1. This entire book draws on studies about how cultural traditions changed and new traditions developed in the late nineteenth century as classes formed in opposition to one another. A brief cross-section of the works that contribute to this line of thinking include Benedict Andersen, Invisible Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Penguin Books, 1986); Hobsbawm, "Mass-producing Traditions," 263; Lidtke, Alternative Culture ; Perrot, "First of May 1890 in France." E.P. Thompson's The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1966) can be considered the progenitor of the line of thought that views culture as a crucible for the formation of classes.

2. Figures from Alzina Caules, "Investigación analítica," 33, in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 128; Vives de Fabregas, Vida femenina barcelonesa , 219.

3. Bookchin, Spanish Anarchists , 139-140; Xavier Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo en Cataluña (1899-1911). Los orígenes de la CNT (Madrid: Ediciones de la Revista de Trabajo , 1976), 57-68; Romero Maura, "Rosa de fuego," 203-204.

4. Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 68-77.

5. Reference to the Belgian general strike of 1893 can be found in Ullman, Semana Trágica , 132.

6. Considerations of the theory of the general strike can be found in Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 96-101. Rosa Luxemburg's The Mass Strike, the Political Party, and the Trade Union , trans. Patrick Lavin (New York: Harper Torchbooks, [1906] 1971), provides a contemporary analysis of the significance of general and mass strikes.

7. I explored how an alternative, revolutionary society rooted in a tradition of resistance developed through informal neighborhood associations, unions, and cultural groups in southwestern Spain in Anarchists of Andalusia , 84-91.

8. Ibid., 166-167.

9. An interview with Federica Montseny about Teresa Claramunt appears in Carmen Alcalde, La mujer en la guerra civil española (Madrid: Cambio 16, 1976), 179-180.

10. "La anarquía a Barcelona," Veu de Catalunya (Barcelona) (evening edition), February 23, 1902.

11. The daily description comes from an unidentified, moderately conservative eyewitness whose account is in the archives of the Institut Municipal d'Història, Casa de l'Ardiaca; see La huelga general de Barcelona. Verdadera relación de los sucesos desarrollados con motivo del paro general en Barcelona durante la octava semana de este año por un testigo ocular (Barcelona: Imprenta de Pedro Toll, 1902), 5; for detailed accounts and analysis of the 1902 strike, see Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 80-106.

12. Huelga general , 8-9.

13. Ibid., 9-15.

14. Ibid., 11, 16, 20.

15. "La anarquía a Barcelona," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), February 23, 1902.

16. P.K., "Durant la huelga general. Impresions," Campana de Gracia , February 22, 1902; Huelga general , 16; Emili Salut, Vivers de revolucionaris. Apunts històrics del districte cinquè (Barcelona: Llibreria Catalònia, 1938), 61. Salut, whose book combines an ethnography of the Parallel at the turn of the century with a biography of the syndicalist leader Salvador Seguí, was rediscovered by Magdalena Fernández Cervantes; see her article "Una nueva fuente histórica sobre la formación de la ideología anarquista barcelonesa: Emili Salut y su obra Vivers de revolucionaris," Convivium. Filosofia, psicología, humanidades 1-2, nos. 44-45 (1975): 101-122.

17. Huelga general , 18-19.

18. Ibid., 21-25.

19. Ibid., 25-27.

20. Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 88; Huelga general , 25-30.

21. Romero Maura ( "Rosa del fuego," 216-217) gives low figures on casualties; Cuadrat ( Socialismo y anarquismo , 82) provides higher figures but settles for lower ones. The best discussion about casualty figures can be found in José Álvarez Junco, El emperador del paralelo. Lerroux y la demagogia populista (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1990), 270n.11 (which arrived just as my book was going to press). Estimates of the numbers killed and wounded ranged from a low of twelve dead and forty-four wounded to a high of one hundred dead and three hundred wounded; in the end, there is no way to know for sure.

22. Cuadrat, Socialismo y anarquismo , 76-77, 86-87; Romero Maura, "Rosa del fuego," 211; Ullman, Semana Trágica , 123.

23. Sr. F. Pujola y Vallés, "Contra las festas" (reproduced from El programa ), in Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 27, 1902, 4.

24. "Barcelona de festa. Funcions religiosas," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition) September 24, 1902, 2.

25. Jardí Casany, Història de els Quatre Gats , 122.

26. "La exposició d'art antich," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 15, 1902, 1-2; "Programa oficial y detallat de las Festas de la Mercé," ibid., September 16, 1902, 1-2; "La exposició d'art antich," ibid., September 25, 1902, 3.

27. "La exposició d'art antich," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), September 15, 1902, 3.

28. "Festas de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 23, 1902, 3.

29. "Barcelona de festa," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 24, 1902, 2.

30. "La cabalgata artística industrial," Liberal (Barcelona), October 5, 1902, 2.

31. "La cavalcada histórica, artística y industrial," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), October 4, 1902, 4-5; and "Festas de la Mercé: La cavalcada," ibid., October 6, 1902, 2-3.

32. Amades, Gegants, nans i altres entremesos , 77; "La festa dels gegants," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 27, 1902, 3.

33. "Festa de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 22, 1902, 3.

34. "Las festas de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (morning edition), September 30, 1902, 2-4.

35. "Las festas de la Mercé," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), September 25, 2.

36. Kaplan, Anarchists of Andalusia , 201.

37. "L'estat de guerra," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), October 10, 1902, 2.

38. "La cavalcada prohibida," Veu de Catalunya (evening edition), October 11, 1902, 2.

39. Domingo Carles, "La obra de Isidro Nonell," in Memorias de un pintor (Barcelona: Ediciones Destino), 87-90; Enric Jardí, Nonell (Barcelona: Editorial Polígrafa, n.d.), 66, 92, 102, 106, 110, 114; Enric Jardí, Nonell i altres assaigs (Barcelona: Editorial Selecta, 1957), 11; Carles Capdevila, "Joaquim Mir," Art (Barcelona) 2 (1935): 97; José Pla, El pintor Joaquín Mir (Barcelona: Ediciones Destino, 1944), 33.

40. Portraying people only as victims robs them of their potential political autonomy, an issue I explore in "Women and Spanish Anarchism," in Becoming Visible: Women in European History , ed. Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), 400-421.

41. Art historian Patricia Leighten has demonstrated that Picasso was aware of political struggles going on in Barcelona at the turn of the century and that he even signed a letter along with Spaniards living in Paris calling for an amnesty for Spanish political prisoners; see "Manifiesto de la colonia española residencia en Paris," Publicidad (Barcelona), December 29, 1900, cited in Leighten's "Picasso's Collages and the Threat of War, 1912-1913," Art Bulletin 67 (December 1985): 659n.40. By placing Picasso in a historical and political context among intellectual anarchists in Paris and Barcelona, Leighten has introduced another dimension to the studies of Picasso's work. Her pathbreaking book Re-Ordering the Universe: Picasso and Anarchism, 1897-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989) will help shape debate about Picasso's early political ideas for some time to come.

42. Paolo Lecaldano, La obra pictórica completa de Picasso azul y rosa (Barcelona: Editorial Noguer, 1980), 89-90.

43. I agree with Patricia Leighten ( Re-Ordering the Universe , 19-47, especially 38) that insofar as anarchism constituted an antiauthoritarian state of mind shared by many pioneers in art, literature, and philosophy of the time, Picasso was sympathetic, but I am not convinced that Picasso's portrayal of poverty was overtly political.

44. A rare photograph of Claramunt from the twenties can be found in Lola Iturbe, La mujer en la lucha social y en la guerra civil de España (Mexico City: Editores Mexicanos Unidos, 1974), 50. A useful debate about how the working class was represented can be found in Eric J. Hobsbawm, "Man and Woman in Socialist Iconography," History Workshop 6 (Autumn 1978): 121-138; and in the response by Sally Alexander, Anna Davin, and Eve Hostettler, "Labouring Women: A Reply to Eric Hobsbawm," History Workshop 8 (Autumn 1979): 174-182.