Notes
Introduction
1 J A Hassan, 'The Growth and Impact of the British Water Industry,' pp 531-47.
2 Royston Lambert, Sir John Simon, 1816-1904, and English Social Administration ; S E Finer, The Life and Times of Sir Edwin Chadwick ; R A Lewis, Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement, 1832-1854 ; R M MacLeod, 'The Frustration of State Medicine, 1880-1899,' Medical History 11 (1967): 15-40; Jeanne L Brand, Doctors and the State: The British Medical Profession and Government Action in Public Health, 1870-1912 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965); and Anthony S Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain . This perspective is also evident in many older works.
3 M Pelling, Cholera, Fever and English Medicine, 1825-1865 is the standard work on the pathological theories that guided the sanitarians. See also John M Eyler, Victorian Social Medicine: The Ideas and Methods of William Farr (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979).
4 See reference 2 and also Jeanne L Brand, 'John Simon and the Local Government Board Bureaucrats, 1871-76,' Bull. Hist. Med. 37 (1963): 184-94; Roy M MacLeod, Treasury Control and Social Administration: A study of Establishment Growth at the Local Government Board, 1871-1905, Occasional Papers in Social Administration 23 (London: Bell, 1968).
5 But see Bill Luckin, Pollution and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol: Adam Hilger, 1986). break
6 This view is characteristic of an earlier generation of historians of public health (e.g. C-E A Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas [1943; rpt. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980]); even for the modern school of critical social historians of medicine, it can be argued that bacteriology still marks the major watershed between modern and pre-modern medicine (cf Roy Porter, Disease, Medicine, and Society in England, 1550-1860 (London: MacMillan, 1987), pp 25-7.
7 Roberts and Bud, Science versus Practice ; Russell, Coley, and Roberts, Chemists by Profession ; J Morrell and A Thackray, Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford: Clarendon, 1981), pp 17-21; I Inkster, 'Introduction: Aspects of the History of Science and Science Culture in Britain, 1780-1850 and Beyond' in I Inkster and J Morrell, eds, Metropolis and Province, Science and British Culture 1780-1850 (London: Hutchinson, 1983).
8 W Bynum and R Porter, eds, Medical Fringe and Medical Orthodoxy, 1750-1850 (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
9 Arthur Silverthorne, London and Provincial Water Supplies (London: Crosby, Lockwood, 1884); J H Balfour Browne, Water Supply (London: MacMillan, 1880); Francis Sheppard, London, 1808-1870, The Infernal Wen (London: Secker and Warburg, 1971).
10 Barry Barnes, About Science (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985); B Barnes and D Edge, Science in Context: Readings in the Sociology of Science (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1982).
11 Some of the more radical sociologists of science have begun to make this argument. See H Rose, 'Hyper-Reflexivity: A New Danger for the Counter-Movements,' in H Nowotny and H Rose, eds, Counter-Movements in the Sciences: The Sociology of Alternatives to Big Science (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1979), pp 277-89; and S Woolgar, 'Irony in the Social Study of Science' in K Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay, eds, Science Observed: Perspectives in the Social Study of Science (London: Sage, 1983), pp 239-66.
12 A Weinberg, 'Science and Transcience,' Minerva 10 (1972): 209-22.
13 M Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966); M Douglas, 'Environments at Risk' in B Barnes and D Edge, Science in Context ,* pp 260-75; M Douglas and A Wildavsky, Risk and Culture: An Essay on the Selection of Technical and Environmental Dangers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), esp. pp 85-95.
14 See Thomas Haskell, ed, The Authority of Experts: Studies in History and Theory (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), esp. the introduction and M S Larson, 'The Production of Expertise and the Constitution of Expert Power,' pp 28-80. break
15 For the most recent review of the literature see Roy MacLeod, ed, Government and Expertise: Specialists, Administrators, and Professionals, 1860-1919 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). See also Gillian Sutherland, ed, Studies in the Growth of Nineteenth Century Government (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1972) and Oliver MacDonagh's original paper, 'The Nineteenth Century Revolution in Government: A Reappraisal' Historical J. 1 (1958): 52-67.
16 Cf Roy M MacLeod, 'Government and Resource Conservation: The Salmon Acts Administration, 1860-1886,' J. Br. Studies 7 (1968): 115-50; idem , 'The Alkali Acts Administration, 1863-84: The Emergence of the Civil Scientist,' Victorian Studies 9 (1965): 85-112.
17 M Berman, Social Change and Scientific Organization, the Royal Institution, 1794-1844 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978).
18 Contrast H Parris, The Government and the Railways in the Nineteenth Century (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965), which takes the MacDonagh view, with Richard S Lambert, The Railway King, 1800-1871: A Study of George Hudson and the Business Morals of His Times (London: G Allen and Unwin, 1934) and Anthony Burton, The Canal Builders (London: Eyre Methuen, 1972), which focus on technical controversy. See also for various aspects of this issue J Fullmer, 'Technology, Chemistry, and the Law in Early Nineteenth Century England,' Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 1-28; F Clifford, A History of Private Bill Legislation , 2 vols (1885; rpt. London: Cass, 1968); F T K Pentelow, River Purification: A Legal and Scientific view of the Past 100 Years, being the Buckland Lectures for 1952 (London: Edward Arnold, 1953); Clement Higgins, A Treatise on the Law Relating to the Pollution and Obstruction of Watercourses (London: Stevens and Haynes, 1877).
19 Funk and Wagnall's Standard College Dictionary (1963), s.v. 'indicator'. break
1— The Most Difficult Operation in Chemistry: The Analysis of Mineral Waters
1 Charles Lucas, An Essay on Waters , II, p 63.
2 R S Surtees, Handley Cross or Mr. Jorrocks's Hunt (New York: Viking Press, 1930), pp 34-5. See also George Eliot, Felix Holt, the Radical (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1909), v 1, pp 64-5.
3 Charles Perry, An Account of an Analysis of the Stratford Mineral Water , p 3; William Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , p iii; Robert Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' pp 56-7.
4 A B Anderson and M D Anderson, Vanishing Spas ; P J Neville Havins, The Spas of England ; P J Waller, Town, City, and Nation: England 1850-1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp 133-4; T B Dudley, From Chaos to the Charter ; Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp iv, 110-11, 209.
5 Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century (London: Allen Lane/Penguin, 1982), pp 245-6; John Patten, English Towns, 1500-1700 (London: Dawson/Archeon, 1978), pp 180-1; David Gadd, Georgian Summer, Bath in the Eighteenth Century (Bath: Adams and Dart, 1971); William Addison, English Spas (London: Batsford, 1951); J H Plumb, Georgian Delights (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1980).
6 A B Granville, The Spas of England, II, The Midlands and South , pp 290-9, 506-7. On Granville see Morris Berman, Social Change and Scientific Organization , p 116. But see R Phillips, 'Analyses of Two Sulphurous Springs near Plymouth' Phil. Mag. 3rd series, 3 (1833): 158-9.
7 Granville, Spas , II, p 161. break
8 Ibid , pp 610, 105-6. See Also Diederick Wessel Linden, A Treatise on Chalybeat Waters , p 110; Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' pp 56-7.
7 Granville, Spas , II, p 161. break
8 Ibid , pp 610, 105-6. See Also Diederick Wessel Linden, A Treatise on Chalybeat Waters , p 110; Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' pp 56-7.
9 Granville, Spas, I, The North , pp 163-4.
10 Ibid , II, pp 130-1, 274-5, 332, 405-9.
11 Ibid , I, p 165.
12 Ibid , II, pp 572-3, 161-2, 132; I, p 133. On Schweitzer see Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' p 279.
9 Granville, Spas, I, The North , pp 163-4.
10 Ibid , II, pp 130-1, 274-5, 332, 405-9.
11 Ibid , I, p 165.
12 Ibid , II, pp 572-3, 161-2, 132; I, p 133. On Schweitzer see Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' p 279.
9 Granville, Spas, I, The North , pp 163-4.
10 Ibid , II, pp 130-1, 274-5, 332, 405-9.
11 Ibid , I, p 165.
12 Ibid , II, pp 572-3, 161-2, 132; I, p 133. On Schweitzer see Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' p 279.
9 Granville, Spas, I, The North , pp 163-4.
10 Ibid , II, pp 130-1, 274-5, 332, 405-9.
11 Ibid , I, p 165.
12 Ibid , II, pp 572-3, 161-2, 132; I, p 133. On Schweitzer see Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' p 279.
13 Saunders, Treatise , pp xii-xiii, 447-8.
14 Charles Lucas, An Essay on Waters , I, p 126. See also Jon B Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis and the Phlogiston Theory,' pp 252-6.
15 Lucas, Essay , I, p 164. See also Linden, Treatise , pp 1-2.
16 On Lucas and Bath see W J Williams and D M Stoddart, Bath--Some Encounters with Science (Bath: Kingsmead Press, 1978), pp 82-3; Noel G Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters' 133-5.
17 Lucas, Essay , III, pp 246-7, II, p 103.
18 Ibid , III, pp 245-6.
17 Lucas, Essay , III, pp 246-7, II, p 103.
18 Ibid , III, pp 245-6.
19 Linden, Treatise , p 110.
20 Lucas, Essay , II, pp 13-16, 3-4, I, pp 135-6.
21 Linden, Treatise , p 6.
22 Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters,' p 124. See also Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' p 231; J K Crellin, 'The Development of Chemistry in Britain through Pharmacy and Medicine,' pp 234-50.
23 Lucas, Essay , I, p 4; Frederick Slare, An Account of Pyrmont Waters , p 23; Saunders, Treatise , p 8. On medicine see D M Vess, Medical Revolution in France, 1789-1796 (Gainesville: Florida State University Press, 1975), pp 10-18; and L M Beier, Sufferers and Healers: the Experience of Illness in Seventeenth Century England (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987), pp 8-32.
24 Encyclopedia Britannica (1797), s.v. 'mineral waters'; see also William Nicholson, The British Encyclopedia, or Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1809), s.v. waters, mineral; John Mason Good and Olinthus Gregory, Pantologica. A New Cyclopedia (1813), s.v. mineral waters, vol 8; Daniel Gibbon, A Compendium to the Chemical Chest (London: T Hurst, 1837), p 93; Saunders, Treatise , p 23.
25 Harry C Jones, The Nature of Solution (New York: D Van Nostrand, 1917), pp 20-34; Saunders, Treatise , pp 16-17.
26 Allen Debus, 'Solution Analyses Prior to Robert Boyle,' Chymia 8 (1962): 41-61; E H Guitard, Le Prestigieux Passé des Eaux Minerales , pp 81-96; W Kirkby, The Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters , pp 5-23.
27 Debus, 'Solution'; idem , 'Sir Thomas Browne and the Study of Colour Indicators,' Ambix 10 (1962): 30; Hermann Kopp, Geschichte der continue
Chemie , II, pp 58-9.
28 Debus, 'Solution,' pp 43-8; Slare, Pyrmont , p 24.
29 Ferenc Szabadvary, History of Analytical Chemistry , pp 29ff; Debus, 'Solution,' p 41; W T Brande, Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art (New York: Harper Bros, 1870), s.v. chemistry, analysis.
30 Thomas Thomson, The History of Chemistry , 2 vols (London: H Colburn and R Bentley, 1831), II, p 41; see also Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie , II, p 64; Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' pp 235-40; Garnett, Harrowgate , p 15; Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters,' pp 142-4.
31 John Elliott, An Account of the Nature and Medicinal Virtues of the Principal Mineral Waters of Great Britain and Ireland and those in Repute on the Continent , 2nd ed. corr. and enlarged (London: A Johnson, 1789), pp 102-4; Lucas, Essay , I, p 82; Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie , II, p 52. See also J A Fabricius, Theologie de l'Eau (Paris: Chaubert-Durand, 1743), pp 90-1.
32 Henri de Heers, Spadacrene ou Dissertation Physique sur les Eaux de Spa , nouvelle ed. (La Haye: P Paupie, 1739), pp 32-3.
33 Debus, 'Sir Thomas Browne and the Study of Colour Indicators,'* pp 29-31.
34 Pantologica , s.v. mineral waters.
35 W A Smeaton, Fourcroy, Chemist and Revolutionary, 1755-1809 (Cambridge: W Heffer, 1962), pp 112-14; Nicholson, British Encyclopedia (1809), s.v. waters, mineral; Abraham Rees, The Cyclopedia or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature (1819), s.v. water; Encyclopedia Britannica (1810), s.v. chemistry, p 710; Partington, A History of Chemistry , III, p 669.
36 Torbern Bergman, 'Of the Analysis of Waters,' in his Physical and Chemical Essays , I, pp 158-59. See also Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' pp 240-1.
37 Debus, 'Solution,' pp 47-8.
38 Allen Debus, 'Fire Analysis and the Elements in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,' Annals of Science 23 (1967): 127-47; Frederic L Holmes, 'Analysis by Fire and Solvent Extractions: The Metamorphosis of a Tradition,' Isis 62 (1971): 132.
39 Bergman, 'Of the Analysis of Waters,' pp 159-82; Szabadvary, History of Analytical Chemistry , pp 73-6. Chloride of lime is our calcium chloride, not bleaching powder (A Ure, Dictionary of Chemistry [1823], s.v. 'lime'.
40 John Rutty, A Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters (London: J Johnston, 1757) p vi. On Bergman and Linnaeus see J A Schufle, Torbern Bergman: A Man Before his Time (Lawrence, KS: Coronado Press, 1985), pp 119-25.
41 Smeaton, Fourcroy, Chemist and Revolutionary, 1755-1809 ,* pp 115- hard
6; Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters,' pp 141-2; F L Holmes, 'From Elective Affinities to Chemical Equilibria,' 106-7. Cf Frederick Accum, 'Analysis of the Lately Discovered Mineral Waters at Cheltenham,' p 25, steps 8 and 16.
42 Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water.
43 'Table exhibiting the composition of the principal mineral waters of Europe and the United States,' J. of Materia Medica. Supplement, 1871, pp 205-13.
44 Bergman, 'Of the Analysis of Waters,' p 109; Meredith Gairdner, Essay on Mineral and Thermal Springs , p 64.
45 Encyclopedia Britannica (1797), v 12, s.v. water, p 44.
46 Pantologica , v 8, s.v. mineral waters; Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters,' pp 131, 139; John Rutty, An Essay towards a Natural, Experimental, and Medical History of the Mineral Waters of Ireland , p x.
47 Uno Boklund, 'Torbern Bergman as Pioneer in Mineral Waters,' pp 122-4; Partington, A History of Chemistry , III, pp 123-4; Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' pp 268-70; Guitard, Prestigieux Passé , pp 108-9; Saunders, Treatise , pp xiv-xv, 23.
48 Bergman, 'Of the Analysis of Waters,' p 101; Saunders, Treatise , p xiii, 4-5. Nevertheless Hoffmann himself tried to synthesize artificial waters (Noel G Coley, 'Preparation and Uses of Artificial Mineral Waters,' pp 34-5).
49 Quoted in Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters,' p 131.
50 Lucas, Essay , II, p 98; Bergman, 'Of the Analysis of Waters,' pp 116-7.
51 Boklund, 'Torbern Bergman as Pioneer in Mineral Waters,' pp 119-20.
52 'Murray, John,' DNB ; John Murray, Letter to the Editor, Annals of Philosophy 8 (1816): 471.
53 John Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water; British Cyclopedia of the Arts and Sciences (1835), v II, s.v. water, p 892; Saunders, Treatise , p ix; Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water.
54 John Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' pp 347-63.
55 Ibid , pp 347-8.
54 John Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' pp 347-63.
55 Ibid , pp 347-8.
56 John Murray, Elements of Chemistry , 2 vols (Edinburgh: Creech, 1810) I, pp 42-50.
57 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 350.
58 Ibid , p 348.
57 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 350.
58 Ibid , p 348.
59 William Henry, The Elements of Experimental Chemistry , 4th American from the 7th London ed. (Philadelphia: James Webster, 1817), p xxxi; Encyclopedia Britannica (1810), s.v. chemistry, p 710; Richard Kirwan, Essay on Mineral Waters , pp 136-40, 164. For a more modern continue
treatment see Jones, Solution , pp 22-9, 142-3; Coley, 'Physicians and the Chemical Analysis of Mineral Waters,' pp 142-4.
60 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 349. For the lasting presence of this problem and similar experiments see A B Northcote, 'On the Water of the River Severn at Worcester,' Phil. Mag. 4th series 34 (1867): 262.
61 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 349.
62 Ibid , p 354.
61 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 349.
62 Ibid , p 354.
63 John Murray, 'A General Formula for the Analysis of Mineral Waters,' 93-98, 169-77. See also his 'Analysis of Sea Water, with Observations on the Analysis of Salt Brines,' Phil. Mag. 1st series 51 (1818): 10-25, 91-103.
64 Murray, 'General Formula,' p 95.
65 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 358.
66 Ibid , p 353; Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water, v 38; 'On Mineral Waters, Natural and Artificial,' Lancet 1828, ii, pp 251-2; Gairdner, Essay , pp 63, 70-3. An anonymous annotator noted in the margin of Edwin Godden Jones' article 'Chemical Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Spa' ( Trans. Medico-Chirurgical Assn. 7 pt 1 [1816] 69, Michigan State University Library copy) that Murray's approach had finally resolved the inconsistency between medical effects and composition. See also Rutty, A Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters , p xiv.
65 Murray, 'An Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Dunblane and Pitcaithly,' p 358.
66 Ibid , p 353; Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water, v 38; 'On Mineral Waters, Natural and Artificial,' Lancet 1828, ii, pp 251-2; Gairdner, Essay , pp 63, 70-3. An anonymous annotator noted in the margin of Edwin Godden Jones' article 'Chemical Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Spa' ( Trans. Medico-Chirurgical Assn. 7 pt 1 [1816] 69, Michigan State University Library copy) that Murray's approach had finally resolved the inconsistency between medical effects and composition. See also Rutty, A Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters , p xiv.
67 F L Holmes has pointed to a similar treatment of Berthollet's views during the first half of the century. Without accurate quantitative knowledge of affinities, chemists were unable to predict how mass would affect reactions; they could only assert that traditional affinity relations did not work (Holmes, 'From Elective Affinities to Chemical Equilibria,' pp 111-25; Thomson, History of Chemistry,* II, p 223).
68 J Berzelius, 'Examen chimique des eaux de Carlsbad, de Toplitz, et de Konigswart,' Annales de Chimie et de Physique , 2nd series 28 (1825): 258-60. See also J F Comstock, Elements of Chemistry (Hartford: D F Robinson, 1831), pp 344-5; and Holmes, 'From Elective Affinities to Chemical Equilibria,' pp 122-3.
69 Abel and Rowney, 'On the Mineral Waters of Cheltenham,' p 194. For varied views and ways of combining acids and bases see 'Water Analysis: Statement of the Results,' CN 3 (1861): 285; C G B Daubeny, 'Report on Mineral and Thermal Waters,' pp 47-8; R Henderson, 'On the General Existence of Iodine in Spring Water,' Phil. Mag. , 2nd series 7 (1830): 11-12; Marie Bach, Des Eaux Gazeuses Alcalines de Soultzmatt (Haut-Rhin), suivi d'une nouvelle analyses des eaux de Soultzmatt par M. Bechamp (Paris: Balliere, 1853), p 256; James Barratt, 'Analysis of the Water of Holywell, North Wales,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 12 (1859): continue
52-4; Thomas Graham, A W Hofmann, and W A Miller, 'Chemical report on the supply of water to the metropolis,' pp 378-9; J T Way in Royal Commission on Water Supply, 1868-9, App. F, p 36; L Playfair in GBH . Report on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, App III, p 77.
70 A W Hofmann, 'Analysis of the Saline Water of Christian Malford near Chippenham,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 13 (1860): 80-4; H M Noad, 'Analysis of the Saline Water of Purton near Swindon, North Wilts,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 14 (1861): 43; Barratt, 'Analysis of the Water of Holywell, North Wales,'* pp 52-4; Northcote, 'On the Water of the River Severn at Worcester,'* p 255; Edward T Bennett, 'Analysis of the Thames water at Greenwich,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 2 (1849): 199. The problem, of course, is that not all those using the phrase used the same 'usual' method (Cf R Phillips, 'Analyses of Two Sulphurous Springs near Plymouth,'* p 158). Fullest development of the Hofmann approach is George Merck and Robert Galloway, 'Analysis of the water of the Thermal Spring at Bath,' Phil. Mag. 3rd series 31 (1847): 56-67.
71 Augustus Voeckler, 'On the Composition of the Purton Saline Water,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 14 (1861): 46-7. Cf Henry M Noad, 'Analysis of the Saline Water of Purton near Swindon, North Wilts,'* pp 43-6, who analysed the same water using the Hofmann conventions.
72 Bennett, 'Analysis of the Thames water at Greenwich,'* p 199.
73 Abel and Rowney, 'On the Mineral Waters of Cheltenham,' pp 193-4.
74 J H Gladstone, 'On the Salts actually present in the Cheltenham and other Mineral Waters,' Proc. BAAS for 1856 (London: John Murray, 1857), sections, pp 51-2 (italics mine); see also Partington, A History of Chemistry , IV, p 582; Holmes, 'From Elective Affinities to Chemical Equilibria,' pp 134-42.
75 On enlightenment attempts to classify waters, see Guitard, Prestigieux Passé , p 107. For 'deduced' see T J Herapath, 'Analysis of a Medicinal Water from the Neighbourhood of Bristol,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 2 (1849): 205; J M Ashley, 'Analysis of Thames Water,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 2 (1849): 77; F A Abel and Thos Rowney, 'Analysis of the Water of the Artesian Wells, Trafalgar Square,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 1 (1848): 100. For other alternatives see Northcote, 'On the Water of the River Severn at Worcester,'* p 264 ('assumed salts'); Bennett, 'Analysis of the Thames water at Greenwich,'* p 199 ('ingredients . . . assume the subjoined form'); W T Brande, 'Analysis of the Well-Water at the Royal Mint with Some Remarks on the Waters of the London Wells,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 2 (1850): 349 ('Upon the whole, I am inclined to regard the following as a tolerably correct statement of the proximate saline constituents of this water'). break
2— Water Analysis and the Hegemony of Chemistry, 1800–40
1 Lancet , 1828-9, ii, p 110.
2 Clow and Clow, The Chemical Revolution , ch 25; Bud and Roberts, Science versus Practice , pp 19-45; J K Crellin, 'The Development of Chemistry'.
3 M Berman, Social Change and Scientific Organization , p 134; Robert Bud, 'The Discipline of Chemistry,' pp 35-56, 173; J N Hays, 'The London Lecturing Empire, 1800-1850,' in I Inkster and J Morrell, eds, Metropolis and Province, Science in British Culture, 1780-1850 (London: Hutchinson, 1983), pp 91-119; Charles Newman, The Evolution of Medical Education in the Nineteenth Century (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), pp 98-9.
4 Bud and Roberts, Science versus Practice .
5 Berman, Social Change , p 153; C H Spiers, 'William Thomas Brande, Leather Expert,' Annals of Science 25 (1969): 179-201. See also June Z Fullmer, 'Technology, Chemistry and the Law,' Technology and Culture 21 (1980): 1-28; A Chaston Chapman, The Growth of the Profession of Chemistry , p 5.
6 M Berman, Social Change , p 151-4.
7 Ibid , p 151.
6 M Berman, Social Change , p 151-4.
7 Ibid , p 151.
8 On Brande see Partington, A History of Chemistry , IV, pp 75-6; Berman, Social Change , pp 130-6, 151-5; Spiers, 'William Thomas Brande'*; E S Scott, 'Brande, William Thomas,' DSB 2, p 420; Aubrey A Tulley, 'The Chemical Studies of William Thomas Brande,' MSc Thesis, Univ. of London, 1970.
9 On Taylor see DNB , v 19, p 403; and George T Bettany, Eminent Doctors: Their Lives and Work , 2 vols (1885; rpt. Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), II, pp 291-4.
10 J Z Fullmer, 'Davy's Sketches of his Contemporaries,' Chymia 12 (1967): 134; Berman, Social Change , pp 154-5; L Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday: A Biography (New York: Clarion/Simon and Schuster, 1971), pp 106, 322; W V Farrar, 'Andrew Ure FRS and the Phi- soft
losophy of Manufactures,' Notes and Records of the RSL 27 (1973): 299-324. For concerns see Thomas Thomson, The History of Chemistry , 2 vols (London: H Colburn and R Bentley, 1831), II, p 231; idem , 'The History and Present State of Chemical Science,' Edinburgh Review 50 (1829): 275-6.
11 William Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , p iii, but see p 197.
12 R Kirwan, Essay on Mineral Waters , pp 2-3; C G B Daubeny, 'Report on the Present State,' pp 20-9, 56-75, 80-93; Guitard, Le Prestigieux Passé , pp 179-83.
13 C A Browne, 'The Life and Chemical Services of Frederick Accum,' J Chem Ed 2 (1925): 829-51, 1008-35, 1140-8; Partington, A History of Chemistry , III, p 827, IV, p 75; Berman, Social Change , p 60.
14 Quoted in Fullmer, 'Davy's Sketches of his Contemporaries,'* p 134.
15 On the circumstances of these analyses see Browne, 'Accum,'* p 850.
16 F Accum, 'Analysis of the lately discovered mineral waters at Cheltenham; and also of the medicinal springs in its Neighbourhood,' Phil Mag 31 (1808): 17.
17 F Accum, 'Analysis of the Chalybeate Spring at Thetford,' Phil Mag 53 (1819): 359-60. Concern about rain drying quickly was widespread (Saunders, Treatise , p 133; [A Hofmann], Synopsis of the Analyses of the Mineral Springs of Harrogate extracted from Dr Hofmann's report, with Practical Remarks by the Medical Section of the Water Committee [n p, 1854], pp 9-10).
18 Accum, 'Thetford,'* p 360.
19 Browne, 'Accum,'* p 1016.
20 Accum, 'Cheltenham,'* pp 15-16.
21 Garnett, A Treatise on the Mineral Waters of Harrogate (1792), p viii, quoted by Crellin, 'The Development of Chemistry in Britain,' p 279.
22 J Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , p 23.
23 Linden, Treatise on Chalybeat Waters , pp 1-2.
24 John Elliott, An Account of the Nature and Medicinal Virtues of the Principal Mineral Waters of Great Britain and Ireland , p 80. By the mid nineteenth century few analytical reports had anything to say about the medical significance of the results, and this perhaps signals the declining popularity of mineral waters (A B and M D Anderson, Vanishing Spas , p 8). See also Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis and the Phlogiston Theory,' p 234.
25 Dr Evans, 'An Account of Sutton Spa, near Shrewsbury,' Phil Mag 22 (1805): 61-8.
26 T J Herapath, 'Analysis of a Medicinal Water from the Neighbourhood of Bristol,' J Chem Soc 2 (1849): 200-5; A Voeckler, 'On the Composition of the Purton Saline Water,' Q J Chem Soc 14 (1861): 46-7; Mr Howell, 'Analysis of the Carbonated Chalybeate Well, lately discovered at Middleton Hall, the Seat of Sir William Paxton Kt., near continue
Llanarthney in Carmarthenshire,' Phil Mag 35 (1810): 179-80. See also Chapman, The Profession of Chemistry , p 23.
27 G W Pigott, On the Harrogate Spas and Change of Air: Exhibiting a medical Commentary on the Waters founded on Professor Hofmann's Analysis , p 280.
28 Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp 114, 254.
29 Torbern Bergman, 'Of the Artificial Preparation of Cold Medicated Waters,' in his Physical and Chemical Essays , I, p 232. English waters were also being bottled (Gwen Hart, A History of Cheltenham , p 124). See also Linden, Treatise , pp xxi-xxv; E H Guitard, Le Prestigieux Passé , pp 152-75.
30 Bergman, 'Of the Artificial Preparation,'* p 275.
31 Ibid , p 276.
32 Ibid , p 233. See also John Rutty, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Mineral Waters of Ireland , pp iii, ix; Noel G Coley, 'The Preparation and Uses of Artificial Mineral Waters,' p 32. Bergman made his case directly to the king, Gustaf III, in his retirement address as president of the Academy of Science (J A Schufle, Tobern Bergman. A Man Before his Time [Lawrence, KS: Coronado Press, 1985], pp 372-3).
30 Bergman, 'Of the Artificial Preparation,'* p 275.
31 Ibid , p 276.
32 Ibid , p 233. See also John Rutty, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Mineral Waters of Ireland , pp iii, ix; Noel G Coley, 'The Preparation and Uses of Artificial Mineral Waters,' p 32. Bergman made his case directly to the king, Gustaf III, in his retirement address as president of the Academy of Science (J A Schufle, Tobern Bergman. A Man Before his Time [Lawrence, KS: Coronado Press, 1985], pp 372-3).
30 Bergman, 'Of the Artificial Preparation,'* p 275.
31 Ibid , p 276.
32 Ibid , p 233. See also John Rutty, An Essay towards a Natural History of the Mineral Waters of Ireland , pp iii, ix; Noel G Coley, 'The Preparation and Uses of Artificial Mineral Waters,' p 32. Bergman made his case directly to the king, Gustaf III, in his retirement address as president of the Academy of Science (J A Schufle, Tobern Bergman. A Man Before his Time [Lawrence, KS: Coronado Press, 1985], pp 372-3).
33 Bergman, 'Of the Artificial Preparation,'* pp 263-4; Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , pp 6-7; J B Gough, 'Lavoisier and the Fulfillment of the Stahlian Revolution,' Osiris 2nd series 4 (1988): 15-33.
34 Bergman, 'Of the Artificial Preparation,'* pp 271, 277.
35 Pantologica , s.v. mineral waters.
36 Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water; 'On Mineral Waters, Natural and Artificial,' Lancet 1827-8, ii, pp 251-2; Wm Kirkby, The Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters , pp 77-80. There was similar concern with quality and purity of pharmaceuticals generally (Crellin, 'The Development of Chemistry in Britain,' p 139).
37 Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water.
38 R Phillips, 'An Analysis of the Salts prepared by Mr Henry Thompson from the Cheltenham Waters,' Ann Phil 11 (1818): 28-31. See also W T Brande and S Parkes, 'A descriptive Account of Mr Thompson's Laboratory at Cheltenham, for the Preparation of the Cheltenham Salts; with a Chemical Analysis of the Waters whence they are produced,' Q J Science, Literature and the Arts 3 (1817): 54-71; Hart, History of Cheltenham , p 125.
39 N G Coley, 'Preparation and Uses of Artificial Mineral Waters,' pp 42-4; A B Granville, The Spas of England , II, pp 572-3.
40 Daubeny, 'Present State,' pp 54-5.
41 Ibid , p 46. Cf P J Macquer cited in Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' p 242.
40 Daubeny, 'Present State,' pp 54-5.
41 Ibid , p 46. Cf P J Macquer cited in Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' p 242.
42 Daubeny, 'Present State,' pp 15-19; idem , 'Memoir on the Occurrence of Iodine and Bromine in Certain Mineral Waters of South Britain,' Phil Trans Royal Society of London 120 (1830): 224; R Henderson, 'On continue
the General Existence of Iodine in Spring water,' Phil Mag 2nd series 7 (1830): 11; Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp 143-4.
43 Daubeny, 'Present State,' p 44. See also Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' pp 234-5; Guitard, Le Prestigieux Passé , pp 96-107.
44 Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , p 4.
45 E.g. Edwin Godden Jones, 'Chemical analysis of the Mineral Waters of Spa,' p 68; Granville, The Spas of England , I, p xxxiv; Saunders, Treatise , pp 92, 95; T B Dudley, From Chaos to the Charter: A Complete History of Royal Leamington Spa , p 352.
46 Jones, 'Chemical Analysis,'* p 56.
47 Meredith Gairdner, Essay on Mineral and Thermal Springs , pp 356-7.
48 Cited in Lancet , 1828-9, pt 2, p 110.
49 Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray, Gentlemen of Science: Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), pp 268-9. See also Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' p 234; Richard Yeo, 'An Idol in the Market Place--Baconianism in 19th Century Britain,' History of Science 23 (1985): 258.
50 R Kirwan, Essay on Mineral Waters , pp 6-7; Abel and Rowney, 'Cheltenham,' pp 193-4; Dr Evans, 'An Account of Sutton Spa, near Shrewsbury,'* p 67; Amicus, 'Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Caversham, Berkshire,' Annals of Phil 8 (1816): 123; Linden, Treatise on Chalybeat Waters , pp 132-3. See also Eklund, 'Chemical Analysis,' p 235.
51 Gairdner, Essay on Mineral and Thermal Springs , pp 2-3.
52 Daubeny, 'Present State,' pp 15-9. See also Crellin, 'The Development of Chemistry,' pp 140-7.
53 Daubeny, 'Memoir on Iodine,'* p 223.
54 Torbern Bergman, 'Treatise on Bitter, Seltzer, Spa and Pyrmont Waters and their Synthetical Preparation,' p 32.
55 Granville, Spas of England , I, pp xvi-xvii.
56 Saunders, Treatise , pp iii-vi; Linden, Treatise , pp 125-6, 136; Pigott, Harrogate , pp 1-13.
57 Howell, 'Analysis of the Carbonated Chalybeate Water,'* p 179.
58 Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , p 79.
59 Accum, 'Cheltenham,'* p 16.
60 Accum, 'Thetford,'* p 361.
61 Ibid , pp 360-1.
60 Accum, 'Thetford,'* p 361.
61 Ibid , pp 360-1.
62 George Merck and Robert Galloway, 'Analysis of the Water of the Thermal Spring at Bath,' Phil Mag 3rd series 31 (1857): 56, 67.
63 R Phillips, 'Analysis of the Hot Springs at Bath,' Phil Mag 24 (1806): 342, 355-6. See also Henry W Freeman, The Thermal Baths of Bath: their History, Literature, Medical and Surgical Uses and Effects , pp 209-10. On conflicting results see also Gairdner, Essay on Mineral and Thermal Springs , pp 62-80. break
64 Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp 139-40; Colin Russell, N G Coley, and G K Roberts, Chemists by Profession ; Bernard C Dyer and C Ainsworth Mitchell, The Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists ; Chapman, The Profession of Chemistry , pp 5-19.
65 R Phillips, 'Bath,'* pp 342-3; Encyclopedia Britannica , 1797, s.v. 'Mineral Waters,' v 12, p 44. See also Gairdner, Essay on Mineral and Thermal Springs , pp 2-3. break
3— London's Water: The Dress Rehearsal of 1828
1 Lambe, An Investigation of the Properties of Thames Water (London: Butcher and Underwood, 1828), p 52.
2 DNB 11, p 497; T B Dudley, From Chaos to Charter , p 348; Lambe, Properties , p iv.
3 Lambe, Properties , p 8.
4 Ibid , p 8.
5 Ibid , p 52.
6 Ibid , p viii.
3 Lambe, Properties , p 8.
4 Ibid , p 8.
5 Ibid , p 52.
6 Ibid , p viii.
3 Lambe, Properties , p 8.
4 Ibid , p 8.
5 Ibid , p 52.
6 Ibid , p viii.
3 Lambe, Properties , p 8.
4 Ibid , p 8.
5 Ibid , p 52.
6 Ibid , p viii.
7 D Lipschutz, 'The Water Question in London,' pp 510-26. Cf A Hardy, 'Water and the Search for Public Health,' pp 259-65.
8 See Steven Shapin, 'The Audience for Science in 18th Century Edinburgh,' History of Science 12 (1974): 95-7; A Mazur, 'Disputes between experts,' Minerva 11 (1973): 245-7; Brian L Campbell, 'Uncertainty as Symbolic Action in Disputes among Experts,' Social Studies in Science 15 (1985): 429-53; and Brian Wynne, Rationality and Ritual: The Windscale Inquiry and Nuclear Decisions in Britain (Chalfont St Giles, BSHS, 1982).
9 Times , 31 Dec 1850, 4e.
10 [Wall], 'Metropolis water supply,' Fraser's Magazine 10 (1834): 563. See also Viscount Ebrington in debate on the 1851 water bill (Hansard, 3rd series, v 122, c 857).
11 A S Taylor, Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Henry C Lea, 1873), pp 31-41; C Hamlin, 'Expert Witnessing and Scientific Method,' pp 485-513. break
12 Morris Berman, Social Change and Scientific Organization , pp 104-5, 154, 173.
13 Lucas, An Essay on Waters , I, pp 144-5. See also A Hardy, 'Water and the Search for Public Health,' pp 254-9.
14 Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, pp 29, 150; William Saunders, A Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp 4-8, 66-89; John Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , pp 12-17.
15 The British Cyclopedia of the Arts and Sciences , v 2, s.v. water, pp 885-6; Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, pp 2-7, 24-8, 39, 57.
16 Pliny the Elder, Natural History trans. WHS Jones (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963), Book 31, c. 21; Baker, Quest for Pure Water , 3-4; Pantologica , v. 12, s.v. water.
17 E Chambers, Cyclopedia or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences , 1741, s.v. water; Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , pp 12-17.
18 Pliny, Natural History* , Bk 31, c 22-37; Encyclopedia Britannica 1810, s.v. 'putrid water,' v 20, p 647.
19 [Richard Horne], 'Father Thames,' Household Words 2 (1851): 446; Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, p 35. See also 144-5; Baker, Quest for Pure Water , pp 20-7, 302, 362-6, 392; Encyclopedia Britannica , 1797, s.v. water, v 18, p 811.
20 Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , 78-9, 216; Encyclopedia Britannica , 1810, s.v. water, v 20, p 647; Pantologica , s.v. waters, v 12.
21 Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , p 81; Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, pp 141-2.
22 Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water.
23 Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water, v 38; Lucas, Essay on Waters , II, p 2.
24 Baker, Quest for Pure Water , pp 19-25, 65-77; Hartley, Water in England , pp 198-200.
25 'The Thames Water Question,' Westminster Review 12 (1830): 37-8; Thomas Percival, Experiments and Observations on Water , pp 6-7, 72-3.
26 [Wall]. 'Metropolis water supply,' p 566.
27 Lambe, Properties , pp vii-viii.
28 Lambe, Properties , pp viii, 56-61; Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water; H Saxe Wyndham, William Lambe MD, A Pioneer of Reformed Diet (London: The Vegetarian Society, 1940).
29 Lambe, Properties , p 3.
30 Ibid , p 4.
31 Ibid , p 5.
32 Ibid , p 8.
29 Lambe, Properties , p 3.
30 Ibid , p 4.
31 Ibid , p 5.
32 Ibid , p 8.
29 Lambe, Properties , p 3.
30 Ibid , p 4.
31 Ibid , p 5.
32 Ibid , p 8.
29 Lambe, Properties , p 3.
30 Ibid , p 4.
31 Ibid , p 5.
32 Ibid , p 8.
33 Daniel Lipschutz, 'The Water Question in London,' pp 510-26; Hardy, 'Water and the Search for Public Health,' pp 260-3.
34 A physician who had paid £2/year for water before 1818 paid nearly £7/year thereafter (evidence of Robert Kerrison, RCMWS , p 44. For continue
comparison, this was a period when a middle class artisan might expect an annual income of about £100 (E J Hobsbawm, 'The British Standard of Living, 1790-1850' in A J Taylor, ed, The Standard of Living in Britain in the Industrial Revolution [London: Methuen, 1975], p 75).
35 R S R Fitter, London's Natural History (London: Collins, 1945), p 94; Pentelow, River Purification, A Legal and Scientific Review , p 2.
36 RCMWS , pp 114-16.
37 RCMWS , pp 117-23. See also Brande, 'The Supply of Water to the Metropolis,' pp 350-6; [Wall], 'Metropolis water supply,' p 563.
38 RCMWS , p 8.
39 Ibid , pp 84-99.
40 Ibid , p 8.
41 Ibid , pp 77-83. On Bostock see DNB 2, p 885.
38 RCMWS , p 8.
39 Ibid , pp 84-99.
40 Ibid , p 8.
41 Ibid , pp 77-83. On Bostock see DNB 2, p 885.
38 RCMWS , p 8.
39 Ibid , pp 84-99.
40 Ibid , p 8.
41 Ibid , pp 77-83. On Bostock see DNB 2, p 885.
38 RCMWS , p 8.
39 Ibid , pp 84-99.
40 Ibid , p 8.
41 Ibid , pp 77-83. On Bostock see DNB 2, p 885.
42 RCMWS , p 97. On Pearson see DNB 15, pp 610-11.
43 RCMWS , p 84.
44 Lambe, Properties , pp 2, 6-7.
45 These were not the regularly used reagents for this purpose. According to Lambe he was the first to use proto-nitrate of mercury for such a purpose. Lead salts, though usually lead acetate, were sometimes used for determining organic matter (Lambe, Properties , p 9). The standard precipitation test for vegetable extractive was a brown precipitate formed when silver nitrate was added to a water already freed of chlorides and sulphates ( Encyclopedia Britannica , 1810, s.v. chemistry, v 4, p 710). According to Fresenius, mercurous nitrate will react with highly oxidizable organic acids with formation of metallic mercury (pp 82-3). Lead chloride reacts with ammonia to produce an insoluble white precipitate of lead oxychloride (p 154). K R Fresenius, Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis , translated into the 'New System' and newly edited by Samuel W Johnson (New York: John Wiley, 1879).
46 Lambe, Properties , pp 43-4.
47 RCMWS , p 78.
48 Ibid.
47 RCMWS , p 78.
48 Ibid.
49 RCMWS , p 80.
50 'Thames Water Question,' p 35.
51 Encyclopedia Britannica , 1797 edition, s.v. mineral waters, v 12, p 44.
52 W T Brande, 'Analysis of the Well-Water at the Royal Mint,' p 350.
53 RCMWS , pp 52-3.
54 RCMWS , pp 62-3.
55 RCMWS , pp 137-40.
56 RCMWS , p 137.
57 Lester King, The Philosophy of Medicine: The Early Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978); idem, Medical Thinking: A Historical Preface (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, continue
1982); Roy Porter, Disease, Medicine, and Society in England 1550-1860 (London: MacMillan, 1987), pp 25-7.
58 Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, p 155, II, pp 266-7.
59 King, Phil. Med. , p 217, pp 228-30; Guitard, Le Prestigieux Passé , p 102.
60 Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, p 126.
61 J Barker, A Treatise on Cheltenham Water , pp 27-31; Saunders, Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp 12-3, 19, 364-70; Lucas, Essay on Waters , I, pp 159-65.
62 Michael Ryan, Remarks on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, with an Account of the Natural History of Water in its simple and combined states; and of the chemical composition and medical uses of all known mineral waters , . . . (London: Longmans, 1828), p 32; Frederick Slare, An Account of Pyrmont Waters , pp 27-9.
63 RCMWS , p 129; Percival, Experiments and Observations on Water , p 2.
64 Chapters on causation in early nineteenth century texts on medical practice are fascinating in this regard. They deal in a highly sophisticated manner with a great many different kinds of causes and recognize the error of simplistic mono-causal explanations. Cf Charles Williams, FRS, Principles of Medicine comprising General Pathology and Therapeutics , ed with additions by Meredith Clymer (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1848), pp 18-36; George B Wood, A Treatise on the Practice of Medicine 2nd edn (Philadelphia: Grigg, Elliott, and Co, 1849), pp 125-38; Thomas Watson, Lectures on the Principles and Practice of Physic, delivered at King's College London (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1844), pp 49-69; Wm A Guy, Hooper's Physician's Vade Mecum: or Manual of the Principles and Practice of Physic , 6th edn (London: Renshaw, 1858), pp 2-24, 310-11. See also W F Bynum, 'Cullen and the Study of Fevers in Britain, 1760-1820,' in W F Bynum and V Nutton (eds), Theories of Fever from Antiquity to the Enlightenment, Medical History supplement no 1 (London: Wellcome Institute, 1981), p 139.
65 Phyllis A Richmond, 'The Germ Theory of Disease,' in A Lilienfeld ed, Times, Places, and Persons: Aspects of the History of Epidemiology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), pp 84-93.
66 British Cyclopedia of the Arts and Sciences , s.v. water, vol 2, pp 889-92; [Wall], 'Metropolis water supply,' 567.
67 RCMWS , pp 10-11.
68 'Thames Water Question,'* p 34.
69 S C on Metropolis Water, 1834; S C House of Lords on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis, 1840.
70 Baker, Quest for Pure Water , pp 99-112. break
4— The 'Hard Water and Animalculae Sellers': Analysis and Politics in London, 1849–52
1 In HLRO, Minutes of Evidence, Commons, 1878 , v. 5 (Cheltenham Corp Water Bill), 12 March 1878, p 88.
2 S Finer, The Life and Times of Sir Edwin Chadwick ; R A Lewis, Edwin Chadwick and the Public Health Movement, 1832-1854 . break
3 Finer, Chadwick , p 390. The investigation had been under way since the summer of 1848. Initially it was in the hands of the Metropolitan Sewers Commission; the GBH took over the project in the fall of 1849 though without legal mandate to do so.
4 Richard Lambert, The Railway King, 1800-71: A Study of George Hudson and the Business Morals of his Times (London: G Allen and Unwin, 1934).
5 GBH MWS , Appendix II, pp 3-15.
6 Times , 13 Dec 1848, 8d.
7 Times , 11 Oct 1849, 4b.
8 Times , 11 Oct 1849, 4b. It is probable that Chadwick orchestrated this editorial, with the aid of his associate, F O Ward (cf Lewis, Chadwick , p 260; Finer, Chadwick , pp 390, 393-4).
9 Times , 25 Dec 1849, 3a; 26 Dec 1849, 7a; 27 Dec 1849, 6d; 28 Dec 1849, 6c; 29 Dec 1849, 5c.
10 Times , 23 Oct 1849, 8e-f; Lewis, Chadwick , p 271.
11 Times , 11 Dec 1849, 4e; 12 Dec 1849, 5d; 1 Jan 1850, 5a; 5 Feb 1850, 5a; 12 Feb 1850, 8b; 13 Feb 1850, 8f; 18 Feb 1850, 4f; 19 Feb 1850, 6c; [W H Wills], 'The Troubled Water Question,' Household Words 1 (1850): 49.
12 Hassall noted in his autobiography that his approach had a decided effect in heating up the controversy ( The Narrative of a Busy Life. An Autobiography [London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1893], p 68).
13 Hassall, A Microscopical Examination , pp 9-10; S C Metropolis Water Bill, 1851 , QQ 3937-38.
14 But see [Charles Wall], 'Metropolis Water Supply,' Fraser's Magazine 10 (1834): 562, 566-7.
15 Times , 13 Nov 1850, 4e; 16 Nov 1850, 5a; 20 Nov 1850, 4d; Lewis, Chadwick , pp 263-5.
16 Thos Graham, W A Miller, and A W Hofmann, 'Chemical Report on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis,' pp 386-7. See the comments in the Times , 27 June 1851, 5b.
17 Lewis, Chadwick , pp 269-78; Times , 8 March 1851, 4e; 28 May 1851, 4d; 4 June 1851, 4d; 7 June 1851, 5a; 9 June 1851, 4f.
18 Lewis, Chadwick , pp 326-8.
19 Times , 23 Oct 1849, 8e; 13 June 1851, 8f; 13 Feb 1850, 8f; Hansard's Parliamentary Debates , 17 June 1852, c 862. Sir Benjamin Hall got double duty from the 'larger and fatter' quip, using it both in a Marylebone meeting in 1851 and in the debate on the 1852 bill.
20 Times , 23 Oct 1849, 8e.
21 Times , 11 Dec 1849, 4e.
22 Times , 14 Feb 1850, 8f.
23 Times , 21 April 1851, 4d; GBH MWS , pp 16-17. break
24 Margaret Pelling, Cholera, Fever, and English Medicine , pp 146-202, 207-19; Budd in Times , 26 Sept 1849; A B Granville in Times , 28 Sept 1849, 5d; Times , 24 Oct 1849, 4a. See also [Wall], 'Metropolis water supply,' p 569.
25 A miasma properly so called was an exciting cause of disease emitted by decaying vegetable matter from a swamp. What concerned most writers in 1849 were predisposing causes emanating from an unhealthy environment (George B Wood, A Treatise on the Practice of Medicine , 2nd edn [Philadelphia: Grigg, Elliott & Co, 1849], pp 139-46; Charles Williams, Principles of Medicine ed with additions by M Clymer [Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1848], pp 61-2). According to orthodox Chadwickian theory, severe predisposing causes might become exciting causes (T Southwood Smith, Treatise on Fever [Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1830], pp 381-5).
26 The importance of predisposing causes as distinct from miasmatic explanations has been insufficiently appreciated. Even Pelling ( Cholera , p 59) finds it hard to accept the primacy of predisposition as anything other than a ruse to persuade the poor to give up bad habits. Yet the concept of predisposition was central to orthodox medicine as well as to Chadwickian sanitarianism (cf Wood, Treatise , pp 126-39; Williams, Principles , pp 22-67; W B Carpenter, 'On Epidemic Diseases,' Braithwaite's Retrospect #27 [July 1853]: 17-21; R A Smith, 'On the Air and Water of Towns,' Report of the 18th Meeting of the BAAS , [Swansea] for 1848 [London: J Murray, 1849], pp 16-18; Wm A Guy, Hooper's Physician's Vade Mecum: or Manual of the Principles and Practice of Physic , 6th edn [London: Renshaw, 1858], pp 545-6; 'Water Supply and Disease,' Builder 12 [1854]: 57-8).
27 Times , 23 Oct 1849, 8e. Challis' 'decisive influence,' ( Times , 11 Dec 1849, 4e) can be interpreted in the same way.
28 Times , 14 Sept 1848, 4e; 18 Sept 1849, 5f.
29 Ward, 'Metropolitan Water Supply,' p 482.
30 R D Grainger in Report of the GBH on the Epidemic Cholera of 1848 and 1849 , App B, p 94.
31 Report of the GBH on the Epidemic Cholera of 1848 and 1849 , pp 90-4; Ward, 'Metropolitan Water Supply,' p 482. The GBH report also argued, as did Snow, that oral rather than pulmonary intake was likely in light of the rapidity of action. See GBH MWS , pp 16-17, 34, 47. See also the testimony in GBH MWS , appendix III of L Playfair, p 78; H Garvin, p 62. Chadwick long continued to regard the role of water in setting up cholera as predisposing only (comments in E Byrne, 'Experiments on the Removal of Organic and Inorganic Substances in Water,' p 34).
32 Pelling, Cholera , pp 205, 218-9, 226-7; A B Granville to Times , 28 Sept 1849, 5d; 'Review of Snow, On the Mode of Communication of continue
Cholera,' Lancet , 1849, ii, p 318; E A Parkes, 'Mode of Communication of Cholera,' British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review 15 (1855): 449-63; 'Review of Snow, Mode of Communication,' Builder 13 (1855): 49-50; B W Richardson on Snow in JPH&SR 1 (1855): 130-40.
33 John Sutherland in the GBH MWS , Appendix III, pp 7-8; Saunders, A Treatise on Mineral Waters , pp 390-3. Saunders' book was the major source of articles in J M Good's Pantologica (1813), s.v. water, The British Cyclopedia (1835), s.v. water; Rees Cyclopedia , s.v. water; 'Domestic Chemistry III (Domestic Waters)' Knight's Penny Magazine 7 (1838): 54.
34 Edwin Chadwick, Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain ed with an introduction by M W Flinn (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1965), p 79.
35 Chadwick, Sanitary Report , p 120.
36 Ibid , pp 148, 139, 422.
35 Chadwick, Sanitary Report , p 120.
36 Ibid , pp 148, 139, 422.
37 GBH MWS , p 312.
38 GBH MWS , pp 50-9, 64-5, 66-9. The government chemists, Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, who likewise put great stress on softness, agreed that soft water made more tea, but hard water made better tea (Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 388-89).
39 GBH MWS , pp 70-80; Times , 30 Dec 1848, 4c-d.
40 GBH MWS , Appendix III, p 154; Playfair in Builder 9 (1851): 765; Ward, 'Metropolitan Water Supply,' pp 473-5; Times , 6 Jan 1851, 5a; Samuel Homersham, Review of the Report by the GBH on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis ; contained in a report to the directors of the London (Watford) Spring Water Company (London: John Weale, 1850); Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 381-5, 387-94; Edwin Lankester, 'Drinking Waters of the Metropolis,' p 467. See also Charles Kingsley, 'The Water Supply of London,' pp 243-4.
41 GBH MWS , p 82; Times , 4 June 1850, 5e; F Mowatt in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates , 17 June 1852, c 845. On softening see Lankester, 'Drinking Waters,' p 467; Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 393-5.
42 RCMWS , 1828, pp 36-58. See also [Wall], 'Metropolis Water Supply,' pp 566-7.
43 Smith, 'On the Air and Water of Towns,'* pp 16-31.
44 GBH MWS , Appendix III, pp 94-5.
45 GBH MWS , p 41. On Smith see A Gibson and W V Farrar, 'Robert Angus Smith, FRS, and Sanitary Science,' Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 28 (1974): 241-62.
46 On Hassall see his Narrative of a Busy Life *; E G Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall: Physician and Sanitary Reformer (London: Balliere, Tindall, and Cox, 1908); and Ernest A Gray, By Candlelight: The Life of Dr Arthur Hill Hassall, 1817-1894 (London: Robert Hale, 1983). break
47 Hassall, Microscopical Examination , p 1.
48 Hassall, Microscopical Examination , pp 10-16.
49 E Lankester and P Redfern, Reports to the Watford Company .
50 Hassall, Microscopical Examination , pp 28, 31, 57. Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission, 'Results of analyses of the solids and fluids consumed by the public,' pp 222-3; Hassall, 'Memoir on the microscopical examination of the water,' p 235; Hassall in GBH MWS , Appendix III, pp 57-8; Redfern in SC Metropolis Water Bill, 1852 , QQ 11368-11393; Pelling, Cholera , p 220.
51 Times , 26 Sept 1849, 4f-5a; 27 Sept 1849, 6d; 28 Sept 1849, 5d; 24 Oct 1849, 4a; Pelling, Cholera , pp 163-88.
52 Pelling, Cholera , pp 175-78.
53 Pelling, Cholera , pp 173-74; Granville in Times , 28 Sept 1849; Kingsley, 'Metropolis Water,' p 242. Even J G Swayne ('An Account of Certain Organic Cells peculiar to the Evacuations of Cholera,' Lancet , ii, 1849, pp 368-71) regarded predisposition as central. Without debilitation due to general filth these cells would have no effect: in a normal stomach they would simply be digested. Hence their discovery shed little light on the cause of cholera. See also comments of Budd, Snow, and Lankester, pp 371-2, 413, 460.
54 C Hamlin, What Becomes of Pollution , chapter 4.
55 Hamlin, 'Robert Warington and the Balanced Aquarium' pp 131-53.
56 GBH MWS , Appendix III, p 40.
57 Hassall, Microscopical Examination , p 30; GBH MWS Appendix III, p 41.
58 Lankester, 'Report to the Watford Spring Company,' p 3. See also Gideon Mantell, Thoughts on Animalcules; or a Glimpse of the Invisible World revealed by the Microscope (London: John Murray, 1846), p 85; S C Metropolis Water, 1852 , Q 552.
59 R A Smith and Thomas Clark in GBH MWS , Appendix III, p 97, 172.
60 Hassall, Microscopical Examination , p 6.
61 Ibid , pp 19-24, esp. p 20.
60 Hassall, Microscopical Examination , p 6.
61 Ibid , pp 19-24, esp. p 20.
62 Hansard's , 3rd series, 122, c 861.
63 Kingsley, 'Metropolis Water,' pp 241-6. See also Lancet , 23 Feb 1850, p 246; 'Metropolitan Water Supply,' The Builder 9 (1851): 494; Ward, 'Metropolitan Water Supply,' pp 493-4; W O'Brien, 'The Supply of Water to the Metropolis,' 91 (1849-50): 382; Times , 22 May 1850, 4d; 27 June 1851, 5b. According to Wall, the same tactic had been used in the controversy of the 1820s: he wrote of meetings 'where microscopic entomologists attended and exhibited specimens, either from nature or in large drawings, of the many frightful hydra-headed and millipede insects taken out of the water-cisterns of the metropolis. After which they were placed in the windows of the picture-shops throughout the continue
towns, in order to drive the few remaining water-drinkers to the public-house' ([Wall], 'Metropolis water supply,' p 562).
64 S C Metropolis Water, 1852 , Q 539. See also Cooper, QQ 690-2; S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , QQ 12200, 12209.
65 Taylor, S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , Q 3842.
66 S C Metropolis Water, 1852 , QQ 1248-50. On Hawksley's relations with Chadwick see Lewis, Chadwick , pp 120, 132-3.
67 W T Brande, 'Analysis of the Well-Water at the Royal Mint,' pp 350-1.
68 C Hamlin, 'Providence and Putrefaction,' pp 385-411.
69 S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , Q 12359, italics mine.
70 For Brande, Taylor, Aikin, Cooper, Clark, Stenhouse, Campbell, Miller, Rogers, and Lewis, see S C Metropolis Water, 1852 ; for Smith, Playfair, and Hofmann, see GBH MWS .
71 GBH MWS , pp 31-4.
72 Pelling, Cholera , pp 1-80, 101-7; Finer, Chadwick , pp 297-8; John M Eyler, Victorian Social Medicine , pp 97-107.
73 S C Metropolis Water, 1852 , QQ 509, 57, 625-6, 645, 789-91; S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , Q 693.
74 S C Metropolis Water, 1852 , QQ 417, 435, 790. The test was commonly used by mineral water chemists for sulphurets (Nicholson, British Encyclopedia , 1809, s.v. water).
75 S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , Q 10268.
76 Ibid , Q 428.
77 Ibid , 1852, QQ 576, 790.
75 S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , Q 10268.
76 Ibid , Q 428.
77 Ibid , 1852, QQ 576, 790.
75 S C Metropolis Water, 1851 , Q 10268.
76 Ibid , Q 428.
77 Ibid , 1852, QQ 576, 790.
78 See Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 375-6, for the text of Grey's instructions.
79 Ibid , p 380.
80 Ibid.
81 Ibid , p 386. See the Times' reaction (27 June 1851, 5b).
78 See Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 375-6, for the text of Grey's instructions.
79 Ibid , p 380.
80 Ibid.
81 Ibid , p 386. See the Times' reaction (27 June 1851, 5b).
78 See Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 375-6, for the text of Grey's instructions.
79 Ibid , p 380.
80 Ibid.
81 Ibid , p 386. See the Times' reaction (27 June 1851, 5b).
78 See Graham, Miller, and Hofmann, 'Chemical Report,' pp 375-6, for the text of Grey's instructions.
79 Ibid , p 380.
80 Ibid.
81 Ibid , p 386. See the Times' reaction (27 June 1851, 5b).
82 W H Wills, 'The Troubled Water Question,' Household Words 1 (1850): 52.
83 [N Beardmore], 'Water-Supply,' Westminster Review 54 (1851): 190. break
5— Nitrogen and Nihilism, 1852–68
1 Saturday Review , reprinted in CN 18 (1868): 214.
2 H Letheby in S C East London Water Bills , QQ 2253-64; in R C Water Supply , Q 3934; 'Analysis of London waters,' CN 12 (1865): 302.
3 On Snow see M Pelling, Cholera , pp 204-29; Frazer, A History of English Public Health , pp 64-9; P E Brown, 'Another Look at John Snow,' pp 646-54; idem , 'John Snow--the Autumn Loiterer,' pp 519-28; H continue
Whitehead, 'The Broad Street Pump: An Episode in the Cholera Epidemic of 1854,' MacMillan's Magazine 13 (1865-6): 113-22; idem 'The Influence of Impure Water on the Spread of Cholera,' MacMillan's Magazine 14 (1866): 182-90; John Snow, 'On the Mode of Communication of cholera'; J Snow, 'Cholera and Water Supply in the South Districts of London, in 1854,' JPH&SR 2 (1856): 239-57.
4 Frazer, English Public Health , p 65; W H Frost in Snow on Cholera , p ix. But see Pelling, Cholera , pp 207-11.
5 A clear example of these gradually changing ideas can be found in the writings of John Simon, Public Health Reports , ed E Seaton, 2 vols (London: The Sanitary Institute, 1887), II, pp 151, 157-8, 294, 413-5, 534-7, 563-85; C-E A Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease , pp 259-66. Simon did not begin to regard bowel diseases as primarily water borne until the end of the '60s ( 12th Report of the MOPC , pp 21-32). See also Pelling, Cholera , p 206.
6 Pelling, Cholera , chapters 3 and 4.
7 Justus Liebig, Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology , ed from the mss of the author by Lyon Playfair, 2nd edn (London: Taylor and Walton, 1842), pp 364-70.
8 Eyler, Victorian Social Medicine , p 104; Pelling, Cholera , pp 106-7, 130; J K Crellin, 'The Dawn of the Germ Theory,' p 61.
9 P B Ayres, 'On the Nature and Results of the Putrefactive Fermentation of Animal and Vegetable Matters,' Lancet , ii, 1848, pp 445-7.
10 B W Richardson, The Cause of the Coagulation of the Blood, being the Astley Cooper Prize Essay for 1856 . . . (London: J Churchill, 1858), pp 118-21, 345-70; T Herbert Barker, 'The Influence of Sewer Emanations,' JPH & SR 4 (1858): 70-82; Barker, On Malaria and Miasmata , pp 176, 213-26; Charles Murchison, A Treatise on the Continued Fevers , pp 447-8; Henry Letheby, 'Report to the City of London Commissioners of Sewers, Sept 9 1858: Sewage and Sewer Gases,' JPH & SR 4 (1858): 279-93.
11 William Odling, Report on the effects of Sewage Contamination upon the River Thames (Lambeth: The Vestry/G Hill, 1858), pp 15-7; William Ord, 'Report on the Thames Nuisances of 1858-9,' in Second Annual Report of the MOPC , pp 54-6; Wm Budd, 'Observations on Typhoid or Intestinal Fever,' BMJ , ii, 1861, pp 485-7; B W Richardson, 'The Thames,' JPH&SR 4 (1858): 142.
12 Snow, 'On Continuous Molecular Changes,' p 156; cf Pelling, Cholera , pp 207-12, 247-8.
13 Snow, Mode of Communication , p 15.
14 GBH Medical Council, Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries on the 1854 Cholera , p 37; 12th Report of the MOPC , pp 20, 79, 162-3.
15 Murchison, Treatise on the Continued Fevers , pp 447-8; J Liebig, Animal Chemistry, or Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and continue
Pathology , ed from the author's mss by William Gregory, fr. the 3rd London edn, revised and greatly enlarged (New York: John Wiley, 1852), pp 137-53; idem, Familiar Letters on Chemistry, in its Relations to Pathology, Dietetics, Agriculture, Commerce, and Political Economy , 3rd edn, revised and much enlarged (London: Taylor, Walton and Maberly, 1851), #18, pp 228-30.
16 Roberts and Bud, Science versus Practice , pp 51-63.
17 A W Hofmann and Lyndsay Blyth, 'Chemical Report,' p 3.
18 Hofmann and Blyth, 'Chemical Report,' p 4.
19 J W Kynaston, 'Analysis of a Spring Water at Billingborough, Lincolnshire,' Q. J. Chem. Soc. 12 (1859): 60-2.
20 R Phillips in S C (House of Lords) on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis , Q 1095; B H Paul, Manual of Technical Analysis: A Guide for the Testing and Valuation (London: H G Bohn, 1857), p 223.
21 Hofmann and Blyth, 'Chemical Report,' p 4. On these acids see K R Fresenius, Instruction in Chemical Analysis: Quantitative ed by J Lloyd Bullock (London: Churchill, 1846), pp 466ff.
22 Hofmann and Blyth, 'Chemical Report,' p 5.
23 Ibid , p 5.
24 Ibid , p 6.
22 Hofmann and Blyth, 'Chemical Report,' p 5.
23 Ibid , p 5.
24 Ibid , p 6.
22 Hofmann and Blyth, 'Chemical Report,' p 5.
23 Ibid , p 5.
24 Ibid , p 6.
25 Times , 16 June 1858. See also 'A Sonnet upon a Scent,' Punch 37 (1859): 45.
26 Lancet , ii, 1856, p 576.
27 Ibid , p 576.
28 Ibid , p 576.
26 Lancet , ii, 1856, p 576.
27 Ibid , p 576.
28 Ibid , p 576.
26 Lancet , ii, 1856, p 576.
27 Ibid , p 576.
28 Ibid , p 576.
29 William Ranger, Henry Austin, and Alfred Dickens, 'Report on the Examination of the Thames,' pp 90-5. The reference is probably to the 1849 epidemic. The water companies used a similar observation to argue that the water could not have been the cause of the outbreak ( GBH MWS , Appendix I, pp 33-9).
30 Ibid , p 91.
29 William Ranger, Henry Austin, and Alfred Dickens, 'Report on the Examination of the Thames,' pp 90-5. The reference is probably to the 1849 epidemic. The water companies used a similar observation to argue that the water could not have been the cause of the outbreak ( GBH MWS , Appendix I, pp 33-9).
30 Ibid , p 91.
31 F Crace-Calvert, 'On the Purification of Polluted Streams,' J. Royal Soc. Arts 4 (1856): 506.
32 R D Thomson, 'Report on the Chemical Composition of Metropolitan Waters during the Year 1854,' in GBH Medical Council, Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries on the 1854 Cholera , Appendix 7, p 201. Cf Playfair in GBH MWS , Appendix III, p 78.
33 Lord Robert Montagu in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates , 8 March 1865, c 1358.
34 The Builder , 25 January 1868, p 59; PRO HO/74/3 pp 409, 412, 417, 426.
35 Fisheries Preservation Association, On the Pollution of the Rivers of the Kingdom (London: The Association, 1868), pp 50-2; The Field , ii, 1867, p 120. break
36 On Brodie (1817-80) see DNB v 2, pp 1288-89.
37 RPPC , 1865, 1st Rept, QQ 1493-4, 1497-1502.
38 R C Water Supply , Q 6991.
39 Ibid , Q 6989.
40 Ibid , QQ 7011, 7014.
38 R C Water Supply , Q 6991.
39 Ibid , Q 6989.
40 Ibid , QQ 7011, 7014.
38 R C Water Supply , Q 6991.
39 Ibid , Q 6989.
40 Ibid , QQ 7011, 7014.
41 'Robert Rawlinson,' Minutes of Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers 134 (1897-8): 386-91.
42 E A Russell, A History of Agricultural Science in Great Britain, 1620-1954 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966), p 116.
43 S C Thames Navigation Bill , Q 2713.
44 Ibid , Q 2725.
43 S C Thames Navigation Bill , Q 2713.
44 Ibid , Q 2725.
45 S C Lea Conservancy Bill , QQ 1880, 1900, 1939-43, 1919-23, 1927-8.
46 Ibid , QQ 1952-3.
47 Ibid , Q 2036.
48 Ibid , QQ 2056-61.
49 Ibid , Q 2405.
50 Ibid , Q 2405. See also W T Brande and A S Taylor, Chemistry (London: John Davies, 1863), pp 132-4.
45 S C Lea Conservancy Bill , QQ 1880, 1900, 1939-43, 1919-23, 1927-8.
46 Ibid , QQ 1952-3.
47 Ibid , Q 2036.
48 Ibid , QQ 2056-61.
49 Ibid , Q 2405.
50 Ibid , Q 2405. See also W T Brande and A S Taylor, Chemistry (London: John Davies, 1863), pp 132-4.
45 S C Lea Conservancy Bill , QQ 1880, 1900, 1939-43, 1919-23, 1927-8.
46 Ibid , QQ 1952-3.
47 Ibid , Q 2036.
48 Ibid , QQ 2056-61.
49 Ibid , Q 2405.
50 Ibid , Q 2405. See also W T Brande and A S Taylor, Chemistry (London: John Davies, 1863), pp 132-4.
45 S C Lea Conservancy Bill , QQ 1880, 1900, 1939-43, 1919-23, 1927-8.
46 Ibid , QQ 1952-3.
47 Ibid , Q 2036.
48 Ibid , QQ 2056-61.
49 Ibid , Q 2405.
50 Ibid , Q 2405. See also W T Brande and A S Taylor, Chemistry (London: John Davies, 1863), pp 132-4.
45 S C Lea Conservancy Bill , QQ 1880, 1900, 1939-43, 1919-23, 1927-8.
46 Ibid , QQ 1952-3.
47 Ibid , Q 2036.
48 Ibid , QQ 2056-61.
49 Ibid , Q 2405.
50 Ibid , Q 2405. See also W T Brande and A S Taylor, Chemistry (London: John Davies, 1863), pp 132-4.
45 S C Lea Conservancy Bill , QQ 1880, 1900, 1939-43, 1919-23, 1927-8.
46 Ibid , QQ 1952-3.
47 Ibid , Q 2036.
48 Ibid , QQ 2056-61.
49 Ibid , Q 2405.
50 Ibid , Q 2405. See also W T Brande and A S Taylor, Chemistry (London: John Davies, 1863), pp 132-4.
51 S C Lea Conservancy , Q 2400. Taylor had made much the same argument in 1850, 'Return of the Water Companies,' in GBH MWS , Appendix I, pp 33-5.
52 S C Lea Conservancy , Q 2495.
53 Ibid , Q 2518. break
52 S C Lea Conservancy , Q 2495.
53 Ibid , Q 2518. break
6— Edward Frankland: The Analyst As Activist
1 A H Hassall, 'On ''Living Organisms" in Potable Water,' FWA 1 (1872): 143-4.
2 Lancet , ii, 1856, pp. 576.
3 G R Burnell, 'On the Present Condition of the Water Supply of London,' pp 169-77; J F Bateman, 'On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Supply of Water to Towns,' pp 62-77; Lancet , i, 1866, pp 212, 235; Times , 13 Aug 1866, 9d; 20 Aug 1866, 5f; Builder 23 (1865): 313. For the fullest account of the alternative schemes see R C Water Supply, Report .
4 But see Luckin, 'The Final Catastrophe,' pp 32-42.
5 R C Water Supply ; William Farr, Report on the Cholera Epidemic of 1866 in England; Report by Captain Tyler on the Quantity and Quality of the Water supplied by the East London Waterworks Company ; J Netten Radcliffe, 'Cholera in London especially in the eastern districts,' in 9th Annual Report MOPC , pp 264-331; R C Rivers Pollution (1865), First Report and Second Report; S C Thames Navigation Bill; S C East London Water Bills ; 'Correspondence between the Board of Trade and the East London Water Works Company with reference to Captain Tyler's Report'; S C Lee Conservancy Bill ; Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission, 'On the epidemic of cholera in the east end of London,' Lancet , ii, 1866, pp 157-60, 217-9, 273-66.
6 'Reports on the Examination of Thames Water,' JRSA 31 (1882-83): 88. On R Dundas Thomson (1810-64) see DNB 19, p 748; Lancet , ii, 1864, p 226.
7 Partington, A History of Chemistry IV, pp 500-1; W H Brock, 'Frankland, Edward,' DSB 5 (1972): 124-7.
8 H Letheby, 'Methods of Estimating Nitrogenous Matter in Potable Waters,' p 429.
9 Burnell, 'On the Present Condition,' pp 171-3. Cf GBH Medical Council, Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries on the 1854 Cholera , p 178.
10 Eyler, Victorian Social Medicine , pp 22-3, 35, 100, 141, 161, 199-200.
11 W A Miller, 'Observations on the Analysis of Potable Waters,' pp 120-24; discussion in E Byrne, 'Experiments on the Removal of Organic and Inorganic Substances in Water,' pp 6-53; Playfair in GBH MWS , p 78; C R C Tichborne, 'On the Nature and the Examination of the Organic Matter in Potable Waters,' CN 17 (1868): 147-9; T Spencer and others, CN 17 (1868): 192-3, 203, 215.
12 C B Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, pp 26-7.
13 E Frankland, 'Water supply of the Metropolis during the year 1865-1866,' pp 240-2. See also CN 13 (1866): 136.
14 Edward Frankland, 'The Purification of Water,' CN 14 (1866): 71.
15 But see Farr, Report on the Cholera of 1866 , p xxv. Farr argued that continue
the reason not everyone who drank East London Company water came down with the disease was due in part to the fact that the poison was not evenly distributed in the water.
16 S C East London Water Bills , App 8, p 357.
17 Ibid , pp 373-4.
16 S C East London Water Bills , App 8, p 357.
17 Ibid , pp 373-4.
18 Edward Frankland, 'On the Water Supply of the Metropolis,' [RI], 114-9.
19 'Dr Frankland's Report on the London Water Supply in February,' Lancet , i, 1867, p 347, ii, p 493.
20 Frankland, 'On the Water Supply of the Metropolis,' p 118.
21 A Hassall, 'London Water,' FWA 1 (1872): 121; 'On "Living Organisms" in Potable Water,' FWA 1 (1872): 143-4. See also 'The Contamination of Water,' Lancet , 1867, ii, p 493.
22 S C East London Water Bills , App 8, pp 352, 373-4; R C Cattle Plague, 3rd Report , pp vi-ix, 146-54, 156-9, 187-8; Foster, A Short History of Clinical Pathology , pp 53-7; Pelling, Cholera , pp 236-44; Crellin, 'Airborne Particles and the Germ Theory,' pp 49-60.
23 Farr, Report on the Cholera of 1866 , pp lxv-lxxxi; Eyler, Victorian Social Medicine , pp 105-7.
24 R C Cattle Plague, 3rd Report, p. vi, fn; Thudichum in C T Kingzett, 'The Chemistry of Infection, or the Germ Theory of Disease from a Chemical Point of View,' JRSA 26 (1877-8): 311-20, esp p 318; 'The Cholera Poison,' CN 14 (1866): 84, 109; Gairdner, Public Health in Relation to Air and Water , pp 31, 72, 158-78, 191-2.
25 E Frankland, 'The Water Supply of London,' [ QJS ], p 315.
26 E Frankland and H E Armstrong, 'On the Analysis of Potable Waters,' pp 88-98. The early use of the process is described in letters from Frankland to Armstrong of 8 January 1867, 21 September 1867, 20 April 1868, undated (late 1868), in Royal Society Misc. Mss. v 10, #90-93, and in letters from J J Day to Armstrong of 23 November 1867, 14 December 1867, 4 April 1868, 6 May 1868, 21 June 1868, 27 March 1869, in Imperial College, Armstrong Papers , C241-C246. According to J Vargas Eyre, Armstrong was the real developer of the process working on 'the barest instructions' from Frankland (J Vargas Eyre, Henry Edward Armstrong, 1848-1937, The Doyen of British Chemists and Pioneer of Technical Education [London: Butterworth Scientific, 1958], pp 40-1).
27 RCWS, Evidence , Q 6289.
28 Ibid , Q 6405.
27 RCWS, Evidence , Q 6289.
28 Ibid , Q 6405.
29 Edward Frankland, 'On the Effect of Temperature on Organic Matter in Water,' CN 14 (1866): 275.
30 RCWS, Evidence , Q 6372.
31 Ibid , QQ 6401, 6244.
32 Ibid , Q 6222. break
33 Ibid , Q 6238. 0
30 RCWS, Evidence , Q 6372.
31 Ibid , QQ 6401, 6244.
32 Ibid , Q 6222. break
33 Ibid , Q 6238. 0
30 RCWS, Evidence , Q 6372.
31 Ibid , QQ 6401, 6244.
32 Ibid , Q 6222. break
33 Ibid , Q 6238. 0
30 RCWS, Evidence , Q 6372.
31 Ibid , QQ 6401, 6244.
32 Ibid , Q 6222. break
33 Ibid , Q 6238. 0
34 RPPC, 1868, 6th Report , pp 16-17.
35 RCWS, Evidence , QQ 6235-6, 6246, 6376, 6390-92, 6381, 6396, 6417-18.
36 William Odling, 'On the Chemistry of Potable Water,' CN 50 (1884): 206.
37 See H Swete, 'On the Interpretation of Water Analysis for Sanitary Purposes,' SR ns 1 (1879-80): 182.
38 PRO HO 74 3, pp 425, 427, 433.
39 RPPC, 1st Report , 1865, p 4.
40 CN 64 (1891): 222-23; 'London water supply,' CN 45 (1882): 180-1; C M Tidy, 'The Treatment of Sewage,' Van Nostrand's Eclectic Engineering Magazine 35 (1886): 3; idem in disc. of P Frankland, 'The Upper Thames as a source of Water Supply,' p 446; W Dunbar, Principles of Sewage Treatment trans. by H T Calvert (London: Griffin, 1908), p 23; George Rafter, 'Sewage Irrigation,' USGS Water Supply Paper #3 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1897), pp 29, 45-8; Theophile Schloesing, 'Assainisement de la Seine. Épuration et utilisation des eaux d'egout. Rapport fait au nom d'une commission,' Annales d'Hygiène Publique et de Medecine Légale , 2nd ser 47 (1877): 207.
41 RPPC, 1868, 1st Report (Mersey and Irwell Basins), pp 13-23, 28-39, 43-8, 63-70, 96-102, 112-7.
42 RPPC, 5th Report , 33 (1874), p 51.
43 'Professor Frankland,' Biograph and Review 4 (1880); 336.
44 'Return of all royal Commissions issued from the year 1866 to the year 1874,' P P , 81, 1888, (426).
45 Reinigung und Entwassering Berlins (Berlin: Hirschwald, 1871), v 1-2; Prefecture de la Seine, Assainissement de la Seine. Épuration et Utilisation des Eaux d'Egout. Documents Anglais (Paris: Gauthier Villars, 1877).
46 T B Dudley, From Chaos to the Charter , p 188.
47 Cf House of Lords Record Office, [HLRO] Minutes of Evidence , v 5 (S C Cheltenham Corp Water Bill), pp 246-303. break
7— Frankland and the Chemists, 1866–85
1 H Letheby, 'Methods of Estimating Nitrogenous Matter in Potable Waters,' p 432.
2 For the most recent review see Roy M MacLeod, Government and Expertise in Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
3 A Chaston Chapman, The Growth of the Profession of Chemistry ; Colin Russell, N G Coley, and G K Roberts, Chemists by Profession .
4 E Byrne, 'Experiments on the Removal of Organic and Inorganic Substances in Water,' pp 6-53.
5 W A Miller, 'Observations on the Analysis of Potable Waters,' 117-32; CN 11 (1865): 269-70, 283-5; RCWS, Evidence , q 7102. On Miller see DNB 13, pp 429-30.
6 H B Dixon, 'William Odling, 1829-1912,' Proc. Royal Society of London 100A (1921-2): i-vii; W H Brock, 'William Odling,' DSB 10 (1974): 177-9.
7 RCWS, Evidence , qq 7082, 7074, 7094, 7106-14.
8 S C Serpentine , qq 734, 739, 763, 2142, 2143-6; RCWS, Evidence , qq 6459, 6462, 6472.
9 RCWS, Evidence , qq 7209, 7236, 7242, 7211; R Angus Smith, 'On the Examination of Water for Organic Matter,' (Manchester Lit. and Phil.), pp 37-78; same title, slightly different version, CN 19 (1869): 278-82, 304-6; 20 (1869): 26-30, 112-115.
10 Smith, 'On the Examination,' (Manchester), p 43.
11 BMJ , i, 1868, pp 331, 378-9, 391, 413, ii, pp 71, 86.
12 'London Water Supply: Past, Present, and Future,' CN 15 (1867): 37-8, 49. On Crookes see E E Fournier D'Albe, The Life of Sir William Crookes (London: Unwin, 1923).
13 'London Water,' CN 15 (1867): 190.
14 'Dr Letheby on the Methods of Water Analysis and on 'Previous Sewage Contamination,' CN 19 (1869): 231-2.
15 Ibid , 'A Bill to Amend the Law relating to Public Health,' CN 25 (1872): 145.
14 'Dr Letheby on the Methods of Water Analysis and on 'Previous Sewage Contamination,' CN 19 (1869): 231-2.
15 Ibid , 'A Bill to Amend the Law relating to Public Health,' CN 25 (1872): 145.
16 RPPC, 1868, Second Report ; Fournier D'Albe, Life of Crookes ,* pp 257-70.
17 CN 28 (1873): 121-2, 191, 216; 29 (1874): 63, 124, 156, 166. Cf Crookes in discussion of C N Bazalgette, 'The Sewage Question,' MPICE 48 (1875-6): 163-6.
18 'The Pollution of Rivers Bill,' CN 28 (1873): 37-9; S C Pollution of Rivers , House of Lords, 1873. break
19 'The Rivers Pollution Bill,' CN 31 (1875): 221.
20 Cornelius B Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, p 54. Cf Kenwood, Public Health Laboratory Work , pp 106-7.
21 'The Pollution of Rivers Bill,' CN 28 (1873): 37.
22 'Review of Pettenkofer, Cholera: How to Prevent and Resist It ,' CN 31 (1875): 139-40; 'Review of the Fourth Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health,' CN 27 (1873): 311-2.
23 W H Brock, 'James Alfred Wanklyn,' DSB 14 (1976): 168-70.
24 Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith, 'Water Analysis: Determination of the Nitrogenous Organic Matter,' pp 445-54.
25 Cf E T Chapman, 'The Relation between the Results of Water Analysis and the Sanitary Value of the Water,' CN 16 (1867): 275.
26 D Campbell, 'A Note on Messrs Wanklyn, Chapman, and Smith's Method for Determining Nitrogenous Organic Matters in Water,' CN 16 (1867): 139; comments in 'Chemical Society discussion, 6 February 1868,' CN 17 (1868): 80.
27 Wanklyn, 'Verification of Wanklyn's Water Analysis,' pp 591-5; Wanklyn and Chapman, 'On the Action of Oxidizing Agents,' pp 161-72; comments of Campbell and Frankland in 'Chemical Society discussion, 6 February 1868,'* p 80.
28 Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 1st edn, p 50.
29 'Review of Wanklyn and Chapman's Water Analysis ,' CN 18 (1868): 151-3.
30 RCWS, Evidence , qq 5420-5437.
31 Wanklyn to CN, CN 17 (1868): 60.
32 'Chemical Society discussion, 6 February 1868,'* pp 79-80.
33 'Water Analysis by Modern Methods,' BMJ , i, 1868, p 331; E Frankland, 'On some Points in the Analysis of Potable Waters,' pp 88-9.
34 Wanklyn, 'Wanklyn and Chapman's Water Analysis,' CN 18 (1868): 165.
35 Wanklyn, 'History of the Ammonia Process,' CN 24 (1871): 10-11.
36 Frankland, 'On Some Points in the Analysis of Potable Waters,' p 847.
37 A H Allen, 'On Some Points in the Analysis of Water, and the Interpretation of the Results,' The Analyst 2 (1877): 61-5.
38 Compare RCWS , qq 5401, 5446-51, 5482-85 with RCWS , appendix AK, p 95.
39 J A Wanklyn, 'The Registrar General's Reports on the London Water,' CN 25 (1872): 169-70; idem , 'Report on the condition of the Water Supply of London,' CN 26 (1872): 239.
40 Wanklyn to BMJ , i, 1871, p 153.
41 Wanklyn, 'Dr Frankland's Researches,' SR 8 (1878): 174-5.
42 Brock, 'Wanklyn,' p 169; SR 6 (1877): 15-16, 96.
43 Lambert, Sir John Simon, pp 213-16; DNB 11, p 1010; RCWS qq 3861, 3909. break
44 Letheby, 'City Pumps,' CN 4 (1861): 260-2; idem , 'Composition and Quality of Metropolitan Waters in July, 1866,' CN 14 (1866): 83.
45 'Report by Capt. Tyler to the Board of Trade,' p 5.
46 S C East London Water Bills , Appendix 3, pp 315-6.
47 Lancet , i, 1867, p 185; S C East London Water Bills , q 2230; 'Report by Capt. Tyler to the Board of Trade,' pp 18-9.
48 Saturday Review , 10 October 1868, p 480; [W Pole], 'The Water Supply of London,' Quarterly Review [American edn] 127 (1869): 245fn.
49 Hawksf(1871-2): 345. See also Our Water Supply. A Discussion for and against the fitness of the Thames and River Water for Domestic Use , reprinted from the Surrey Comet (London: Trounce, 1880).
50 Letheby, 'Methods of Estimating the Nitrogenous Matter in Potable Waters,' p 429. Cf 'Water Analysis,' BMJ , i, 1869, p 402; [B H Paul], 'Water Analysis for Sanitary Purposes,' BMJ , i, 1869, pp 427-8, 495-7, 543-4, 1869, ii, pp 32-3.
51 'Processes of Analysis of Potable Water,' BMJ , i, 1869, p 379; 'The Value and Meaning of Existing Reports on Potable Water,' BMJ , i, 1869, pp 432, 574.
52 'Col Sir Francis John Bolton,' MPICE 93 (1887-88): 497-501.
53 'Copy of any Reports to the Board of Trade by the Water Examiner,' pp 4-14.
54 'Copies of a Letter from the Royal Commission on Rivers Pollution to the Board of Trade,' pp 1-4.
55 G Graham to LGB, 8 May 1872, PRO MH 19 67, #26162/72.
56 Ibid. Cf G Graham to LGB, 29 May 1872, PRO MH 19 67, #30440/72.
55 G Graham to LGB, 8 May 1872, PRO MH 19 67, #26162/72.
56 Ibid. Cf G Graham to LGB, 29 May 1872, PRO MH 19 67, #30440/72.
57 Minute on Frankland's ms report for January 1876, PRO MH 29 2, #8084/76; minute on Frankland's ms report for October 1876, PRO MH 29 2, #67673/76; unnumbered memo, Thomas to Dalton with minutes, misfiled in PRO MH 29 5, probably from summer 1884.
58 A Hardy, 'Water and the Search for Public Health in London,' 275-6; 'Reports on the Examination of Thames Water,' JRSA 31 (1882-3): 87-8.
59 Wanklyn and Cooper to LGB, 22 October 1880, PRO MH 29 3, #92868/80.
60 DNB 19, pp 864-5; CN 65 (1892): 143; J. Chem. Soc. 63 (1893): 766-8; J H Balfour Browne, Forty Years at the Bar (London: H Jenkins, 1916), p 97.
61 SR ns 2 (1880-81): 224; Luckin, Pollution and Control , p 61.
62 Crookes, Odling, and Tidy to LGB, 17 May 1883, PRO MH 29 5, #52429/83.
63 Letters and reports, PRO MH 29 5, #57540/83, 67506/83, 88334/83, 116365/83. On confusion about the official status see SR ns 3 (1882-3): 440; Hansard's Parliamentary Debates ser 3, v 267, c. 1808, v 278, c 318-9. break
64 PRO MH 29 7, #90942/84, 112129/84, 116767/84, 118242/84, 3501/85, 4685/85, 8771/85.
65 C Meymott Tidy, 'Processes for Determining the Organic Purity of Potable Waters'.
66 Ibid , pp 66-85.
67 Ibid , pp 51, 88-9.
68 Ibid , pp 57, 76.
69 Ibid , pp 89-94; W C Young, 'A Comparison of the results obtained by Dr Frankland and the Companies' Analysts,' pp 159-64.
65 C Meymott Tidy, 'Processes for Determining the Organic Purity of Potable Waters'.
66 Ibid , pp 66-85.
67 Ibid , pp 51, 88-9.
68 Ibid , pp 57, 76.
69 Ibid , pp 89-94; W C Young, 'A Comparison of the results obtained by Dr Frankland and the Companies' Analysts,' pp 159-64.
65 C Meymott Tidy, 'Processes for Determining the Organic Purity of Potable Waters'.
66 Ibid , pp 66-85.
67 Ibid , pp 51, 88-9.
68 Ibid , pp 57, 76.
69 Ibid , pp 89-94; W C Young, 'A Comparison of the results obtained by Dr Frankland and the Companies' Analysts,' pp 159-64.
65 C Meymott Tidy, 'Processes for Determining the Organic Purity of Potable Waters'.
66 Ibid , pp 66-85.
67 Ibid , pp 51, 88-9.
68 Ibid , pp 57, 76.
69 Ibid , pp 89-94; W C Young, 'A Comparison of the results obtained by Dr Frankland and the Companies' Analysts,' pp 159-64.
65 C Meymott Tidy, 'Processes for Determining the Organic Purity of Potable Waters'.
66 Ibid , pp 66-85.
67 Ibid , pp 51, 88-9.
68 Ibid , pp 57, 76.
69 Ibid , pp 89-94; W C Young, 'A Comparison of the results obtained by Dr Frankland and the Companies' Analysts,' pp 159-64.
70 C Meymott Tidy, 'River Water,' (1880), pp 267-322.
71 C Meymott Tidy, 'River Water,' (1881), pp 113-4; W N Hartley, 'The Self-Purification of Peaty Rivers,' JRSA 31 (1882-83): 469-84; Charles W Folkard, 'The Analysis of Potable Water,' pp 57-115; Percy Frankland, 'The Upper Thames,' pp 428-53.
72 'The Metropolitan Local Authorities and the Water Supply,' Lancet , ii, 1881, p 770; G Phillips Bevan, The London Water Supply , p 37; David Owen, The Government of Victorian London, 1855-1889 , pp 136-40; A Mukhopadhyay, Politics of Water Supply , ch 2.
73 'London Water Supply,' CN 45 (1882): 181. Cf 'The London Water Supply,' Lancet , ii, 1881, p 519.
74 'The London Water,' CN 47 (1883): 241.
75 'The London Water,' CN 48 (1883): 63. break
8— Water Analysis and the Working Sanitarian
1 Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, pp 215-6.
2 A Ashby, 'The Fallacies of Empirical Standards in Water Analysis as told by the Story of a Polluted Well,' SR ns 5 (1883): 533.
3 Hamlin, 'Scientific Method and Expert Witnessing,' pp 485-513.
4 J A Hassan, 'The Growth and Impact of the British Water Industry,' pp 531-47.
5 J H Timms, 'On Water Analysis for Sanitary Purposes,' SR ns 3 (1882-3): 216-7.
6 R Thorne Thorne, 'On an Extensive Epidemic of Enteric Fever at Redhill, Caterham, and Adjoining Places,' in 9th Annual Report of the LGB. Report of the Medical Officer for 1879 , pp 75-92, and Buchanan's comment, p viii; Same title, JRSA 27 (1878-9): 871-2.
7 G J Symons, 'On the floods of England and Wales during 1875 and on Water Economy,' MPICE 45 (1875-6): 13. break
8 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 1st edn, p 2; 'Water Analysis,' SR 10 (1879): 27-8; SR ns 5 (1883-4): 46. On the SPA see Chirnside and Hamnence, The Practising Chemists , pp 10-12.
9 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, pp 179-83; J Carter Bell, 'Water Analysis,' CN 32 (1875): 246-7. On Bell (1839-1913) see S Knecht, 'Bell, James Carter,' The Analyst 39 (1914): 1-2. For similar complaints see 'Provincial Physician to SR,' SR 8 (1878): 78; 'Previous Sewage Contamination,' SR ns 1 (1879-80): 23; 'The Fallacies of Water Analysis,' SR ns 6 (1884-5): 456; A W Scatliff, 'A Case of Well Pollution undetected by Chemical Analysis,' TSIGB 11 (1890): 241-4.
10 A Ashby, 'Water Analysis,' The Analyst 6 (1881): 108-9. On Ashby (1884-1922) see C Ainsworth Mitchell, 'Ashby, Alfred,' The Analyst 47 (1922): 49.
11 SR 4 (1876): 232-3. Contrast with C E Cassal, 'Hygienic Analysis,' TSIGB 7 (1885-6): 273, 276; 'review of Fox, Sanitary Examinations,' Lancet , ii, 1878, p 663. See also Chapman, The Growth of the Profession of Chemistry , pp 5-8; Bud and Roberts, Science versus Practice , pp 117, 158-60.
12 On Parkes, see M Pelling, Cholera , pp 70-3; Brockington, Public Health in the Nineteenth Century , pp 253-5; on Fox (1839-1922) see Munk's Roll of the Royal College of Physicians , v 4, p 274.
13 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 1st edn, pp 139, 143. For other works in this tradition see Kenwood, Public Health Laboratory Work , pp 29-83; George Wilson, A Handbook of Hygiene and Sanitary Science , 4th edn (London: Churchill, 1879), pp 165-72. Cf Fox in SR 1 (1874): 199-200.
14 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 1st edn, pp 14-17, 45-7, 2nd edn, pp 6-24, 48, 128.
15 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 1st edn, pp 57-63; 2nd edn, p 64.
16 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 1st edn, pp 79-80, 133-59; 2nd edn, pp x, 192-3; Parkes, Manual of Hygiene , 6th edn, I, p 99.
17 C A Cameron, A Manual of Hygiene, Public and Private (Dublin: Hodges and Foster, 1874), p 58; A H Church, Plain Words about Water (London: Chapman and Hill, 1877), pp 21-6; Parkes, Manual of Hygiene , I, pp 81-99; Louis Parkes, 'Water Analysis,' TSIGB 9 (1887-88): 377-8; W Lauder Lindsay, 'The Estimation of the Quality of Potable Waters,' BMJ , ii, 1876, pp 783-5; 'Fallacies of Water Analysis,' SR ns 6 (1884-5): 406.
18 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 1st edn, p 130. On the tradition of amateur microscopy see M Pelling, Cholera , pp 152-3.
19 A H Hassall, 'On Living Organisms in Water,' FWA 1 (1872): 143-4; 'London Water,' in Ibid , p 121; 'The Registrar General on the Water Supply of London,' in Ibid , p 119.
20 J Hogg, 'River pollution,' p 581; [Hogg], A Microscopical Examination of Certain Waters , pp 7-25; Homersham and Hogg in discussion of C continue
W Folkard, 'The Analysis of Potable Water,' pp 86-90, 94.
21 J Brittan and R Etheridge in T E Blackwell, 'Report on the Sandgate Cholera,' pp 18-22.
22 See also Hassall, 'Report on the Microscopical Examination of different waters (principally those supplied to the Metropolis) during the cholera epidemic of 1854,' p 282, and comments p 47 in GBH Medical Council, Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries on the 1854 Cholera ; Hassall, 'Report to the GBH on the Microscopical Examination of the Metropolitan Water Supply,' pp 12-14. A few did claim biological investigations might clear up things in cases where chemical results were ambivalent (W L Scott, 'On the Microscopical Examination of Water,' Monthly Mic J 18 [1879]: 237-40).
23 J D MacDonald, Guide to the Microscopical Examination of Drinking Water , 2nd edn, p 1.
24 Parkes, Manual of Hygiene , I, p 73; A Wynter Blyth, A Dictionary of Hygiene and Public Health (London: Charles Griffin, 1876), s.v. water, p 636. See also Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, p 168; J Lane Notter, 'On the Value of Chemical and Microscopic Analysis in Determining the Influence of Drinking Water in Originating or Propagating Specific Disease,' SR ns 1 (1879-80): 87-90; idem , 'The Filtration of Potable Water,' SR ns 2 (1880-1): 161-4.
25 Parkes, Manual of Hygiene , I, p 74.
26 Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, p 167.
27 On France see Gerardin, 'Alteration, Corruption, et Assainissement des rivieres,' pp 5-41, 261-91. For the United States see G H Parker, 'Report on the Organisms, excepting the Bacteria, found in the waters of the state, July 1887 to June 1889,' in Massachusetts State Board of Health, Report on Water Supplies and Sewage (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1890), pt 1, pp 582-620; Baker, The Quest for Pure Water , pp 390-414. For Germany see R Kolkwitz and R Marsson, 'Grundsatze fur die biologisch Beurtheilung des Wassers nach seiner Flora und Fauna,' Mitthielungen aus der Koniglichen Prufungsanstalt fur Wasserversorgung und abwasserbeseitigung zu Berlin 1 (1902): 3-72.
28 On Wigner see DNB vol 21, pp 197-8; and J Chem Soc 47 (1885): 345-6.
29 Ernst W Steib, in collaboration with Glenn Sonnedecker, Drug Adulteration in 19th Century Britain (Madison: U of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p 181; Dyer and Mitchell, The Society of Public Analysts , pp 18, 23, 92-3, 119; Chirnside and Hamnence, The Practising Chemists , pp 15-20.
30 G W Wigner, 'The Outbreak of Typhoid Fever at Baxenden and Accrington,' SR 7 (1877): 262-4.
31 G W Wigner, 'On the Mode of Statement of the Results of Water Analysis,' pp 214-16; cf G W Longstaff, 'Water Analysis,' SR 7 (1877): 402. break
32 Wigner, 'Mode of Statement,' p 213.
33 'Water analysis,' The Analyst 3 (1878): 247.
34 'Notes of the Month,' The Analyst 6 (1881): 12-13; Heisch, 'Annual Address to the Society of Public Analysts,' The Analyst 7 (1882): 13.
35 'The Analyses of the Public Water Supplies of England,' The Analyst 6 (1881): 17-18.
36 G W Wigner, 'On the Valuation of the Relative Impurities in Potable Waters,' pp 111-25.
37 'The Public Water Supplies of England,' The Analyst 6 (1881): 168, 192, 208, 228.
38 Dupre and Hehner, 'On District Standards in Water Analysis,' pp 53-8; John Muter, 'On the most simple . . . mode of expressing the Results of Water Analysis,' pp 93-8; idem, A Manual of Analytical Chemistry , pp 162-63. On Muter (1841-1911) see The Analyst 37 (1912): 77-80.
39 'To Our Readers,' The Analyst 8 (1883): 1.
40 Dupre and Hehner, 'On District Standards in Water Analysis,' pp 53-4.
41 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter in Potable Water,' CN 46 (1882): 64.
42 Ibid , pp 74-5.
43 Ibid , pp 91-2; A Ashby and O Hehner, 'On So-Called 'Previous Sewage Contamination'',' The Analyst 8 (1883): 58-62; Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, pp 95-101; A Dupre, 'Presidential address to the section on Chemistry, Meteorology, and Geology,' TSIGB 9 (1887-88): 355-7.
41 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter in Potable Water,' CN 46 (1882): 64.
42 Ibid , pp 74-5.
43 Ibid , pp 91-2; A Ashby and O Hehner, 'On So-Called 'Previous Sewage Contamination'',' The Analyst 8 (1883): 58-62; Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, pp 95-101; A Dupre, 'Presidential address to the section on Chemistry, Meteorology, and Geology,' TSIGB 9 (1887-88): 355-7.
41 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter in Potable Water,' CN 46 (1882): 64.
42 Ibid , pp 74-5.
43 Ibid , pp 91-2; A Ashby and O Hehner, 'On So-Called 'Previous Sewage Contamination'',' The Analyst 8 (1883): 58-62; Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, pp 95-101; A Dupre, 'Presidential address to the section on Chemistry, Meteorology, and Geology,' TSIGB 9 (1887-88): 355-7.
44 Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter,' p 101. Cf H S Carpenter and W G Nicholson, 'A Method for the Examination of Water Biologically,' The Analyst 8 (1882): 94-6.
45 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter,' p 63.
46 Ibid , pp 72-3.
47 Ibid , p 101.
48 Ibid , p 109 fn.
45 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter,' p 63.
46 Ibid , pp 72-3.
47 Ibid , p 101.
48 Ibid , p 109 fn.
45 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter,' p 63.
46 Ibid , pp 72-3.
47 Ibid , p 101.
48 Ibid , p 109 fn.
45 J W Mallet, 'Determination of Organic Matter,' p 63.
46 Ibid , pp 72-3.
47 Ibid , p 101.
48 Ibid , p 109 fn.
49 'The Sanitary Requirements of Water Analysis,' SR ns 4 (1882-3): 346-7; 'Water Analysis,' SR ns 4 (1882-3): 364-5; 'Special scientific investigations on sanitary subjects in America,' SR ns 4 (1882-3): 403-4; 'Water Examination,' JRSA 31 (1882-3): 215; Fox, Sanitary Examinations , 2nd edn, p 64.
50 R D Cory, 'On the results of the examination of certain samples of water purposely polluted with excrements from fever patients, and with other matters,' in Eleventh Annual Report of the LGB. Report of the Medical Officer for 1881 , pp 127-65; 'The Sanitary Requirements of Water Analysis,' SR ns 4 (1882-3): 396-7.
51 A Dupre, 'Presidential address,'* p 361; Cassal, 'Hygienic Analysis,'* p 276. break
9— Counting the Countless: The Temptations of Quantitative Bacteriology, 1880–90
1 29 Jan 1886, PRO MH 29 10 12665K2/87.
2 PRO MH 29 8 Bolton to Owen, 26 Oct 1885, unnumbered; 'London Water Supply,' JRSA 30 (1881-2): 971-2.
3 PRO MH 29 8 Bolton to Owen, 15 Dec 1885.
4 cf Alfred Carpenter, 'First Principles of Sanitary Work,' TSIGB 1 (1880): 59; 'Review of C T Kingzett, Nature's Hygiene,' SR ns 2 (1880-81): 111-2; and reply from Kingzett, Ibid , pp 156-7; D Galton, 'The Public Health,' SR ns 4 (1882-83): 137-51.
5 J W Tripe in SR 8 (1878): 55-6; FSB François de Chaumont, 'On Certain Points with Reference to Drinking Water,' SR ns 1 (1879- 80): 163; Willis Tucker, 'The Sanitary Value of the Chemical Analysis of Potable Water,' CN 54 (1886): 135. break
6 P Hinckes Bird, 'On Sewer Air, House Drain Ventilation, and Sewage Disposal,' SR 8 (1878): 3-5; Alfred Carpenter, 'Suggestions for Preventing the Spread of Infectious and Contagious Diseases,' SR 9 (1878): 226-8. See also the debate between Tripe and Wanklyn on the presumed nature of typhoid germs ('Typhoid Germs and their alleged destruction,' SR 4 [1876]: 387- 8; J A Wanklyn, 'On the Purification of Drinking Water by the Process of Filtration,' SR 4 [1876]: 391-2; Tripe, 'Water Analysis and Typhoid Germs,' SR 4 [1876]: 419-20).
7 But see J Lane Notter, 'The Filtration of Potable Water,' SR ns 2 (1880-1): 161; C Cassal and B H Whitelegge, 'Remarks on the Examination of Water for Sanitary Purposes,' SR ns 5 (1883-4): 427.
8 HLRO, Minutes of Evidence, House of Commons, 1878, v. 5 (Cheltenham Corporation Water Bill), pp 246-303. See also J H Balfour Browne, Forty Years at the Bar , pp 39-40.
9 Cheltenham Corp Water Bill, 12 March 1878, pp 6-40, 292-4; 13 March 1878, pp 25-43, 175-220. Thursfield was medical officer of health for Shrewsbury, Wilson was a physician at the Cheltenham Hospital Dispensary, Wright was the Cheltenham medical officer of health, while Hill was the Birmingham public analyst and a former student and follower of Frankland.
10 Rept of the Select Committee on Rivers Pollution (River Lea), QQ 3793-97.
11 C M Tidy, 'River Water,' (1880): 320-1.
12 Ibid , pp 321-6.
11 C M Tidy, 'River Water,' (1880): 320-1.
12 Ibid , pp 321-6.
13 William Anderson, 'The Antwerp Water Works,' pp 24-83, esp pp 45-7, 61. See also Frank Hatton, 'On the Oxidation of Organic Matter in Water,' pp 258-76. On Frankland's connection see Imperial College, Lyon Playfair papers, General Correspondence, C 231, J Dewar to L Playfair, 15 Jan 1887; G Bischof, 'The Purification of Water,' JRSA 26 (1877-8): 486-96.
14 The argument was continued in the pages of the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts : J Hogg, 'Chemical Analysis of Drinking Water,' JRSA 31 (1882-3): 414-5; G Bischof, 'The Anti-Septic Action of Spongy Iron,' Ibid , pp 444-5; Hogg, 'The Anti-Septic Action of Spongy Iron,' Ibid , pp 467-8; J Lane Notter, 'Water Filtration,' BMJ , ii, 1878, pp 285, 556-7, 653.
15 Folkard, 'The Analysis of Potable Waters,' pp 65-6.
16 Ibid , pp 78-82.
17 Ibid , p 103.
15 Folkard, 'The Analysis of Potable Waters,' pp 65-6.
16 Ibid , pp 78-82.
17 Ibid , p 103.
15 Folkard, 'The Analysis of Potable Waters,' pp 65-6.
16 Ibid , pp 78-82.
17 Ibid , p 103.
18 A Wagner, 'Notes on Water Analysis,' CN 44 (1881): 176-7.
19 Smith in GBH MWS , App III, pp 94-5; R A Smith, 'On the Examination of Water for Organic Matter,' (Manchester), pp 39, 41, 45-6; same title, different text CN 19 (1869): 279; Eyler, 'The Conversion of Angus Smith,' p 225. break
20 R A Smith, 'Rivers Pollution Prevention Act, 1876. Second Annual Report' (1884), pp 28-38; idem 'On the Development of Living Germs in Water,' CN 46 (1882): 288-9 (abstract); SR ns 4 (1882- 3): 308-9; idem 'Notes on the Development of Living Germs in Water by Dr. Koch's Gelatine Process,' SR ns 4 (1882-3): 344-7; Eyler, 'Smith,' pp 230-1.
21 'The New Method of Testing Water,' SR ns 4 (1882-3): 360.
22 Eyler, 'Smith,' pp 232-3; Gibson and Farrar, 'Robert Angus Smith and Sanitary Science,' pp 247-8; A Gibson, 'Robert Angus Smith and Sanitary Science,' p 1.25. See also DNB 18, pp 520-2; and E Schunk, 'Robert Angus Smith,' CN 51 (1885): 293-6.
23 William Bulloch, 'Biographical Notices,' in his History of Bacteriology , pp 348-406. See also W D Foster, A History of Medical Bacteriology and Immunology , pp 19-21, 57-8, 66-8; idem, A Short History of Clinical Pathology , pp 53-61. Both Burdon Sanderson and Klein were involved with these public health issues as consultants for the Local Government Board (see Burdon Sanderson, 'Introductory Report on the Intimate Pathology of Contagion,' in Twelfth Report of the MOPC for 1869 , appendix 11, pp 229-56; and idem , 'Further report of Researches concerning the Intimate Pathology of Contagion,' in Thirteenth Annual Report of the MOPC for 1870 , pp 48-69).
24 Burdon Sanderson, 'Further report of Researches,' pp 60-65. The test was included in Parkes' Manual of Hygiene 6th edn, I, p 71, as easily carried out but affording absolutely no useful information. See also GBH Medical Council, Report of the Committee for Scientific Inquiries on the 1854 Cholera , pp 36, 46-7; comments of James Ritchie and T Lauder Brunton in G Burdon Sanderson, Sir John Burdon Sanderson: A Memoir (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1911), pp 75-8, 84-91; Maj Charles Smart, 'On the Present and Future of Sanitary Water Analysis,' p 85; Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air and Food , 2nd edn, p 25; 'Dr Sanderson's Experiments on the Growth of Microzymes in Water,' Food Water Air 1 (1871): 7-8. On Burdon Sanderson see Proc. Royal Society B 79 (1907): iii-xviii.
25 Frankland, 'On the Development of Fungi,' p 74; Heisch, 'On Organic Matter in Water,' pp 371-5.
26 Bulloch, History , pp 227-30; Foster, History of Medical Bacteriology , p 59.
27 'The Biological Laboratory at the Health Exhibition,' Lancet , ii, 1884, pp 251-2, 332-3, 380-1, 557-8, 609-10, 705-6, 751-2, esp 705-6. See also 'Scientific Aspects of the Health Exhibition,' Lancet , ii, 1884, p 24.
28 C J H Warden, 'The Biological Examination of Water,' CN 52 (1885): 52.
29 Ibid , p 74.
30 Ibid , p 104. break
28 C J H Warden, 'The Biological Examination of Water,' CN 52 (1885): 52.
29 Ibid , p 74.
30 Ibid , p 104. break
28 C J H Warden, 'The Biological Examination of Water,' CN 52 (1885): 52.
29 Ibid , p 74.
30 Ibid , p 104. break
31 W H Garner, 'Percy Faraday Frankland,' J Chem Soc , 1948, pt iii, pp 1996-8; P FFrankland in discussion of G Bischof, 'Notes on Dr Koch's Water Test,' J Soc for Chem Industry 5 (1886): 120; Colin Russell, 'Percy Frankland: The Iron Gate of Examination,' Chemistry in Britain 13 (1977): 425.
32 P Frankland, 'The Cholera and Our Water Supply,' pp 349-51.
33 Ibid , p 354.
32 P Frankland, 'The Cholera and Our Water Supply,' pp 349-51.
33 Ibid , p 354.
34 P Frankland, 'The Upper Thames,' pp 432, 435, 565-6.
35 P Frankland, 'The Removal of Micro-organisms from Water,' CN 52 (1885): 27-9, 40-2.
36 Percy Frankland, 'The Selection of Domestic Water Supplies,' SR ns 6 (1884-5): 549-51.
37 'London Water Supply,' CN 52 (1885): 296; PRO MH 29 8 no number, P Frankland to Bolton, 7 Nov 1885; 110299/85 'October Report'; no number, Bolton to LGB 15 Dec 1885.
38 'London Water Supply,' CN 53 (1886): 91.
39 E Frankland, 'On Chemical Changes in their Relation to Microorganisms,' CN 50 (1884): 78-80. See the response of E Klein, 'Bacteriological Research from a Biologist's Point of View,' J Chem Soc 49 (1886): 197-205.
40 On Klein, 'the father of bacteriology' in Britain, see 'Edward Emanuel Klein, 1844-1925,' Proc Royal Society B 98 (1925): xxix. But see Foster, History of Clinical Pathology , p 67.
41 PRO MH 29 8, P Frankland to LGB, 7 Nov 1885; 110299/85, 'October Report; Bolton to LGB, 15 December 1885; PRO MH 29 9 'November report'; 8074/86 'December report'; PRO MH 29 10 12665K2/87 'Memos of Buchanan, Klein, Owen, Bolton,' February 1886.
42 P Frankland, 'New Aspects of Filtration,' pp 701, 705, 709. See also discussion of E Klein, 'Bacteriological Research from a Biologist's Point of View,' CN 53 (1886): 83. Compare with F Bolton and Percy Frankland, Lectures on Water .
43 'Obituary of Gustav Bischof,' J Soc for Chemical Industry 22 (1903): 84; comments in P Frankland, 'Water Purification: Its Biological and Chemical Basis,' pp 230, 233; see also on Baker, The Quest for Pure Water , pp 313-5.
44 Gustav Bischof, 'Notes on Dr Koch's Water Test,* pp 116-9; idem , 'Dr Koch's Gelatine-Peptone Water Test,' CN 53 (1886): 205-6; idem , 'Dr Koch's Bacteriological Water Test,' Lancet , i, 1885, pp 382-3. For Bischof's investigations of the London waters see 'The Metropolitan Water Supply,' Engineering 41 (1886): 18, 116, 233, 384.
45 Bischof, 'Dr Koch's Gelatine-Peptone Water Test,'* pp 205-6. See also Bischof in discussion of Percy Frankland, 'Water Purification: its Biological and Chemical Basis,' pp 224-7; 'The Bacterioscopic Examination of Water,' CN 53 (1886): 232. break
46 P Frankland, 'Water Purification: its Biological and Chemical Basis,' p 215; Bischof, 'Notes on Dr Koch's Water Test,'* p 120; SR ns 7 (1885-6): 550; Louis Parkes, 'Water Analysis,' TSIGB 9 (1887-8): 385-7; A Dupre, 'Presidential Address,' p 364; J Thresh, 'Water Analysis and the Defective Information afforded by it,' BMJ , ii, 1892, p 860.
47 In discussion of Bischof, 'Notes on Dr Koch's Water Test,'* pp 120-1.
48 P Frankland, 'Recent Bacteriological Research in connection with Water Supply,' p 319. See also his 'The Filtration of Water for Town Supply,' pp 276-84. Compare with his statement to the Civil Engineers a year earlier: 'investigations could be carried out without any reference to the influence of those micro-organisms upon health, the problem being simply to ascertain whether and to what extent the various processes of purification had the power of removing micro-organisms in general' ('Water Purification: its Biological and Chemical Basis,' p 244).
49 Frankland, 'Recent Bacteriological Research,' pp 323-6.
50 G Bischof, 'Extension of Time of Culture in Dr R Koch's Bacteriological Water Test by Partial Sterilisation, with special reference to the Metropolitan Water Supply,' SR ns 9 (1887-8): 325-32.
51 PRO MH 29 9, clipping from Morning Post 9 Oct 1886; 92059/86, East London Water Company to LGB; 109 560/86 W Ham Local Bd Works Ctte to LGB, 19 Nov 1886; MH 29 10, 212/87 W Ham Borough Clerk to LGB; 67728/87 Report of W H Power and A DeC Scott on the eel problem; SR ns 9 (1887-8): 111-2. According to the Sanitary Record at least six of the eels came through alive and were 'generally eaten by the finders.' Cf A DeC Scott and W H Power, 'Eels in Water Mains,' in 17th Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the MO for 1887 , 121-38.
52 SR ns 8 (1886-7): 355; 'The Control of the London Water Supply,' The Engineer 63 (1887): 422. On Scott see CN 80 (1899): 207. There was expectation that Edward Frankland would be appointed to the water examiner's post on Bolton's death.
53 A Gordon Salamon and W DeVere Mathew, 'The Purification of Water,' pp 201-7, 271-3.
54 'Micro-organisms and water,' Engineering 43 (1887): 184-6.
55 P Frankland, 'The Bacteriological Examination of Water and the Information it has Furnished,' p 7; E Duclaux, 'Les Microbes des eaux,' pp 568-9; Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, p 200; Armstrong in discussion of Bischof, 'Notes on Dr Koch's Water Test,'* p 120.
56 A few years later the American water analyst A R Leeds explored these issues sensitively in a paper entitled 'A Question of Water, Ethics, and Bacteria,' pp 259-68. See also E Duclaux, 'Les Microbes des Eaux,' p 569; Louis Parkes, 'Water Analysis,'* p 385. break
10— What's Bacteriology For? Disenchantment and a New Realism, 1890–98
1 Comments in P Frankland, 'Water Purification: Its Biological and Chemical Basis,' p 246.
2 Henry R Kenwood, Public Health Laboratory Work , pp 425-44; J A Wanklyn, 'Water Analysis,' CN 59 (1889): 46-7; Wanklyn's comments in P Frankland, 'Water Purification: Its Biological and Chemical Basis,' p 241.
3 G S Woodhead, Bacteria and their Products (New York, Scribners, 1891), p 190. On types of water bacteriology see Percy Frankland, 'The Application of Bacteriology to Questions relating to Water Supply,' p 370.
4 Woodhead in RC Metropolitan Water Supply, [ RCMWS ], Q 10676.
5 Crookes, Odling, and Tidy in CN 54 (1886): 44-5; P Frankland, 'Pathogenic Micro-organisms in Water,' CN 54 (1886): 72.
6 Crookes, Odling, and Tidy, in CN 54 (1886): 185. The experiments were also presented to the British Association (William Odling, 'Micro-organisms in Drinking Water,' p 544). On the microbe scare see 'Review of C E Parker-Rhodes, Our Daily Water-Supply, CN 55 (1887): 185-6; W B Carpenter, 'The Germ Theory of Zymotic Diseases,' pp 317-36; Thomas Watson, 'The Abolition of Zymotic Disease,' pp 78-96.
7 'Biological Examinations of Water Supplies,' SR ns 8 (1886-7): 120. But see Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, p 74.
8 P Frankland, 'Pathogenic Micro-organisms in Water,' CN 54 (1886): 72.
9 P Frankland, 'Recent Bacteriological Research in connection with Water Supply,' pp 319-22. See also his 'On the Application of Bacteriology to Questions relating to Water Supply,' pp 369-77.
10 Frankland and Frankland, Micro-organisms in Water .
11 For an excellent review see E Duclaux, 'Action sur l'eau sur les bactéries Pathogènes,' pp 109-24.
12 Frankland, 'The Bacteriological Examination of Water and the Information it has Furnished,' p 6. break
13 P Miquel, A Practical Manual of the Bacteriological Analysis of Water , p 502; PRO MH 29 17, 79769K2/92, A deC Scott to H Owen, 31 August 1892. But see Frankland and Ward, 'First Report to the Water Research Committee of the Royal Society,' p 187.
14 Miquel, Practical Manual , p 419.
15 Ibid , 460-1; Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, p 74.
14 Miquel, Practical Manual , p 419.
15 Ibid , 460-1; Fox, Sanitary Examinations of Water, Air, and Food , 2nd edn, p 74.
16 P Frankland, 'The Bacterial Purification of Water,' pp 90-6.
17 Luckin, Pollution and Control , pp 148-9; Owen, The Government of Victorian London , pp 135-40; A Mukhopadhyay, Politics of Water Supply , ch 3; PRO MH 29 14, Scott to LGB 14 February 1890, Scott to Owen 5 July 1890; vestry complaints 29 July 1890; PRO MH 29 15, 11265/91, 11448/91, 23787/91, 45003/91; PRO MH 29 16, 84364/91, 97333/91, 98128/91; 'Impure London Water,' BMJ , ii, 1892, pp 1069-70; 'Dangers of Rivers as Sources of Public Water Supply,' BMJ , ii, 1893,, pp 1112-3; 'The London Water Supply,' The Times 19 Sept 1893, 6 a-c; 20 Nov 1893, 4a; 'Metropolitan Water Supply,' Engineering 53 (1892): 265-6, 383-4; H W Dickinson, 'Water Supply of Greater London,' The Engineer 186 (1948): 432-3.
18 RCMWS , Appendices, C-10, C-11, C-13.
19 Royal Society of London, Water Research Cttee, Minutes and Letters and Papers, 1891-6.
20 On Woodhead (1855-1921) see Proc Royal Soc Edinburgh 42 (1921-2): 394-5. On Lankester (1847-1929) see Gavin de Beer, 'Lankester, Edwin Ray,' in DSB , vol 8, pp 27-7. On Klein (1844-1925) see Proc Royal Soc London B98 (1925): xxv-xxix.
21 G S Woodhead and A Hare, Pathological Mycology , I, pp 22-3; W Coleman, 'Koch's Comma Bacillus: the First Year,' Bull Hist Med 61 (1987): 315-42.
22 RCMWS , QQ 11009-11. Cf George Newman, Bacteriology and Public Health , p 282; Carl Fraenkel, Text-Book of Bacteriology , pp 267-8, 289-93; Frankland and Appleyard, 'Third Report to the Water Research Committee,' pp 396-7; Frankland and Frankland, Microorganisms in Water , pp 264-70.
23 Frankland and Appleyard, 'Third Report,' p 398. Cf Newman, Bacteriology and Public Health , p 50; Miquel, Practical Manual , pp 471-2; Fraenkel, Text-Book of Bacteriology , p 119.
24 Newman, Bacteriology and Public Health , pp 28-9, 50, 302-3; E E Klein, 'Report on the Etiology of Typhoid Fever,' in 22nd Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the MO for 1892-3 , pp 345-9; C Flügge, Microorganisms , p 334.
25 Turneaure and Russell, Public Water Supplies , p 182; F W Richardson, 'The Bacteriological Analysis of Water,' J Soc Chem Ind 13 (1894): 1159; Miquel, Practical Manual , pp 471-2; E Klein, 'Report on the Eti- soft
ology of Typhoid Fever,' pp 345-65.
26 RCMWS , QQ 13235-7, 11009-11.
27 Cf Percy Frankland, 'The Application of Bacteriology to Questions relating to Water Supply,' p 370.
28 PRO MH 29 15 23787/91, 32189/91; RCMWS , Appendix C 14, p 205.
29 PRO MH 29 16 84364/91, Frankland to Owen, 31 Oct 1891; C H Cribb, 'Charles E Cassal (1858-1922),' The Analyst 47 (1922): 102-4.
30 PRO MH 29 17 61974/92, 73598/72.
31 RCMWS Appendix C 13, pp 201-2.
32 RCMWS Evidence, QQ 4244, 4259-65, 4283, 4403-6, 4523, 4554, 4561-5, 4588.
33 RCMWS Appendix C 14, p 208; RCMWS Evidence, QQ 12600-2, 12614-6, 12775, 12778.
34 PRO MH 29 34 129365/98 Scott to Owen 23 Oct 1898; 132373/98, 131311m/98; Lancet , ii, 1897, p 1055.
35 RCMWS Evidence, QQ 12873, 12876-9, 12885, 12927-9; RCMWS Report, pp 58-69.
36 Times 20 Nov 1893 4a; 'The London Water Supply,' Engineering 59 (1895): 281-5; 'London Water Supply,' Lancet , ii, 1896, pp 1165-6; P Frankland, 'The London Water Supply and its Bacterial Contents,' Lancet , ii, 1896, pp 1414-5; Crookes and Dewar on the London Water Supply, Lancet ii, 1896, p 1478; 'Water Supply,' The Engineer 83 (1897): 18-9; The Engineer 83 (1897): 496; 84 (1897): 81; BMJ , i, 1897, p 679.
37 'London Water,' The Engineer 83 (1897): 115.
38 W J Dibdin, 'The Character of the London Water Supply,' J Soc Chem Ind 16 (1897): 9-15; 'London Water,' The Engineer 83 (1897): 116. Cf C Hamlin, 'William Dibdin and the Idea of Biological Sewage Treatment,' Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 189-218.
39 'London Water,' The Engineer 83 (1897): 196.
40 R Thorne Thorne, comments on F D Barry, 'Enteric Fever in the Tees Valley,' in Supplement to 21st Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the Medical Officer for 1891 , pp vi-viii.
41 Barry delayed until he could get fresh census data for accurate epidemiological comparison (Report of the MO for 1891, p viii).
42 Barry, 'Enteric Fever,' pp 119-23.
43 Ibid , p 136, see also pp 127-33 for the bacteriological investigations to which Tidy is probably referring.
42 Barry, 'Enteric Fever,' pp 119-23.
43 Ibid , p 136, see also pp 127-33 for the bacteriological investigations to which Tidy is probably referring.
44 Buchanan in 11th Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the MO for 1879 , p xxi.
45 See Theodore Thomson, 'Report on an Epidemic of Enteric Fever in the Borough of Worthing,' in 23rd Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the MO for 1893-4 , pp 47-80; E E Klein, 'Report on the Etiology of Typhoid Fever,' pp 345-65; idem , 'On the Behaviour of the Typhoid Bacillus and Koch's Vibrio in Sewage,' in 24th Annual Report of the continue
LGB, Report of the MO for 1894 , pp 407-10. For views on water analysis see 15th Annual Report of the LGB for 1885-86 , p cxxvi; and Supplement containing the Report of the MO for 1885 , p iv; 17th Annual Report of the LGB , pp cliv-clv, and Supplement containing the Report of the MO for 1887 , p xvii; 18th Annual Report of the LGB for 1888-89 , pp cxlvii, 242-3; RCMWS , App E, 528-32.
46 R Koch, 'Water Filtration and Cholera,' trans A J A Ball, in 22nd Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the MO for 1892-3 , App C; Thorne Thorne in ibid , pp xix-xx, and Thorne Thorne in 23rd Annual Report of the LGB, Report of the MO for 1893-4 , p xxiii. Cf Richard J Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830-1910 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987).
47 For reactions see 'Water Filtration and Cholera,' Lancet , ii, 1893, p 96; G Frankland, 'How cholera may be spread,' SR ns 14 (1892-3): 421-2; P Frankland, 'The Bacterial Purification of Water and Sand Filtration,' SR ns 19 (1897): 8-9, 29-30; Wolf Defries, 'The Purification of Water Supplies,' SR ns 19 (1897): 111; Frankland and Frankland, Micro-organisms in Water , pp 152-4.
48 'London Water,' The Engineer 83 (1897): 116, 196-7.
49 On Taylor see D T Lucke, 'Leo Taylor,' (1861-1940), The Analyst 66 (1941): 184.
50 L Taylor, 'Reports on Water Analysis,' The Analyst 17 (1892): 89-95. Cassal had had a similar run-in with Frankland in the summer of 1891 (PRO MH 29 16 84364/91).
51 C E Cassal, 'Chemical Analysis and the Purity of Water,' CN 64 (1891): 249.
52 See also Thresh, 'The Interpretation of Results in Water Analysis,' TSIGB 13 (1892): 316-7. On Thresh see 'John Clough Thresh,' The Analyst 57 (1932): 549-50.
53 J C Thresh, 'The Interpretation of the Results obtained upon the Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Potable Waters,' The Analyst 20 (1895): 80-91, 97-111.
54 A Dupre, 'Note on the Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Water, with remarks on the Fever Epidemic at Worthing in 1893,' The Analyst 20 (1895): 73-9.
55 T H Pearmain and C G Moor, 'The Bacteriological Examination of Water for the Typhoid Bacillus,' The Analyst 21 (1896): 117-22, 141-48. For other views on the complexity and futility of searching for pathogens see M A Adams, 'Water Supply in Relation to the Maidstone Epidemic,' The Analyst 23 (1898): 153; 'Review of J H Fuertes, Water and Public Health,' The Engineer 84 (1897): 112; N F Bunshaw, 'The Examination of Water suspected of being contaminated by the Cholera virus,' Lancet , ii, 1896, 329-30; William Dibdin, The Purification of Sewage and Water , 3rd edn (London: Sanitary Publishing Co, continue
1903), pp 257-8; Newman, Bacteriology and Public Health , pp 28-9; E Klein, 'The Etiology of Typhoid Fever,' J Sanitary Inst 15 (1894): 343-52; Flügge, Microorganisms , p 334; 'The Scope and Methods of Water Examination,' BMJ , ii, 1893, 1118; Foster, History of Clinical Pathology , pp 70-1.
56 Pearmain and Moor, 'Bacteriological Examination,'* p 147. Those taking elementary bacteriology courses at the London hospitals would have learned procedures for distinguishing B typhosus from B coli , but not the great range of techniques Pearmain and Moor considered. See A A Kanthack and J H Drysdale, Elementary Practical Bacteriology (London: Macmillan, 1895), pp 53-5.
57 Adams, 'Maidstone Epidemic,'* pp 153, 156, 159.
58 B Dyer, 'Annual Address of the President,' The Analyst 23 (1898): 63-4.
59 A H Allen in Adams, 'Maidstone Epidemic,'* p 159.
60 But see Tebb, Metropolitan Water Supply , p 19. break
Conclusion: What Are Experts for?
1 J C Thresh, The Examination of Waters and Water Supplies , (Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1904); S C Prescott, C-E A Winslow and M H McCrady, Water Bacteriology with Special Reference to Sanitary Analysis , 6th edn (New York: John Wiley, 1946), pp 142-206; Baker, The Quest for Pure Waters ; C Hamlin, 'William Dibdin and the Idea of Biological Sewage Treatment,' Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 189-218.
2 It should be noted that recent scholarship (J A Hassan, 'The Growth and Impact of the British Water Industry in the Nineteenth Century,' Economic History Review , 2nd series, 38 [1985]: 531-47) has confirmed the view of the most important nineteenth century commentator (Arthur Silverthorne, London and Provincial Water Supplies [London: Crosby, Lockwood, and Co, 1884]) that the quest for better water was fuelled by economic rationality rather than a concern for health. The argument remains an ambiguous one, however.
3 Colin Russell, Science and Social Change, 1700-1900 (London: MacMillan, 1983), p 257.
4 B Latour, 'Give me a Laboratory and I will Raise the World,' in K Knorr-Cetina and M Mulkay, eds, Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science (London: Sage, 1983), pp 141-70.
5 A R Leeds, 'A Question of Water, Ethics, and Bacteria,' American J of the Medical Sciences 105 (1893): 259, 266. break
Appendix: Edward Frankland's Justification of Analytical Interpretations, 1868–76
1 R C Water Supply, Evidence, QQ 6223, 6405-8.
2 R C Water Supply, Appendix D, p 20.
3 R C Water Supply, Appendix AK, pp 78-9.
4 R C Water Supply, Evidence, Q 6291; R C Rivers Pollution, 1868, 6th Report, pp 6-8. break