1. There is no overall study of the history of Christian missionizing among the Jews. The best overview of such Christian missionizing in the Middle Ages is Peter Browe, Die Judenmission im Mittelalter und die Päpste (Rome, 1942). Also valuable are Bernhard Blumenkranz, Juifs et chrétiens dans le monde occidentale, 430-1096 (Paris, 1956), 67-158, and Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews (2d ed.; 18 vols.; New York, 1952-1983), IX, 71-94. [BACK]

2. There are many useful introductions to the difficulties of reconstructing the earliest phases of Christian history and to the limited conclusions that can be reached. See, inter alia, the recent works of Howard Clark Kee, Jesus in History: An Approach to the Study of the Gospels (New York, 1970) and Understanding the New Testament (4th ed.; Cliffside Park, 1983). [BACK]

3. Acts 10:1-11:18. [BACK]

4. Again, there is a vast literature on Paul. On Paul and the Jews, see the recent publications by E. P. Sanders, Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People (Philadelphia, 1983), and John Gager, The Origins of Anti-Semitism (New York, 1983), 193-264. [BACK]

5. Romans 11:11-12. [BACK]

6. See the useful summary provided in W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity (Philadelphia, 1984), and in Ramsey MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire (New Haven, 1984). break [BACK]

7. See Marcel Simon, Verus Israel, trans. H. McKeating (Oxford, 1986), 306-338. Note, especially, Robert L. Wilcken's recent and intensive study of John Chrysostom, in which he argues that internal judaizing was Chrysostom's prime concern, John Chrysostom and the Jews (Berkeley, 1984). To be sure, Simon sees John Chrysostom differently, as deeply anti-Jewish—see Verus Israel, 217-222. [BACK]

8. See e.g., Robert L. Wilcken, The Christians as the Romans Saw Them (New Haven, 1984), 94-163. [BACK]

9. See the classic work of Jean Juster, Les juifs dans l'empire romain (2 vols.; Paris, 1914). See also Simon, Verus Israel, and Baron, A Social and Religious History, II, 172-214. [BACK]

10. For an overview of emergent Jewish status in the christianized Roman Empire, see James Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue (London, 1934), 151-269. On the crucial role of Augustine in the development of a normative view concerning the Jews, see Bernhard Blumenkranz, Die Judenpredigt Augustins (Basle, 1946), and, idem, "Augustin et les juifs, Augustin et le judaisme," Recherches augustiniennes, I (1958): 225-241, reprinted in, idem, Juifs et chrétiens: patristique et moyen âge. [BACK]

11 See Robert Chazan, "1007-1012: Initial Crisis for Northern-European Jewry," Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, XXXVIII-XXXIX (1970-1971): 101-117. [BACK]

12. See, idem, European Jewry and the First Crusade (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1987), which stresses the doctrinal roots of the First Crusade assaults and the subsequent efforts on the part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy to control unwarranted interpretations of Church teaching with regard to the Jews. [BACK]

14. Note again Blumenkranz's important studies of Augustine's views on the Jews. At the same time, general biographies of Augustine do not accord any centrality to this concern with the Jews, as seems proper. See, e.g., Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967). [BACK]

15. Once more, there is no overall survey of Christian anti-Jewish polemical literature. Still highly useful is the collection of descriptions by A. Lukyn Williams, Adversus Judaeos (Cambridge, 1935). See, more recently, Heinz Schreckenberg, Die christlichen Adversus-Judaeos-Texte und ihr literarisches und historisches Umfeld (1.-11. Jh.) (Frankfurt, 1982). For a more synthetic treatment, see Baron, A Social and Religious History, IX, 97-134, and Daniel J. Lasker, Jewish Philosophical Polemics against Christianity in the Middle Ages (New York, 1977), 1-11. Note, also, the valuable study by Amos Funkenstein, "Changes in the Patterns of Christian Anti- hard

      Jewish Polemics in the Twelfth Century" (Hebrew), Zion * XXXIII (1968): 124-144. [BACK]

16. Lasker has studied the philosophic issues in medieval Christian-Jewish polemics, at least from the Jewish perspective, in his Jewish Philosophical Polemics. For the emergence of philosophic issues in twelfth-century Christian polemics, see Funkenstein, "Changes in the Patterns of Christian Anti-Jewish Polemics." [BACK]

17. Note, e.g., the appearance of this issue in Peter Abelard's Dialogue of a Philosopher with a Jew and a Christian. See Peter Abelard, Dialogus inter Philosophum, Iudeum et Christianum, ed. Rudolf Thomas (Stuttgart, 1970), 51. An English translation is available in Peter Abelard, A Dialogue of a Philosopher with a Jew and a Christian, trans. Pierre J. Payer (Toronto, 1979), 33. [BACK]

18. For an overview, see Baron, A Social and Religious History, IX, 121-132. [BACK]

19. The fullest study of this Jewry remains that of Juster, Les juifs dans l'empire romain. [BACK]

20. See the studies of Joshua Starr, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, 641-1204 (Athens, 1939), and Romania: The Jewries of the Levant after the Fourth Crusade (Paris, 1949). See the two more recent accounts by Zvi Ankori, Yahadut ve-Yavnut Nozrit * : Mifgash ve-'Imut be-Meruzat * ha-Dorot (Tel-Aviv, 1984), and Steven B. Bowman, The Jews of Byzantium, 1204-1453 (University, Ala., 1985). [BACK]

21. Note the important study by Avraham Grossman, "The Jewish-Christian Polemic and Jewish Bible Exegesis in Twelfth-Century France" (Hebrew), Zion LI (1986): 29-60, and the literature cited there, p. 29, n. 1. [BACK]

22. This important text was carefully edited by the late Judah Rosenthal—see Jacob ben Reuven, Milhamot * ha-Shem, ed. Judah Rosenthal (Jerusalem, 1963). Rosenthal's bibliographic work and his editions of major polemical texts represent signal contributions to the study of medieval Jewish polemics. For Jacob ben Reuben's knowledge of Christian polemical materials, see David Berger, "Gilbert Crispin, Alan of Lille, and Jacob ben Reuben," Speculum XLIX (1974): 34-47. [BACK]

23. See Jacob ben Reuben, Milhamot ha-Shem, ed. Rosenthal, pp. 7-22. The twelfth-century Sefer ha-Berit, attributed to Rabbi Joseph Kimhi, appears in the collection Milhemet * Hovah * (Constantinople, 1710), 18 b- 38 a; it was republished by Frank Talmage, Sefer ha-Berit (Jerusalem, 1974), 21-68. Talmage has also provided an English translation of this important text—Joseph Kimhi, The Book of the Covenant (Toronto, 1972). [BACK]

24. See David Berger, The Jewish-Christian Debate in the High Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1979), 269-271. See also Joseph Kimhi, Sefer ha-Berit, ed. Talmage, pp. 25-28. [BACK]

25. See the interesting text discussed in Robert Chazan, "A Medieval Hebrew Polemical Mélange," Hebrew Union College Annual LI (1980): 101-102. break [BACK]

26. See, inter alia, Charles Homer Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1927); R. W. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (London, 1953); idem, Medieval Humanism and Other Studies (Oxford, 1970); M. D. Chenu, Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century, ed. and trans. Jerome Taylor and Lester K. Little (Chicago, 1968); Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable (eds.), Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1982). [BACK]

27. Note the role assigned to the Jews by Southern in his Medieval Humanism, 11-12. [BACK]

28. Berger, "Mission to the Jews."

29. Ibid., 584. Quote is from Écrits théologiques de l'école d'Abélard, ed. Arthur M. Landgraf (Louvain, 1934), 126-127. [BACK]

28. Berger, "Mission to the Jews."

29. Ibid., 584. Quote is from Écrits théologiques de l'école d'Abélard, ed. Arthur M. Landgraf (Louvain, 1934), 126-127. [BACK]

30. Berger, "Mission to the Jews," pp. 584-585. On Joachim in general, see Marjorie Reeves, Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future (London, 1976). [BACK]

31. Berger, "Mission to the Jews," 584. On Peter in general, see James Kritzeck, Peter the Venerable and Islam (Princeton, 1964). [BACK]

32. Berger, "Mission to the Jews," 584. See, also, Funkenstein, "Changes in the Patterns of Christian Anti-Jewish Polemics," 137-141 , and Yvonne Friedman's introduction to her recent edition of Peter's Adversus ludeorum inveteratam duritiem (Turnhout, 1985; Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis, vol. 58). Funkenstein, "Changes in the Patterns of Christian Anti-Jewish Polemics," 142, notes a passage in Alan of Lille in which a rabbinic text is used for establishing Christian truth. The twelfth-century figure most sensitive to the utilization of rabbinic materials, both for holding Judaism up to mockery and for proving major Christian contentions, was Peter Alphonsi, a former Jew. The fullest treatment of his utilization of this material can be found in Barbara Phyllis Hurwitz, "Fidei Causa et Tui Amore: The Role of Petrus Alphonsi's Dialogues in the History of Jewish-Christian Debate" (Ph.D. diss., Yale Univ., 1983), 163-218. [BACK]