1. Ms. magazine named Gilligan "Woman of the Year" in January 1984. [BACK]

2. Linda K. Kerber, "Some Cautionary Words for Historians," in "On In a Different Voice: An Interdisciplinary Forum," Signs 11 (1986): 304-33 (pp. 304-10). [BACK]

3. Catherine G. Greeno and Eleanor E. Maccoby, "How Different Is the 'Different Voice,'" in ibid., pp. 310-16; and Zella Luria, "A Methodological Critique," in ibid., pp. 316-21. Several suggest that the differences Gilligan is talking about may relate to class, not gender. Others maintain that in studies of actual behaviors, as opposed to stated orientations, the differences do not show up so clearly. It depends on the measure. In my view the differences are blatantly apparent if one considers gender differences in violent crime and sexual assault, to take an extreme example. [BACK]

4. Stack, "The Culture of Gender: Men and Women of Color," in ibid., pp. 321-24. [BACK]

5. See "Reply by Carol Gilligan," in ibid., pp. 324-33, especially p. 328. Philosophical and methodological critiques of Gilligan may be found in the entire issue of Social Research, 50, no. 3 (1983). [BACK]

6. For a fuller discussion of the various stages and transitions in women's moral development, see Gilligan's article, "In a Different Voice." [BACK]

7. Belenky et al., Women's Ways of Knowing. Significantly enough the authors report that mothers were very often the empowering persons in the lives of the women they interviewed. [BACK]

8. Gutmann, "Female Ego Styles." Bakan, Quality of Human Existence. The instrumental-expressive distinction was first explicitly formulated by Parsons, Social System, and by Parsons and Shils, General Theory, pt. 2. Partially because of the development of his four-dimensional conception of action space, the definitions of instrumental and expressive continue

were somewhat altered in Parsons, Bales, and Shils, Working Papers. Throughout all these works the terms were never defined clearly, and Parsons tackled the definitional problem only indirectly by trying to link the concepts with other elements in the scheme. Later he dropped these terms almost entirely as analytical variables as he developed farther his fourfold conception of action space: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latent pattern maintenance. [BACK]

9. Carlson, "Sex Differences in Ego Functioning," and "Understanding Women." [BACK]

10. Bakan, Quality of Human Existence, p. 15. [BACK]

11. Carlson, "Understanding Women." [BACK]

12. Carlson, "Sex Differences in Ego Functioning." [BACK]

13. Jeanne Block, "Conceptions of Sex Role." [BACK]

14. Finigan, "Effects of Token Representation." [BACK]

15. The term expressive is something of a misnomer but not entirely. Perhaps a better term for what its definition describes would be relational. Nevertheless, I will continue to use expressive along with relational because I do not want to lose entirely the connotation of "feeling" that expressiveness carries. Relationships themselves cannot be encompassed or thought about without taking feeling into account. Expressive symbolism and expressive patterns are used to define relationships when they are the primary focus of interest. [BACK]

16. When Parsons applies the terms expressive and instrumental to family roles, he explicitly does not see them as carrying differential power. Rather, he treats the difference between instrumental and expressive as descriptive of the gender axis in the family; he treats the generational difference between parents and children as the power axis. In spite of this apparent symmetry, however, Parsons makes clear that the female role is a major locus of strain within the family, in part because the culture itself has such a strong instrumental bias. [BACK]

17. Lewin, in "Psychological Measures," claims that instrumental and expressive are simply "euphemisms for 'dominant' and 'subordinate'" (p. 195). This distorts Parsons's position, as I will try to show in the discussion to follow. (See also note 16.) In the rush to discover and repudiate sexism in all past "scientific" conceptualizations, we may find ourselves prematurely abandoning exactly that which requires examination. The problem is not to start from scratch but to examine in new ways what "is known." [BACK]

18. Hochschild, Managed Heart, pp. 164—65. [BACK]

19. Gough and Heilbrun, Joint Manual. [BACK]

20. The word obliging and perhaps others may seem to some to connote a yielding acquiescence, but perhaps only from an instrumental continue

point of view. Being helpful does not necessarily make one a doormat. When one looks at intercorrelations, men are more likely than women to see relational or expressive traits as being associated with passivity and dependence. [BACK]

21. Bennett and Cohen, "Men and Women," p. 125. [BACK]

22. For the detailed report of this study, see M. Johnson et al., "Expressiveness Re-evaluated." [BACK]

23. In these analyses we excluded the items chosen to represent the negative versions of each of the three dimensions under investigation. [BACK]

24. This is only one of several ways that our analysis differs from the analysis Alice Echols attributes to what she calls "cultural feminists." See "New Feminism of Yin and Yang." [BACK]

25. On the multidimensionality of masculinity and femininity, see E. Lewis, Developing Woman's Potential, pp. 69-71. For an excellent summary of earlier scales, see Constantinople, "Masculinity-Femininity." [BACK]

26. Bem, "Measurement of Psychological Androgyny." [BACK]

27. Spence and Helmreich, Masculinity and Femininity. [BACK]

28. Jones, Chernhovetz, and Hansson, "Enigma of Androgyny"; K. Morgan, "Androgyny"; Pedhazur and Tetenbaum, "Bem Sex Role Inventory"; Locksley and Cotten, "Psychological Androgyny." [BACK]

29. Mary Daly, "Qualitative Leap Beyond Patriarchal Religion," expressed this idea many years ago in her comment that androgyny seems to mean combining John Wayne and Brigitte Bardot. The particular personalities used in the analogy need to be constantly updated, but the idea remains the same: a "man's man" and a "man's toy" combined in the same person can hardly solve the problem of the devaluation of women. [BACK]

30. Bem, "Sex Role Adaptability." [BACK]

31. For a discussion of these other studies, see Gill et al., "Measuring Gender Differences." [BACK]

32. The prevalence of the belief that "male equals human" was documented early on by Broverman et al., "Sex Role Stereotypes." [BACK]

33. Bem, "Gender Schema Theory." [BACK]

34. See also Eichenbaum with Orbach, What Do Women Want? [BACK]

35. For the annals of not-so-trivial trivia, I must note that Bardwick and Douvan, "Ambivalence," attribute this quote to Talcott Parsons in a 1942 article. This is an error of course. This statement in no way reflects Parsons's thinking in the article cited or in any other article of his. [BACK]

36. L. Rubin, Women of a Certain Age, especially the chapter "Who Am I, The Elusive Self." [BACK]

37. Gottfried, "Feminism and College Educated Women." [BACK]

38. J. Miller, New Psychology of Women, especially p. 89. [BACK]

39. See Stockard and Wood, "Myth of Female Underachievement." break [BACK]

40. Vanek, "Household Work." [BACK]

41. I am indebted to Hanne Haavind of the University of Oslo for this illustration. [BACK]

42. Gove and Hughes, "Sex Differences in Physical Health." [BACK]

43. Maccoby and Jacklin, Psychology of Sex Differences. [BACK]

44. Martin, "Maternal and Paternal Abuse." [BACK]

45. Frodi, Macauley, and Thome, "Are Women Always Less Aggressive?" [BACK]

46. Maccoby and Jacklin, "Sex Differences in Aggression." See also Maccoby, Social Development, p. 216. Here she reiterates that "the tendency in males to be more aggressive than females is perhaps the most firmly established gender difference and is a characteristic that transcends culture." For a review of gender and aggression studies, see White, "Sex and Gender Issues." White emphasizes the role of learning and the variability of aggression depending on the definition of the situation. White suggests that women and men do not "really" differ much in aggression, perhaps because she also accepts the view that male "aggression" somehow explains male dominance. [BACK]

47. Newton, Maternal Emotions. [BACK]

48. Barbara Ehrenreich suggests that this new emphasis may be associated with preserving class boundaries and consumerism. See "Feminist's View." [BACK]

49. M. Goodwin and C. Goodwin, "Children's Arguing." [BACK]