1. Nancy K. Miller, The Heroine's Text: Readings in the French and English Novel, 1722-1782 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), ix. [BACK]

2. Sofía Tartilán, Páginas para la educación popular (Madrid: Imprenta de Enrique Vicente, 1877), 231. Although María del Carmen Simón Palmer's recent bibliographical studies list some two thousand surviving nineteenth-century works on the subject of woman, this material has become the subject of academic investigation only in the last decade. [BACK]

3. Jane Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France, and the United States, 1780-1860 (London: Macmillan, 1985), 8. [BACK]

4. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, "Tradition and the Female Talent," in The Poetics of Gender , ed. Nancy K. Miller (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 202-3. [BACK]

5. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality , trans. Robert Hurley (1978; reprint, New York: Vintage Books, 1980); Carl Degler, "What Ought To Be and What Was: Women's Sexuality in the Nineteenth Century," American Historical Review 79, no. 5 (1974): 1467-90; Erna Olafson Hellerstein, Leslie Parker Hume, and Karen Offen, eds., Victorian Women: A Documentary Account of Women's Lives in Nineteenth-Century England, France, and the United States (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981); and Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984-86). [BACK]

6. Mary Nash, ed., Mujer, familia y trabajo en España (1875-1936) (Barcelona: Anthropos, 1983), 41. [BACK]

7. The theory of the public sphere originates in the work of Jürgen Habermas, first published in English as The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991). Habermas's work has been extensively used by feminist historians and social scientists. See Joan B. Landes, Women in the Public Sphere (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), who argues that in the passage from absolutism to bourgeois liberal democracy, women were generically excluded from constituting "the public," a body which monitored and discussed matters of common interest and was thus an important new political institution. [BACK]

8. See, for example, J. R., La mujer: Lo que ha sido, lo que es, lo que debe ser (Barcelona: Manuel Sauri, 1865), 53. [BACK]

9. Bridget Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar: Galdós and the Ideology of Domesticity in Spain (Chapel Hill: North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 1991), 27. [BACK]

10. Carmen Martín Gaite, in Usos amorosos del dieciocho en España (Madrid: Siglo XXI, 1972), describes how during the eighteenth century even within their homes many Spanish women of the upper classes remained segregated to the estrado , a dais in the drawing room, enclosed by railings, where women sat on cushions and sewed (27-8). José María Blanco White's second letter, dated 1798, also attests to the reclusive life lived by middle-class women in Andalusia at the end of the eighteenth century but records that Spanish husbands had by this point undergone a "thorough change" as regards their proverbial jealousy, with the result that women's manners were a "strange mixture of caution and liberty" ( Letters from Spain [London: Henry Colburn, 1822], 48-49). [BACK]

11. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 61, 32. [BACK]

12. Tartilán, Páginas para la educación popular , 232. [BACK]

13. From Antonio Cánovas del Castillo's prologue to Miguel Guijarro, ed., Las mujeres españolas, portuguesas y americanas tales como son en el hogar doméstico  . . . (Madrid: Imprenta de Miguel Guijarro, 1872), 1:xiii. [BACK]

14. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 55. [BACK]

15. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, El ángel del hogar , 7th edition (Madrid: J. A. García [ca. 1890]), 1:243. See also Concepción Gimeno de Flaquer, who remarks in a similar vein "¡Oh madres, de vosotras es el reino de la tierra! . . . podeis purificar las costumbres y levantar las ideas, pues sois fuertes por medio de vuestro amor" (Oh mothers, it is you who rule the world! . . . you can purify customs and elevate ideas, for you are strong through your love) ( La mujer española: Estudios acerca de su educación y facultades intelectuales [Madrid: Imprenta de Miguel Guijarro, 1877], 210). [BACK]

16. Juan P. Criado y Domínguez, Literatas españolas del siglo XIX: Apuntes bibliográficos (Madrid: Imprenta de Antonio Pérez Dubrull, 1889), 61. One of the popular anthologies of the day similarly credits the ángel del hogar with an inspirational, redemptive influence on those around her: "con el ejemplo, con la palabra, con la dignidad y la moral entereza que nacen de una conciencia limpia y serena, encamina al bien a su familia, y sirve como de regulador y de espejo en los pensamientos y en las acciones del hogar" (with her example, with her words, with the dignity and moral integrity born of a clear and tranquil conscience, she guides her family towards right and acts as a regulator and a mirror in the thoughts and actions of the household) (Leopoldo Augusto de Cueto, "La mujer de Guipúzcoa," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 1:429). [BACK]

17. It is worth noting that even in industrialized countries such as Britain, the separation of spheres remained an ideal for large segments of the population. Jane Rendall argues that many women's domestic chores—such as fetching water, washing clothes, buying bread, sewing, and gathering wood—"far from being private, individual ones, undertaken within the home as a refuge from the outside world, were impossible within the strictly limited resources of most working peoples' homes, and were as likely to be dependent on communal resources, and undertaken with other women" ( The Origins of Modern Feminism , 191). [BACK]

18. Nancy Armstrong, Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). [BACK]

19. For a description of these new social types, see Charles Kany, Life and Manners in Madrid, 1750-1800 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1932), 174-208. [BACK]

20. Martín Gaite states that numerous eighteenth-century writers mentioned the estrado with nostalgia as a thing of the past ( Usos amorosos , 28). Charles Kany mentions that by the second half of the century, the word estrado had come to refer simply to the drawing room, where the sexes mingled relatively freely, rather than the original women-only dais in the room ( Life and Manners in Madrid , 270). [BACK]

21. See the excellent discussions of this process in Michelle Perrot, ed., A History of Private Life: From the Fires of Revolution to the Great War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990), 4:9, 100. Lawrence Stone, in The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England, 1500-1800 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977), and Rudolf Trumbach, in The Rise of the Egalitarian Family: Aristocratic Kinship and Domestic Relations in Eighteenth-Century England (New York: Academic Press, 1978), argue that attitudes to marriage and the family were transformed in western societies into new models of companionship and affective ties with the rise of the bourgeoisie in the eighteenth century. [BACK]

22. Olafson Hellerstein et al., Victorian Women , 2. [BACK]

23. Rendall, The Origins of Modern Feminism , 206. [BACK]

24. See Martín Gaite, Los usos amorosos del dieciocho , chap. 1, for a discussion of the custom of the cortejo , adopted in Spain around 1750. [BACK]

25. John Ruskin, Sesame and Lilies (Philadelphia: Henry Altemus, 1893), 137. [BACK]

26. E. Escartín y Lartiga, ''El triunfo de la anarquía: Los problemas del siglo XX," in Mujer, familia y trabajo en España (1875-1936) , ed. Mary Nash (Madrid: Anthropos, 1983), 65. [BACK]

27. J. Sánchez de Toca, El matrimonio (Madrid: A. de Cárlos é hijo, 1875), 1:165. [BACK]

28. Galdós's El audaz (1871) engages in a classic early bourgeois critique of the power and freedom of the eighteenth-century aristocratic woman in the unsympathetic portrayal of the haughty, independent, and undomestic heroine Susana Cerezuelo and the biting satire of two minor characters, the literata Pepita Sanahuja and the would-be diplomat Antonia de Gibraleón. [BACK]

29. Thomas Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990). [BACK]

30. Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989). [BACK]

31. Juan Valera, "Las mujeres y las academias: Cuestión social inocente" (1891), in Obras completas (Madrid: Aguilar, 1949), 2:861. See also Leopoldo Alas, "Nietzsche y las mujeres" (1899), reprinted in Clarín: Obra olvidada , ed. Antonio Ramos-Gascón (Madrid: Jucar, 1973), 206. [BACK]

32. Escartín y Lartiga, "El triunfo de la anarquía," 65. [BACK]

33. Susan Kirkpatrick, Las Románticas: Women Writers and Subjectivity in Spain, 1835-1850 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 57. [BACK]

34. Enrique Pérez Escrich, "La mujer de Valencia," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:459. [BACK]

36. Quoted in Criado y Domínguez, Literatas españolas , 37. Accent usage in the nineteenth century was more free than it is now. I have not modernized diacritics and spelling but have simply followed my sources throughout. [BACK]

37. William Acton, The Functions and Disorders of the Reproductive Organs , 4th ed. (London, 1865), 112. Quoted in Laqueur, Making Sex , 196. The physician Pedro Felipe Monlau echoes this opinion in his Higiene del matrimonio, o el libro de los casados (Paris: Garnier, 1865), 180: "el instinto genésico es más imperioso en el hombre que en la mujer . . . de ahí que la continencia sea más fácil en ésta que en aquél" (the reproductive instinct is more powerful in man than in woman . . . thus continence is easier for her than for him). [BACK]

38. In the 1870s medical practitioners tried to control what they considered to be excessive or abnormal female desire by performing ovariotomies and clitoridectomies on women. [BACK]

39. Cánovas del Castillo, prologue to Las mujeres españolas , 1:xiii; F. de Alvaro, "De la castidad conyugal," La Guirnalda 10, no. 6 (20 March 1876): 43. [BACK]

40. Fraser Harrison, The Dark Angel: Aspects of Victorian Sexuality (London: Sheldon Press, 1977), 42. [BACK]

41. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, Verdades dulces y amargas: Páginas para la mujer (Madrid: Viuda e hijos de J. A. García, 1882), 202-3. [BACK]

42. Leopoldo Martínez Reguera, La mujer en su origen y organización es más perfecta que el hombre (Madrid: M. Romero, 1882), 49. [BACK]

43. Barbara Taylor, Eve and the New Jerusalem: Socialism and Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1983), 126. [BACK]

44. Escartín y Lartiga, "El triunfo de la anarquía," 65. [BACK]

45. Saturnino Estéban Collantes, "La mujer de Palencia," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:271. [BACK]

46. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, La mujer en nuestros días: Obra dedicada a las madres y a las hijas de familia (Madrid: Agustín Jubera, 1878), 217. [BACK]

47. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 36-37. [BACK]

48. Pérez Escrich, "La mujer de Valencia," 2:459. [BACK]

49. Elizabeth Langland, "Nobody's Angels: Domestic Ideology and Middle-Class Women in the Victorian Novel," PMLA 107, no. 2 (1992): 291. [BACK]

50. Sinués de Marco, El ángel del hogar , 1:240. [BACK]

51. Augusto de Cueto, "La mujer de Guipúzcoa," in Las mujeres españolas , 1:432. [BACK]

52. Martínez Reguera, La mujer , 27. [BACK]

53. Mary Elizabeth Perry, Gender and Disorder in Early Modern Seville (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 37-44. [BACK]

54. Padre Claret, Instrucción que debe tener la mujer para desempeñar bien la misión que el todopoderoso le ha confiado (Barcelona: Librería Religiosa, 1862), 31. [BACK]

55. Vizconde de San Javier, "La mujer de Teruel," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:414. [BACK]

56. José Sélgas y Carrasco, "La mujer de Murcia," in Las mujeres españolas , ed. Guijarro, 2:201. [BACK]

57. See for example Narciso Gay y Beya, who vilified the proponents of female emancipation in La mujer en su pasado, su presente y su porvenir: Memoria leída en la sesión pública de la sociedad filomática el día 6 de enero de 1857 (Barcelona: Administración del Plus Ultra, 1857), 23. [BACK]

58. Sinués de Marco, El ángel hogar , 2:259-60. [BACK]

59. María Dolores Torres Natria, "El feminismo," La Escuela Moderna 84 (1898): 178-87. [BACK]

60. Sélgas y Carrasco, "La mujer de Murcia," 2:215. [BACK]

61. Aldaraca, El ángel del hogar , 64. [BACK]

62. Discussed by María Victoria López-Cordón Cortezo, "La situación de la mujer a finales del antiguo régimen (1760-1860)," in Mujer y sociedad en España 1700-1975 , ed. Rosa María Capel Martínez (Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1982), 51. [BACK]

63. Mary Poovey, The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). [BACK]

64. Gregorio Martínez Sierra, "¿Qué deben estudiar las mujeres?" in Cartas a las mujeres (Madrid: Pueyo, 1916), 104. Alda Blanco argues convincingly that María Martínez Sierra was in fact the author of this and many other feminist essays which originally appeared under Gregorio's name (introduction to Una mujer por caminos de España , 3). Literacy rates are those mentioned in the Anuario Estadístico de España for 1915. Virginia Woolf, "Professions for Women," in Collected Essays (New York: Harcourt and Brace, 1967), 2:286-87. [BACK]

65. This point is cogently argued by Kirkpatrick in Las Románticas and also by María del Carmen Simón Palmer in "Escritoras españolas del siglo XIX o el miedo a la marginación," in Anales de literatura española de la Universidad de Alicante 2 (1983): 477-90. [BACK]

66. Alda Blanco, "The Moral Imperative for Women Writers," Indiana Journal of Hispanic Literatures 2, no. 1 (Fall 1993): 100. [BACK]

67. See Adolfo Perinat and María Isabel Marrades, Mujer, prensa y sociedad en España, 1800-1939 (Madrid: CIS, 1980); M. Roig Castellanos, La mujer y la prensa desde el siglo XVIII a nuestros días (Madrid: M. Roig, 1977); María del Carmen Simón Palmer, "Revistas españolas femeninas del siglo XIX," in Homenaje a don Agustín Millares Carlo (Las Palmas: Caja Insular de Ahorros de Gran Canaria, 1975), 1:401-45; Christine Stopp, "Woman as Represented and Discussed in the Popular and Periodical Literature of Spain in the Period 1860-1900" (D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1984). [BACK]

68. Alicia Andreu, "Arte y consumo: Angela Grassi y 'El Correo de la Moda,' " Nuevo Hispanismo 1 (1982): 123-35. [BACK]

69. See my essay "María del Pilar Sinués de Marco," in Spanish Women Writers: A Biobibliographical Sourcebook , ed. Linda Gould Levine, Ellen Engel-

      son Marson, and Gloria Feinman Waldman, 473-83 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993). [BACK]

70. Faustina Sáez de Melgar, Las mujeres españolas, americanas y lusitanas pintadas por sí mismas (Barcelona: Juan Pons, 1881), vii. [BACK]

71. See the introduction to Grassi's novel El copo de nieve (Madrid: Castalia, 1992), by Iñigo Sánchez Llama, for more information on her life and work. [BACK]

72. Faustina Sáez de Melgar, quoted by Criado y Domínguez in Literatas españolas , 61. [BACK]

73. Quoted by Joaquín Nin y Tudó, Para la mujer: Hermosa colección de pensamientos, máximas, sentencias y escritos (Barcelona: J. Miret, 1881), 160. [BACK]

74. Sarah Ellis, The Women of England (1838), quoted in Françoise Basch, Relative Creatures: Victorian Women in Society and the Novel , 1837-67 (London: Allen Lane, 1974), 5. [BACK]

75. Gimeno de Flaquer quotes Michelet to the effect that "la niña . . . vivirá para los otros" (the little girl . . . will live for others) ( La mujer española , 252). [BACK]

76. W. R. Greg, quoted by Basch in Relative Creatures , 5. [BACK]

77. Faustina Sáez de Melgar, Deberes de la mujer: Colección de artículos sobre la educación (Madrid: R. Vicente, 1866), 21. María del Pilar Sinués de Marco, Hija, esposa y madre: Cartas dedicadas a la mujer acerca de sus deberes para con la familia y la sociedad , 5th ed. (Madrid: Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, 1904), 112. [BACK]

78. Castro, Discurso , 11. The strategy is discussed by Judith Lowder Newton in Women, Power, and Subversion: Social Strategies in British Fiction, 1778-1860 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981). [BACK]

79. See López-Cordón Cortezo, "La situación de la mujer." [BACK]

80. Quoted in Russett, Sexual Science , 32. [BACK]

81. James McGrigor Allan, quoted in Russett, Sexual Science , 55. [BACK]

82. See Nina Auerbach, Woman and the Demon: The Life of a Victorian Myth (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982), 70-71. [BACK]

83. Florence Nightingale, Cassandra , ed. Myra Stark (New York: Feminist Press, 1979), 50. [BACK]

84. Gregorio Martínez Sierra, Nuevas cartas a las mujeres (Madrid, 1932), 176. Quoted in Alda Blanco, ed., María Martínez Sierra: Una mujer por caminos de España (Madrid: Castalia, 1989), 32. Blanco believes this essay was written by María Martínez Sierra. [BACK]

85. Emilia Pardo Bazán, "La educación del hombre y la de la mujer: sus relaciones y diferencias," in La mujer española , ed. Leda Schiavo (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1981), 74-75; Concepción Arenal, La mujer de su casa (Madrid: Gras y Compañía, 1883), 53, 14, 82, and 20. [BACK]

86. Kathryn Weibel, Mirror, Mirror: Images of Women Reflected in Popular Culture (New York: Anchor Books, 1977), 186, 176. [BACK]

87. Langland, "Nobody's Angels," 294. [BACK]

88. Carl Köhler, A History of Costume (New York: Dover, 1963), 431. [BACK]

89. Duncan Crow, The Victorian Woman (London: Allen and Unwin, 1971), 27. Bonnie Smith maintains that the ballooning skirts, corsets, and bustles of mid- and late-Victorian fashions created an illusion that the wearer was pregnant or lactating ( Ladies of the Leisure Class , 78); Helene Roberts stresses the re-

      strictive nature of such dress in "The Exquisite Slave: The Role of Clothes in the Making of the Victorian Woman," Signs 2, no. 3 (1977): 557-58. [BACK]

90. Fraser Harrison, The Dark Angel: Aspects of Victorian Sexuality (London: Sheldon Press, 1977), 229. As Rendall points out in The Origins of Modern Feminism , nineteenth-century constructions of the promiscuity of the poor also applied to those of other races; she reminds us of middle-class white Americans' belief in the unrestrained nature of black sexuality (196). [BACK]

91. Sarah Ellis, quoted in Laqueur, Making Sex , 204. [BACK]

92. Two celebrated examples of this in Spain were Concepción Arenal, who worked on prison reform, and Concepción Aleixandre, who worked as a doctor at Madrid's Hospital de la Princesa in the 1880s and 1890s. [BACK]

93. Nancy Cott, "Passionlessness: An interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology," Signs 4, no. 2 (1978): 219-36; Barbara Corrado Pope, "Angels in the Devil's Workshop: Leisured and Charitable Women in Nineteenth-Century England and France," in Becoming Visible: Women in European History , ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 296-326. [BACK]