1. Shibao , Feb. 8, 1912; Zixuzi, 70. [BACK]

2. USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912). [BACK]

3. Shibao , Jan. 20, 1912; Zhang Zhiben, oral history, section 2, part 2; He and Feng, 242. break [BACK]

4. Hu Zushun, 58b-60a. This source provides a list of brigade and regiment commanders. [BACK]

5. He and Feng, 310-317, briefly describe twenty-two of these irregular forces. [BACK]

6. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 8: 15a; Shibao , Mar. 17 and June 21, 1912. [BACK]

7. Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912. Tan seems to ignore Hunan's Green Standard forces, which were largely unaffected by the revolution, in this accounting. Tan's estimate of Hunan's postrevolutionary forces is lower than most other estimates. One report in January 1912 claimed that there were fifty to sixty thousand troops in Changsha alone. USDS 893.00/1222 (Washburn, Apr. 6, 1912). A newspaper report on provincial troop strengths in mid 1912 also gives a higher estimate for Hunan of ninety thousand men. Shibao , June 21, 1912. [BACK]

8. Cai Ji'ou, 194-202, gives a short description of each division. Also see Hu Zushun, 54a; He and Feng, 243, 245. [BACK]

9. USDS 893.20/19 (Reeves, June 26, 1912). On the strength of New Army units, see Appendix. There was considerable variation in size from one division to the next, including some that may have come close to New Army strength. For example, as late as October 1912, after some disbandment had taken place, the 7th Division still had over ten thousand men. Shibao , Oct. 26, 1912. [BACK]

10. The independent cavalry and artillery units were eventually expanded into brigades while engineering and transportation units were designated as regiments. Shibao , Oct. 3 and 26, 1912. [BACK]

11. Cai Ji'ou, 194; He and Feng, 243. [BACK]

12. The student army was no doubt left alone in expectation of demobilization to allow its members to return to their studies. For an account of the student army, see Zhou Kezhi and Chen Ruimi, "Xinhai geming shiqi Hubei xueshengjun shimoji" [The complete record of the Hubei student army in the period of the 1911 Revolution], XGHL, 2: 55-61. A number of irregular units were organized into a military police unit that remained in existence until July 1913. Shibao , July 30, 1913. [BACK]

13. Hu Zushun, 55a; Shibao , Feb. 25, 1912. [BACK]

14. The Training Corps was granted special privileges (including double pay) because it returned to Hubei too late to benefit from the promotions received by most other New Army soldiers. Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 15; Shibao , Mar. 5, Aug. 4, and Oct. 26, 1912; Cai Ji'ou, 205; "Ejun jiaodaotuan lishi" [History of the Training Corps of the Hubei army], WQDZX, 1: 212-17. [BACK]

15. Cai Ji'ou, 202; Shibao , July 5, 1912. [BACK]

16. Shibao , July 5, 1912; He Juefei, 2: 502-3. [BACK]

17. Li Tiancai was a Yunnan native who rose from the ranks of an continue

old-style force to a brigade command during campaigns along China's southwestern border. On the eve of the 1911 Revolution, Li was ordered to take his brigade from Guangdong to Sichuan to help suppress the railroad-protection movement. The revolution broke out while Li was in transit, and he brought his force over to the revolutionary cause. Gao Guanghan, "Xi'nan junfa hunzhanzhong de Li Tiancai" [Li Tiancai amid the tangled wars of the southwestern warlords], in Xi'nan junfashi yanjiu congkan [Collected research on the history of the southwestern warlords], ed. Xi'nan junfashi yanjiuhui [Association for Research on the History of the Southwestern Warlords], vol. 2 (Guiyang: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1983), 186-88; Shibao, Aug. 26, 1913, May 6, 1915. [BACK]

18. Zixuzi, 80, 86-87; USDS 893.00/1493 (Greene, Oct. 8, 1912); Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 84. Officially a sixth division was supposed to be created from the 11th and 12th Brigades, but it never became fully operational. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 80. [BACK]

19. Zixuzi, 89-90. [BACK]

20. USDS 893.00/1493 (Greene, Oct. 8, 1912); Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912. [BACK]

21. Zixuzi, 71; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78-79; Nie Qide, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 4; Shibao , June 8 and Oct. 21, 1912. [BACK]

22. Wang Zhengya gained military experience as a Qing local official in bandit-suppression campaigns. On this basis Tan asked Wang to gather Patrol and Defense soldiers and other troops that had previously served under him to assist in the siege of Jingzhou. Zhou Chuande, "Xiangwujun Jingzhou zhanshi" [Military history of the Hunan army at Jingzhou], WQDZX, 2: 125-27; Zixuzi, 77. [BACK]

23. Wen Gongzhi, 2: 310. [BACK]

24. Li Tiansong and Chen Zhenlian, "Hubei junzhengfu chuqide caizheng cuoshi" [The early financial measures of the Hubei military government], Jianghan luntan , 1983, no. 10 (Oct. 1983): 70. [BACK]

25. Zixuzi, 76-77; Shibao , Jan. 20, 1912. [BACK]

26. Shibao , Jan. 20, Feb. 8, and June 21, 1912. [BACK]

27. Zixuzi, 105. [BACK]

28. Zixuzi, 99-100, reports that Hunan's 1912 military expenditures were nearly four times those of 1911 (some two million taels). Shen Jian, 401, the source used for Table 1, gives a higher figure of 3,733,739 taels for these 1911 expenses. Zixuzi's lower figure may have been based on Hunan's New Army expenses, which Shen Jian cites at 2,460,082 taels for 1911. Shen Jian's higher figure includes expenditures for old and new style troops as well as military schools, arsenals, fortifications, and other miscellaneous military expenses. Shen Jian, 396-97. break [BACK]

29. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 10: 12b. Also see Shibao , June 21, 1912. [BACK]

30. Shibao , Apr. 20, 1913. [BACK]

31. Li and Chen, 69-71; He and Feng, 470. [BACK]

32. Esherick, 248. [BACK]

33. Zixuzi, 99-105; Tao Juyin, "Changsha," 94-95; Shibao , Apr. 20 and Oct. 9, 1912. [BACK]

34. Esherick, 247-48. [BACK]

35. Ji was a Hubei military-school graduate and a member of the Society for the Daily Increase in Knowledge who lost his position as company commander in the Hubei New Army in 1906 when he was implicated in an uprising plot. After serving a short prison term, Ji participated in several revolutionary plots in other provinces before returning to Hubei after the outbreak of the Wuchang uprising. Prior to his appointment as pacification commissioner, Ji served briefly as a regiment commander in the revolutionary army defending Hankou. He Juefei, 1: 34-35. [BACK]

36. Mao Ba, "Xiangyang guangfu ji" [A record of the recovery of Xiangyang], JSZ, 1955, no. 4: 108-10; Liang Zhonghan, "Wo canjia geming de jingguo" [My participation in the revolution], XSHL, 2: 33. [BACK]

37. Shibao , Feb. 26 and 28, 1912; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 7: 8b-9a, 12a, 14b. [BACK]

38. Liang Zhonghan, 35. [BACK]

39. For Tang Xizhi's case, see Li Yi, "Jing-Yi-Shi-He guangfu ji" [A record of the recovery of Jingzhou, Ichang, Shinan, and Hefeng], in Xinhai geming , ed. Zhongguo shixuehui, 5: 259-60. For Zhang Guoquan's case, see Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 5: 1a-1b; Mao Ba, 108-9; Shibao , July 5, 1912. [BACK]

40. Su Yunfeng, 247. [BACK]

41. Cai Ji'ou, 195, 199. [BACK]

42. Cai Ji'ou, 168-70, 195-97; He Juefei, 2: 654; Shibao , Mar. 22, 1912. Cai Ji'ou cites another revolutionary, Wang Xianzhang, as succeeding to Zhang's post before Du. He Juefei, 2: 363-64, shows that this is an error. Zhang's brigade commander, Wang Huaguo, was acting division commander for a short period before Du assumed command. [BACK]

43. Cai Ji'ou, 198; He Juefei, 1: 298-99; Li Shiyue, 114-15. [BACK]

44. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 8: 16b. [BACK]

45. United Kingdom, Parliament, Parliamentary Papers , 1912-1913, vol. 62, China , no. 3 (1912), "Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China (December 1911-March 1912)" (Jordan, Dec. 27, 1911), Cd. 6447, pp. 63-64. [BACK]

46. Zixuzi, 81.

47. Ibid.; Shibao , Jan. 20 and Feb. 8, 1912. break [BACK]

46. Zixuzi, 81.

47. Ibid.; Shibao , Jan. 20 and Feb. 8, 1912. break [BACK]

48. He Guoguang, unpublished oral history, Modern History Institute, Academica Sinica, section 4. [BACK]

49. Tao Juyin, "Changsha," 93-94; He and Feng, 242. [BACK]

50. Zixuzi, 67. [BACK]

51. Cai Ji'ou, 200; He Juefei, 2: 368. [BACK]

52. He and Feng, 243.

53. Ibid., 244. [BACK]

52. He and Feng, 243.

53. Ibid., 244. [BACK]

54. Yu Shao, 175. [BACK]

55. Cao Yabo, 2: 95. [BACK]

56. Zixuzi, 81. [BACK]

57. Esherick, 242. [BACK]

58. For example, the commander of Hubei's Training Corps, Chen Zhenfan, was a company commander and revolutionary representative in Hubei's 31st Regiment who was elected to his command after the flight of the regiment's commander when it rose in support of the revolution in Sichuan. Ding Zhenhua, "Ji Ejun sha Duan Fang yu hui yuan Wuchang" [A record of the Hubei army's assassination of Duan Fang and its return to aid Wuchang], XGHL, 2: 101-2; Shibao , Mar. 5, 1912. [BACK]

59. Zixuzi, 81. [BACK]

60. Shibao , Feb. 5, 1914. [BACK]

61. Zixuzi, 81; USDS 893.00/1303 (Johnson, Mar. 30, 1912); Shibao , Apr. 23, 1912. [BACK]

62. Shibao , Mar. 19, 1912. [BACK]

63. For example, there was an unsuccessful mutiny by troops at Shashi led by junior officers seeking to overthrow their brigade and regiment commanders. Shibao , Sept. 26, 1912. [BACK]

64. Xinhai , ed. Zhang Guogan, 199. [BACK]

65. In Hunan this resentment was directed against the educational world, which provided many officials in Hunan's new government, and resulted in conflicts between soldiers and students. Jiaoyu zazhi [Education Magazine] 4, no. 4 (July 1912): 29. In Hubei this resentment surfaced as an undercurrent of military opposition to Liu Xinyuan's assumption of the civil governorship. Shibao , July 9, 1912. [BACK]

66. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 10b-14a. [BACK]

67. Zhang Pengyuan, 155. [BACK]

68. Shibao , July 8, 1912. [BACK]

69. WQDZX, 3: 258-60; Shibao , Apr. 21 and 22, 1912; Zixuzi, 95. [BACK]

70. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 8: 16b. [BACK]

71. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 84. [BACK]

72. Shibao , Mar. 6,1912. [BACK]

73. Shibao , Mar. 13 and 31, 1912; Cai Ji'ou, 176; Wan Yaohuang, oral history, section 1, part 15. break [BACK]

74. Shibao , May 6, July 15 and 22, 1912. Following this, the head of the Department of Military Affairs, Cai Jimin, also announced that members of Hubei's military administration should follow the same principles. He therefore resigned his membership in the Republican Party and asked the members of his staff to do the same. Shibao , Aug. 4, 1912. [BACK]

75. XGHSX, 665. [BACK]

76. Li himself made note of these repeated orders in early 1913. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 18: 7a. [BACK]

77. Shibao , July 15, 1912. [BACK]

78. Liang Zhonghan, 36. [BACK]

79. Shibao , May 11, 1912. [BACK]

80. Shibao , Aug. 23 and 26, 1912; XGHSX, 647-49. [BACK]

81. Shibao , Sept. 27 and 30, 1912. [BACK]

82. Shibao , Feb. 8, 1912. [BACK]

83. Zixuzi, 82. [BACK]

84. Zhao Hengti, sections 1-2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 85. [BACK]

85. Shibao , Mar. 1, 1912. [BACK]

86. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 70-71, 77-79, 84-85.

87. Ibid., 85.

88. Ibid.; Zhao Hengti, section 2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78. [BACK]

86. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 70-71, 77-79, 84-85.

87. Ibid., 85.

88. Ibid.; Zhao Hengti, section 2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78. [BACK]

86. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 70-71, 77-79, 84-85.

87. Ibid., 85.

88. Ibid.; Zhao Hengti, section 2; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78. [BACK]

89. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78, 81.

90. Ibid., 80. [BACK]

89. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 77-78, 81.

90. Ibid., 80. [BACK]

91. Zhang Qihuang, Duzhitang conggao [Collected manuscripts from the Duzhitang] (reprint; Taibei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1967): 681-84; Chen Yuxin, "Hunan huidang yu xinhai geming" [Hunan's secret societies and the 1911 Revolution], WZX, 34: 130; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78-80. [BACK]

92. Chen Yuxin, 130; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79. [BACK]

93. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78, 81, provides the pay and bonus figures given here but does not mention pensions. Other sources citing these pensions differ on their terms. USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912) notes that soldiers were given three months' pay with a pension of fifty to sixty taels stretched out over a year and a half. Zixuzi, 91-92, provides a list of pension amounts for officers and men, and notes that the pension period was nine years for officers and three years for common soldiers. [BACK]

94. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 16. [BACK]

95. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78. Zixuzi, 100, estimated the final cost of the disbandment program at over 1,700,000 taels. [BACK]

96. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79, 81.

97. Ibid.; Hunan gongbao [Hunan Gazette], Sept. 21 and 27, 1912; Shibao , Sept. 6, 1912. break [BACK]

96. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 79, 81.

97. Ibid.; Hunan gongbao [Hunan Gazette], Sept. 21 and 27, 1912; Shibao , Sept. 6, 1912. break [BACK]

98. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 78-79, 81; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 85-86. [BACK]

99. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81; Zixuzi, 82. [BACK]

100. Zixuzi, 82. [BACK]

101. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81.

102. Ibid., 82; USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912); Shibao , Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

101. Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81.

102. Ibid., 82; USDS 893.00/1478 (Greene, Oct. 1, 1912); Shibao , Oct. 3, 1912. [BACK]

103. Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912; Tong Meicen, "Canzan," 81; Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 86. [BACK]

104. Hunan zhengbao [Hunan Government Bulletin], Nov. 23, 1912. [BACK]

105. Shibao , Feb. 28, Mar. 6, Mar. 10, and Mar. 26, 1913. [BACK]

106. Shibao , Oct. 21, 1912; Hunan zhengbao , Oct. 30, 1912; Zixuzi, 88. [BACK]

107. Zixuzi, 87-88. The commander of the Capital Guard Corps, Ren Dingyuan, had been a Patrol and Defense commander under Zhang in southern Hunan. Chen Yuxin, 130. [BACK]

108. Shibao , Jan. 21 and Apr. 23, 1912; Hunan zhengbao , Oct. 30, 1912. [BACK]

109. Cheng Qian, "Xinhai geming," 86-89; Shibao , Apr. 21 and May 6, 1913. [BACK]

110. Zhao Hengti, section 3. [BACK]

111. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 6: 8b-9a; 10: 12a. According to New Army standards, a company was to contain 126 soldiers. Fung, Military Dimension , 22. [BACK]

112. Shibao , June 19, 1912. [BACK]

113. Shibao , Aug. 11, 1912; XGHSX, 656-58. [BACK]

114. Shibao , Feb. 24, 1913. [BACK]

115. Shibao , June 5, 1912. This account does not specify the exact amount of this pension, but a similar organization disbanded later, which was said to have received the same terms, was given ten strings of cash a month for three years, and an increasingly lower amount in following years. Shibao , Oct. 29, 1912. [BACK]

116. For example, the Training Corps approached Li Yuanhong several times with disbandment terms, first seeking the same nine-year pension offered to the Blood Pledge Society, then requesting a settlement including one month's severance pay, fifty yuan for traveling expenses, and a six-year pension. In November 1912, Li agreed to nine-year pensions, but delayed the Corps's disbandment until March 1913. Shibao , Aug. 4 and 23, 1912; "Ejun jiaodaotuan lishi," 217. [BACK]

117. Shibao , July 20 and Oct. 25, 1912. According to a unit-by-unit enumeration in Shibao , Oct. 26, 1912, the Hubei army at this time consisted of 6,513 officers, 38,488 soldiers, and 15,221 service continue

personnel ( fuyi ), for a total of 60,222 men. The eight divisions contained 29,551 men. A New Army division contained 10,436 men, or 83,488 for eight divisions. Fung, Military Dimension , 21. [BACK]

118. Lu Zuzhen, "E gemingjun po tuiwu yu Chen Zuohuang, Wang Yaodong, Peng Jilin lieshi shilue" [The experience of the Hubei revolutionary army's forced disbandment and a brief account of the martyrs Chen Zuohuang, Wang Yaodong, and Peng Jilin], XGHL, 2: 91. [BACK]

119. Shibao , June 19, 1912. The retirement pay offered at this time was too low to provide much incentive, and was increased in early 1913, for example raising a platoon commander's bonus from 150 to 400 yuan. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 17: 9b. [BACK]

120. XGHSX, 655; Shibao , Oct. 25, 1912. [BACK]

121. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 16: 5a. In October 1912, the Hubei army still had 6,513 officers. The eight regular army divisions had 4,604 officers, averaging about 575 officers per division. Although this number was insufficient for a full New Army division, which required 748 officers, only 480 would have been needed for the divisional staff and two infantry brigades that formed most of Hubei's divisions at this time. Shibao , Oct. 26, 1912; Fung, Military Dimension , 21. [BACK]

122. Shibao , July 1, 5, 6, and 24, 1912. [BACK]

123. Shibao , Sept. 24, 1912; Cai Ji'ou, 202-4. [BACK]

124. Shibao , Mar. 27, 1913. [BACK]

125. Shibao , Jan. 30, Feb. 14, 21, and 24, Mar. 28, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 17: 9b. [BACK]

126. Shibao , Feb. 24 and Apr. 24, 1913; Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 16: 5a, 17: 9b. [BACK]

127. Shibao , Jan. 14, 1913; Cai Ji'ou, 197. Du showed a remarkable ability to weather political changes by holding this post for the next fifteen years under a number of different regimes. [BACK]

128. Shibao , July 20, 1912, Mar. 11, Apr. 10 and 20, 1913. [BACK]

129. Li Yuanhong, Li fuzongtong , 9: 13a-13b. [BACK]

130. Shibao , June 19, 1912. [BACK]

131. Shibao , Feb. 14 and 24, Mar. 6, 1913. [BACK]

132. Shibao , Feb. 14, Mar. 6 and 31, Apr. 10 and 19, 1913. [BACK]

133. Shibao , Apr. 5, 10, 12, and 13, May 1 and 28, July 1 and 4, 1913. [BACK]

134. Shibao , Apr. 5 and 13, July 30, 1913. [BACK]

135. Shibao , Oct. 5 and 6, 1912. [BACK]

136. Shibao , Apr. 13, 1913. [BACK]

137. USDS 893.00/1658 (Greene, Apr. 12, 1913); Shibao , Apr. 18, May 13, 15, and 21, 1913. break [BACK]

138. Shibao , Aug. 3, Sept. 7, and Oct. 2, 1913. [BACK]

139. Shibao , Aug. 17 and 24, 1913. [BACK]

140. Shibao , Sept. 11, 1913. [BACK]