1. For accounts of the history of the idea of "totemism" and of its demise, see Lévi-Strauss 1962 and Kuper 1988.

2. Strictly speaking; it is quite conceivable that individuals identify themselves as "totemists." One African friend of mine proudly claimed to be an "animist." However, such cases involve the adoption by individuals, if not whole groups, of labels invented by outsiders; Islam is clearly in another category.

3. Such a position is explicitly adopted by Zein 1977; see Asad 1986 and Eickelman 1987 for critiques of it.

4. I have been as guilty of this practice as anyone else (Launay 1977b and 1982). By and large, such misuse of language has not been intended as the expression of an explicit theoretical position, but its very ambiguity reflects real conceptual concerns of anthropologists. It should be noted that many "anthropologists of Islam" who have used such phrases in the past have, like myself, publicly or privately recanted.

5. I certainly do not wish to imply that "traditional" religions are organic products of local communities, whereas "universal" religions are not. The pitfalls of the organic approach may be as great in the analysis of nonscriptural religions; they are simply less obvious.

6. Notable exceptions are Zein 1974 and, most recently, Holy 1991.

7. For example, Abner Cohen 1969, Amselle 1977, and Copans 1980, to cite only book-length studies.

8. The literature on West African jihad movements and the states they established is voluminous. Monographs on the subject include Last 1967, Hiskett 1973, Quinn 1972, and Robinson 1985.

9. Sufis and Sufi orders have also generated a massive corpus of scholarly writings. Again, purely by way of example, one can cite Behrman 1970, O'Brien 1971 and 1975, Coulon 1981, and Copans 1980 on Senegal alone, as well as Martin 1976, Paden 1973, Brenner 1984, and O'Brien and Coulon 1988.

10. Such emphasis on these particular themes is already evident in Trimingham's (1962) earlier survey. In many respects, Hiskett's and Clarke's books update Trimingham's information without calling into question the general framework.

11. Studies of societies characterized by the Suwarian tradition include Sanneh 1979, Hunter 1976 and 1977, Launay 1982, Ferguson 1973, Levtzion 1968, Wilks 1968 and 1989, Green 1984, and Handloff 1982.

12. See, e.g. Beidelman 1982.

13. The nature of the Iranian theocratic regime is quite exceptional in Islamic history; see Enayat 1983 and Arjomand 1987.

14. I certainly do not wish to imply that all Marxists subscribe to this kind of approach, by any means, though I would argue that it is consistent with the point of view of some Marxists. For a highly sophisticated Marxist approach to religion, one that confronts the problem of religion as "ideology" squarely, see Bloch 1986.