhood, body as symbol of, 21
Sengupta, I. N., 376 n.159, 388 n.3, 433 n.12
septicemia, 147
serology studies, 124
sexual practices: effects of HIV hypothesis on, 97
safe sex, 96 -97
sexuality, politics of, 20 -21
Shanti Project (San Francisco), 62
Shapin, Steven, 361 n.2, 365 n.49, 375 n.153, 405 n.103, 422 n.84, 425 n31, 437 n.3
on experiments as representing reality, 34
on the expert/lay divide, 230
on public nature of science, 7 -8
on scientific credibility, 17 , 373 n.121
on trust among scientists, 15
Shils, Edward A., 363 n.24
Shilts, Randy, 118 , 379 n.1, 381 n.19, 383 n.38, 386 n.113, 407 n.1
And the Band Played On , 38 -39
death of, 376 n.157
on New York vs . San Francisco gay communities, 242
Shively, Charles, 111
Shurkin, Joel, 115
Simon, Bart, 368 n.80
Singer, Maxine, 128
situated knowledges, 340 -43
Slobin, Kathleen, 432 n.65
smallpox, blame for, 53
Smart, Theo, 295
Smith, Barbara Ellen, 384 n.55
Smith, Rebecca, 347
"Deciding to Enter an AIDS/HIV Drug Trial," 250
Snow, David A., 369 n.84, 373 n.19, 416 n.68, 437 n.165, 440 n.48
on social movements, 372 n.113
Snowe, Olympia, 260
social movements, 346
cancer movement, 348 -49
environmental movement, 351
expertification of activists, 350 -53
as framing reality, 24 -25, 372 n.113, 373 n.121
hemophilia movement, 289 -90
and identity construction, 21 -22
new social movements, 369 -70 n.87
research on, 19 -22
resource mobilization, 20 , 365 n.41. See also activism; AIDS movement; feminist health movement; gay movement
social problems, 24
ownership of, 78
Society for Clinical Trials, 248
sociology of medicine, 23 -24, 332 . See also biomedicine; doctor-patient relationship; doctors
sociology of the professions, 23 -24. See also professions
sociology of science, 14 -15, 365 n.49, 373 n.121
actor-network theory, 18
black boxes, in fact construction, 331
boundaries of science, 331 -32
boundary objects, 18 , 418 n.16
controversy, 333 -34
core set, 17 -18
credibility, 332
enrollment of allies, 336 , 373 n.121
interpretative flexibility, 333
and literature on clinical trials, 374 n.147
negotiation of order among social worlds, 18 -19
obligatory passage points, 336
principle of symmetry, 356 -57
role of experiments, 333
and study of social movements, 332
trust, 14 -17, 351 . See also science
sociology of social movements, 24 -25, 332 . See also social movements
Solomon, Alisa, 440 n.53
soluble CD4 , 212
Sonnabend, Joseph, 130
advocates immune overload hypothesis, 134
background/training of, 59
on CMV infections, 61
credibility of, 156
criticizes antibody testing, 99
criticizes viral hypothesis, 191
on dangers of promiscuity among gay men, 60
disapproves of AZT, 149
as editor of AIDS Research , 61
on pathogenesis, 145
on risk groups, 61
Sotheran, Jo L., 378 n.168
specific etiology, doctrine of. See monocausal/microbial model of illness
Specter, Michael, 397 n.65
Spin , 174
Gallo interviewed in, 115 -16
src (oncogene), 106
Staley, Peter, 326
Star, Susan Leigh, 361 n.2, 367 n.73
on boundary objects, 418 n.16
on credibility, 171 -72
on executive approach to scientific knowledge, 18
on uncertainty in science, 241
Starr, Paul, 372 n.108
Statistical Working Group (Bethesda), 247
Stein, Arlene, 369 n.83
Steinbrook, Robert, 258
Stewart, Gordon, 130
Stewart, Miriam J., 363 n.28, 440 n.47
Stoller, Nancy, 364 n.39, 377 n.167, 388 n.136, 408 n.20, 428 n.90
Stryker, Jeff, 374 n.144, 379 n.174, 408 n.11, 409 n.28, 411 n.73, 414 n.28
subgroup analysis, 313 , 433 n.82
Sullivan, Louis, 279
Summers, Pauline, 376 n.159, 388 n.1
Sunday Times (British newspaper), 155
suramin, 191
"Surrogate End Points in Evaluating the Effectiveness of Drugs against HIV Infection and AIDS" (workshop; 1989), 270 -71
surrogate markers, 341
Sutton, Terry, 254
swine fever hypothesis, 100 -101
swine flu, 176
symmetry, principle of, 356 -57
syncytia, 284
synergistic model of illness, 57 -58
syphilis, 133
Tuskegee syphilis study, 189
Szasz, Thomas S., 412 n.87
T
TAG (Treatment Action Group; New York), 345
on accelerated approval, 317 -18
composition of, 352
criticizes San Francisco activists, 318
involvement in basic research, 321
on large-scale trials, 317
Tarrow, Sidney, 369 n.82
tat gene, 282
tat inhibitors, 308 -9
Taylor, Verta, 369 n.83
T cells, 380 n.7
finding HIV in, 163 -64
ICL, 163
killed by HIV directly, 306
killed by HIV indirectly, 155
as marker of AIDS, 301
regeneration of, 108
Teas, Jane, 112
Temin, Howard, 136
Tesh, Sylvia Noble, 384 n.54
tetracycline, 134
T4 cells. See T cells
Third World, treatment in, 325
Thomas, Stephen B., 423 n.102
Thomas Jr., Charles, 158 -59
Thorp, Robert K., 442 n.8
3TC, 322 -23
TIBO, 295
Time , 356
Times (London), 152
coverage of Duesberg, 27
Toronto Star (Canada), 154
Touraine, Alain, 370 n.87
toxoplasmosis, 132
transfusion. See blood transfusion
Trauner, Joan, 383 n.37
treatment: AIDS/cancer therapies similarities, 324
antiviral drugs, 191
drug trials/licensing, length of time for, 270
early intervention, 322
hit-and-miss approach to research, 212
logical approach to research, 212
NIH recommendations, 310
politics of, 182
in poorer countries, 325 . See also clinical trials; combination therapy; FDA; treatment activism; specific drugs
Treatment Action Group. See TAG
Treatment & Data Committee (of ACT UP/New York), 293
treatment activism, 177 -78
basic research, involvement in, 318 -22
biostatisticians as allies, 262 -63
buyers clubs, 229
and clinical-trial design, 340 -46, 439 n.33
community-based trials, 216 -19, 438 n.22
and conservatives, 223
constituencies within, 290 -94
credibility of activists, 335 -39
criticism of the FDA, 222 -26
decline of, 326 -28
demonstration in Rockville, Md., against FDA, 227
diversification of, 288 -90
donations from Burroughs Wellcome, 299 -300
drug development, discouragement over pace/failures of, 295 -97, 429 n.4
and drug development bottleneck, 281 -84
drug smuggling/bootlegging, 188
East Coast vs . West Coast, 317 -18
education of communities, 35
effectiveness of, 338 -40
effects on doctor-patient relationship, 346 -47
expertification of activists, 350 -53
expertise about the community, 249 -50
genesis of, 186 -89
grassroots publications, 195 (see also ATN )
hemophilia activists, 289 -90
insider/outsider status of, 351 -52
at International Conference on AIDS, 246 -47
involvement in the ACTG, 284 -87
and need for knowledge, 343 -44
for patient autonomy/risk taking, 222
patient/research-subject roles, 215 -16
against placebos in clinical trials, 214
researchers' respect for, 337 -39
respect for scientists, 328
situated knowledge of activists, 337
specialization within, 350 -51
and surrogate markers, 304 , 341 . See also ACT UP; AIDS movement; FDA; Project Inform
treatment controversy vs . causation controversy, 177 -78
Treatment Investigational New Drugs (Treatment INDs), 222
Treichler, Paula, 84 , 379 n.173, 387 n.133, 398 n.92, 419 n.39
on community-based research, 439 n.28
tricosanthin (Compound Q), 257 -58
Troyer, Ronald J., 441 n.64
Trueheart, Charles, 141
trust, 14 -17, 351 . See also credibility
Tsiatis, Anastasios (Butch), 275
tuberculosis, 147
Tuchman, Gaye, 392 n.49
Turner, Bryan S., 370 n.94
Turner, Joseph, 441 n.63
Turner, Stephen P., 366 n.57
Tuskegee syphilis study, 259
U
uncertainty, 309
and clinical trials, 343 -46
and credibility, 331 -34
and distance from research front, 411 n.82, 432 n.65
United States government: applies for patent for blood screening test, 72
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects, 189 -90
patent
United States government (continued )
dispute with Pasteur Institute over blood screening test, 77
Public Health Service, 189
Veterans Affairs, Department of, 261 . See also FDA, NCI, NIAID, NIH
University of California, 218
University of California-San Diego, 193
University of Miami, 193
USA Today , 140 -41
V
vaccines, 209 -10
Valium (diazepam), 282
Vancouver Lymphadenopathy-AIDS Study, 167
Van den Besselaar, Peter, 441 n.63
Varmus, Harold, 320
Veatch, Robert M., 202 , 375 n.148
Veterans Affairs, Department of, 261
vidarabine (eye medication), 182
virus hypothesis (of AIDS causation), 58 -62. See also Duesberg, Peter; HIV-1
viral load, 316
viruses: link with cancer, 107
mutation of, 322
structure/functioning of, 190 -91
vaccines for, 209 -10 (see also retroviruses; treatment)
Virus Hunting (Gallo), 138
Volberding, Paul, 284
on clinical-trial entry restrictions, 255 -56
criticizes Delaney, 258
on Protocol 019 trial, 311
on uncertainty, 311
von Gizycki, Rainald, 364 n.32, 368 n.80
von Pettenkofer, Max, 138
voodoo, 66
de Vries, Gerard H., 375 n.155
W
Wachter, Robert, 347 , 379 n.174, 440 n.50
Wacquant, Loïc J. D., 367 n.75, 417 n.88, 437 n.1, 438 n.11
Wadleigh, Jonathan, 290
Walkowitz, Judith, 383 n.36
Wall Street Journal , 226 -27
Walsh, William, 119 -20
Ward, Rebecca, 122 -23
Warner, Jim, 119
Washington Post , 356
Watney, Simon, 39 , 370 n.91, 435 n.115
Waxman, Henry, 274
Weeks, Jeffrey, 382 n.26
weight loss, 147
Weinberg, Martin S., 382 n.28
Weiss, Robin, 306
Weiss, Ted, 274
Weitz, Rose, 378 n.171, 419 n.20
Wellcome Foundation, 151
Wellcome PLC, 301
Weller, Ian, 302
Whittier, Nancy, 365 n.40, 369 n.83, 440 n.48
WHO (World Health Organization), 163
WHO Technical Report Series , 442 n.11
Williams, Rob, 361 n.2
Wills, John, 369 n.84
Windom, Robert, 198
Winkelstein, Warren, 167
Winnow, Jackie, 364 n.39, 408 n.20, 440 n.53
Witkin, Steven, 60
Wolfe, Maxine, 377 n.167, 414 n.41, 439 n.33
on women activists and the NIAID, 289
Wolfe, Sidney, 197
Wolfred, Timothy R., 383 n.42
women: AZT administered during pregnancy, 325
as underrepresented in clinical trials, 288 -89. See also feminist health movement
women activists, 288 -89
Women's Caucus (of ACT UP/New York), 292
Wong-Staal, Flossie, 87 -88
Woodhouse, Edward, 13 , 363 n.26, 368 n.80
Woolgar, Steve, 361 n.2
World Health Organization (WHO), 163
Wyngaarden, James B., 8
Wynne, Brian, 366 n.64, 367 n.67, 373 n.121, 375 n.155
on clinical trials, 345 -46
on social identity, 371 n.97
Y
Yarchoan, Robert, 309
Yoshioka, Alan, 375 n.147
Young, Frank, 224
Z
Zald, M. N., 364 n.35, 365 n.41, 369 n.85
zidovudine. See AZT
Zola, Irving, 49
Zysman, Andy, 229
death of, 417 n.86