1. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Mass.: AddisonWesley, 1978), 52. [BACK]

2. I spelled out what I mean by "development" in "The Idea of Political Development: From Dignity to Efficiency," World Politics 34 (1982): 451-486. [BACK]

3. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1947), 3-18.

4. Ibid., 18. [BACK]

3. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1947), 3-18.

4. Ibid., 18. [BACK]

5. What follows is a severe condensation of an earlier essay, "Civic Inclusion: The Political Aspect," Working Papers on Authority Relations , no. 3, February 1983, Program in Authority Studies, University of California, Irvine. [BACK]

6. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (London: Allen and Unwin, 1943). 250-251. [BACK]

7. See especially Samuel H. Beer, British Politics in the Collectivist Age (New York: Knopf, 1965), 22-32, and the sources cited there. [BACK]

8. For an excellent overview of utilitarian thought, see William L. Davidson, Political Thought in England: The Utilitarians from Bentham to J. S. Mill (London: Butterworth, 1915). J. S. Mill's views on the educative effects of citizenship are well summarized in Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 28-35. [BACK]

9. This bears out Bagehot's argument that the effects of large political changes could be seen clearly only a generation after their occurrence. Bagehot did have considerable reservations about what others expected from the Reform Act of 1867, but deflating nonsense was pan of his style—and his doubts were based more on the shortcomings of the old oligarchy than the new citizens. See his preface to The English Constitution , 2d ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1978), 259-312. [BACK]

10. Graham Wallas, Human Nature in Politics (London: Constable and Company, 1908), 199-200. [BACK]

11. Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (New York: Viking, 1960). [BACK]

12. S. E. Finer, "Introduction" to Vilfredo Pareto, Sociological Writings (London: Pall Mall Press, 1966), 5-8. [BACK]

13. For summaries of the early literature on ruling elites, see T. B. Bottomore, continue

Elites and Society (London: Watts, 1964); Renzo Sereno, The Rulers (New York: Praeger, 1962); and James Burnham, The Machiavellians (London: Putnam, 1943). [BACK]

14. J. L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (New York: Praeger, 1960). [BACK]

15. An exception is the work on political participation of Sidney Verba, Norman H. Nie, and Jae-On Kim; see their Participation and Political Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). [BACK]

16. Wallas, Human Nature in Politics , 231-233. [BACK]

17. J. E. C. Bodley, France , rev. ed. (London: Macmillan, 1899), 25, 34. [BACK]

18. Robert Michels, Political Parties (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949), esp. 54-65. [BACK]

19. See Tocqueville, Democracy in America , chap. 25, and J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Liberty, and Representative Government (London: J. S. Dent and Sons, 1910), 278-288. [BACK]

20. Le Bon, The Crowd ; Robert Michels, Political Parties , 28, 69-74; Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," in Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 101-115. [BACK]

21. The seminal depiction of the nature and ends of political machines is in James Bryce, The American Commonwealth (London: Macmillan, 1891), vol. 2. For a good bibliography of the now vast literature on political machines, see Thomas M. Guterbuck, Machine Politics in Transition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 307-314. [BACK]

22. Weber, Essays in Sociology , 86. [BACK]

23. Bryce, The American Commonwealth , 105. [BACK]

24. Bibliographies of more than a hundred major works have become common in overviews of the subject of participation. See, for instance, Lester W. Millbrath, "Political Participation," in The Handbook of Political Behavior , ed. Samuel L. Long (New York: Plenum Press, 1981), 4: chap. 4. This is typical; the modern literature on the other subjects in fact is larger. [BACK]

25. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), passim. [BACK]

26. Robert A. Dahl, Who Governs? (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961). [BACK]

27. The standard synthesis of the theory is William Kornhauser's The Politics of Mass Society (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959). Kornhauser's work also began to shape the concept of mass society for systematic political sociology, as against angry polemics or fuzzy "philosophy." [BACK]

28. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy , 285; I refer to Anthony Downs's Economic Theory of Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1956), and William Riker's The Theory of Political Coalitions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962). [BACK]

29. See Michael Laver, The Politics of Private Desires (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1981)—an excellent summary of the modern theory of "rational choice" in politics. [BACK]

30. Educational inclusion—its nature, the processes involved, the expectations associated with it, and the discontents associated with the expectations—is a very large subject. We have literature about it since the 1960s, when stock began widely to be taken of the results of advanced inclusion in educational institutions. continue

Here, I only make points especially pertinent to the theoretical issue of the paper. [BACK]

31. See Education and Democracy , ed. A. E. Dyson and Julian Lovelock (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975), pp. 9-10. Dyson and Lovelock's book presents a splendid combination of writings and speeches, popular and philosophical, on the relations between education and democracy, from 1791 to 1916—from Tom Paine to John Dewey. [BACK]

32. James Mill, "Education," in The Encyclopedia Britannica , 1825 [my insertion]. [BACK]

33. A good summary of that agitation is in Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), chap. 3.

34. Ibid., 10.

35. Ibid., 13. [BACK]

33. A good summary of that agitation is in Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), chap. 3.

34. Ibid., 10.

35. Ibid., 13. [BACK]

33. A good summary of that agitation is in Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), chap. 3.

34. Ibid., 10.

35. Ibid., 13. [BACK]

36. Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom: The Remaking of American Education (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 15, 17. [BACK]

37. Martin Trow, "Reflections on the Transition from Mass to Universal Higher Education," Daedalus 99 (1970): 232-239. [BACK]

38. Cremin, The Transformation of the School , 16. [BACK]

39. See extract in Dyson and Lovelock, Education and Democracy , 279-281. [BACK]

40. Joseph Mayer Rice, The Public-School System of the United States (New York, 1893; articles from The Forum 18-19 republished in book form). [BACK]

41. A useful synthesis of pertinent studies is in Richard M. Merelman, "Democratic Politics and the Culture of American Education," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 319-332.

42. Ibid., 320. See also Philip Jackson, Life in Classrooms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), and Power and Ideology in Education ed. J. Karabel and A. H. Halsey (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). [BACK]

41. A useful synthesis of pertinent studies is in Richard M. Merelman, "Democratic Politics and the Culture of American Education," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 319-332.

42. Ibid., 320. See also Philip Jackson, Life in Classrooms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), and Power and Ideology in Education ed. J. Karabel and A. H. Halsey (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977). [BACK]

43. See, for instance, Philip Cusick, Inside High School (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973). [BACK]

44. Mary Haywood Metz, Classrooms and Corridors: The Crisis of Authority in Desegregated Secondary Schools (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). [BACK]

45. Merelman, "Democratic Politics," 326-329. [BACK]

46. See, for instance, John Wakeford, The Cloistered Elite (New York: Praeger, 1969), 128-159. [BACK]

47. Metz, Classrooms and Corridors , 71, 81, 82-83, 73-80.

48. Ibid., chaps. 3-6.

49. Ibid., 61-62. [BACK]

47. Metz, Classrooms and Corridors , 71, 81, 82-83, 73-80.

48. Ibid., chaps. 3-6.

49. Ibid., 61-62. [BACK]

47. Metz, Classrooms and Corridors , 71, 81, 82-83, 73-80.

48. Ibid., chaps. 3-6.

49. Ibid., 61-62. [BACK]

50. For Metz's characterization of these styles, see ibid., 35-39. [BACK]

51. Merelman, "Democratic Politics," 326-330. [BACK]

52. See, for instance, the excellent readings in Family, Class, and Education , ed. Maurice Craft (London: Longman, 1970); D. H. Hargreaves, Social Relations in a Secondary School (London: Macmillan, 1967), and (with others) Deviance in Classrooms (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975); and, especially apropos to my subject, Peter Woods, The Divided School (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979). [BACK]

53. The above is a distillation of three sections in Woods, The Divided School , 38-51 (on parental influence over pupils), 63-83, and 102-120 (on pupils' ad- soft

aptation to the schools). Woods's findings are derived from a case study in a particular culture, but his findings typify those of comparable studies.

54. Ibid., 140-169.

55. Ibid., 25-62. [BACK]

53. The above is a distillation of three sections in Woods, The Divided School , 38-51 (on parental influence over pupils), 63-83, and 102-120 (on pupils' ad- soft

aptation to the schools). Woods's findings are derived from a case study in a particular culture, but his findings typify those of comparable studies.

54. Ibid., 140-169.

55. Ibid., 25-62. [BACK]

53. The above is a distillation of three sections in Woods, The Divided School , 38-51 (on parental influence over pupils), 63-83, and 102-120 (on pupils' ad- soft

aptation to the schools). Woods's findings are derived from a case study in a particular culture, but his findings typify those of comparable studies.

54. Ibid., 140-169.

55. Ibid., 25-62. [BACK]

56. See Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963), and Hargreaves, Deviance in Classrooms . [BACK]

57. Herbert L. Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1974), 25. [BACK]

58. Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory , esp. chap. 3. Pateman correctly cites the Guild Socialists, especially G. D. H. Cole, as the aboriginal sources of her argument. [BACK]

59. For useful syntheses and references, see Towards Industrial Democracy: Europe, Japan, and the United States , ed. Benjamin C. Roberts (Montclair, N. J.: Allanheld, Osmun, 1979); Daniel Zwerdling, Workplace Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); R. Edwards, Contested Terrain: The Transformation of the Workplace in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1979); and John F. Witte, Democracy, Authority, and Alienation in Work (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982). [BACK]

60. For evidence, see an article that claims to support Pateman: J. Maxwell Elden, "Political Efficacy at Work," American Political Science Review 75 (1981): 43-58, esp. the summary tables on 50, 55. [BACK]

62. See, for instance, Edward S. Greenberg, "Industrial Self-management and Political Attitudes," American Political Science Review 75 (1981): 29-42. [BACK]

63. Numerous British sociologists have found that for the unskilled (Stacey's term is "roughs") only the family and street society provide significant social networks beyond the job. A rung higher ("ordinary" people), the church also matters. Among the skilled ("respectable" people), so do trade unions. See Josephine Klein, Samples from English Cultures (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965), 53ff. See also Mary Paneth, Branch Street (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1944); M. Kerr, The People of Ship Street (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1958); and N. Dennis et al., Coal Is Our Life (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1956). [BACK]

64. Klein, Samples from English Cultures . [BACK]

65. See, for example, Lipset's summary of the literature on "working-class authoritarianism." Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (New York: Doubleday, 1960), 120. For a summary and critique of the literature on the culture of poverty, see Charles A. Valentine. Culture and Poverty (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968). [BACK]

66. If I read Valentine (n. 65) correctly, it is precisely this fact of structural determinism and adaptation that he misses in works on the culture of poverty; see 130-144. [BACK]

67. The expression comes from the most influential book on street society, William F. Whyte, Street Corner Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943), xviii.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., xvi. [BACK]

67. The expression comes from the most influential book on street society, William F. Whyte, Street Corner Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943), xviii.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., xvi. [BACK]

67. The expression comes from the most influential book on street society, William F. Whyte, Street Corner Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1943), xviii.

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid., xvi. [BACK]

70. Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens , 25. break [BACK]

71. Whyte, Street Corner Society , 258. [BACK]

72. Frederic Thrasher, The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926). [BACK]

73. Whyte, Street Corner Society . 262.

74. Ibid., 1; Thrasher, The Gang , 51, 106, 239; Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens , 102. [BACK]

73. Whyte, Street Corner Society . 262.

74. Ibid., 1; Thrasher, The Gang , 51, 106, 239; Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens , 102. [BACK]

75. Cited in Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens , 104. [BACK]

76. Claude Brown, Manchild in the Promised Land (New York: Macmillan, 1965). [BACK]

77. Whyte, Street Corner Society . 256. [BACK]

78. Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens , 78. [BACK]

79. Thrasher, The Gang , 313-336. [BACK]

80. Foster, Ribbin', Jivin', and Playin' the Dozens . 78. [BACK]

81. Whyte, Street Corner Society , 35-41, 86-93. [BACK]

82. A good select bibliography on the subject may be found in Carmi Schooler and Melvin Kohn, "Occupational Experience and Psychological Functioning," American Sociological Review 38 (1973): 97-118. Along with that article, the following are particularly valuable: Melvin Kohn, Class and Conformity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); Kohn, "Job Conditions and Personality," American Journal of Sociology 87 (1982): 1257-1286; Lillian Rubin, Worlds of Pain (New York: Basic Books, 1976), 155-185; Robert Blauner, Alienation and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); F. Zweig, Men in Pits (London: Gollancz, 1948); Klein, Samples from English Cultures; and Dennis et al., Coal Is Our Life . [BACK]

83. Kohn, Class and Conformity . [BACK]

84. Schooler and Kohn, "Occupational Experience," 101. [BACK]

85. Rubin, Worlds of Pain , 155.

86. Ibid., 166. [BACK]

85. Rubin, Worlds of Pain , 155.

86. Ibid., 166. [BACK]

87. A more comprehensive list of such researches has been worked out by members of the Program in Authority Studies, University of California, Irvine. It is available in "An Agenda for Research on Civic Inclusion and the Authority-Culture of Poverty," May 1983. [BACK]

88. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy , xi. break [BACK]