INDEX

A

'Abbas, Hazrat, shrine to, 98 -100, 276

'Abdu'l-'Aziz, Shah. See Dihlavi, Shah 'Abdu'l-'Aziz

'Abdu'l-Majid, Mulla, 56 -57

'Adalat . See Courts of law

'Adil-Shahis, 23 -24

Afarin 'Ali Khan, 80 , 232 -33

Afghani, Sayyid Jamalu'd-Din Asadabadi, 264 n

Afghans: invade Iran, 27 , 28 ;

join Nadir Shah's army, 28 ;

conquer Punjab and Kashmir, 38 ;

some, Shi‘is, 84 ;

forbid Muharram processions, 234 ;

followers of Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi, 236 -37. See also Pathans

Ahmad, Sayyid, 76

Ahmad Khan, Sir Sayyid, 264 , 264 n

Ahmad Shah Timuri, 46

Ahmadu'llah Shah, 274 , 278

Ahsa'i, Shaykh Ahmad al-, 186 , 188

Akbar, 25

Akbarabadi, Mirza Muhammad Nishapuri, 163 -65

Akbarpur, 75

Akhbari, Mirza Muhammad. See Akbarabadi, Mirza Muhammad

Akhbaris: gentlemen scholars as, 134 -36;

some, supplicate ascetic, 158 ;

polemics of, with Usulis, 159 -69;

excluded as court judges, 210 ;

polemics of, with Sunnis, 231

Akhbarism: conservative school of jurisprudence, 6 ;

syllogism rejected in, 18 ;

emulation by laymen forbidden in, 18 -19;

adoption by Iranian clerical notables, 21 -22;

opposed to Safavid Usulism, 21 ;

Friday prayers forbidden in Indian, 27 , 128 -29;

dominance of, in eighteenth-century Iran questioned, 29 ;

Yusuf al-Bahrani and, 31 -32;

prevalent in North India, 62 ;

S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi supports, in Iraq, 62 -64;

sectarian in North India. 124 -26;

S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi attacks, 134 -36;

supported by notables, 134 -36;

forsaken by Nasirabadi's students, 138 ;

attacked by Awadh Usulis, 159 -69

A'la 'Ali, Mirza, 244

'Alam II, Shah, 53 , 133

'Alamu'l-Huda, Murtada, 148

'Ali b. Abu Talib, Imam, 4 , 64 , 74 . See Tafdil

'Ali Khan, Agha, 244 -45

'Ali Muharmmad Khan, 46 , 45

'Ali Naqi Khan, 245 , 247

Allahabad: governed by Shuja'u'd-Dawlah, 48 ;

Tafazzul Husayn Khan Kashmiri in, 53 ;

S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi in, 60 ;

trade of, with Delhi, 77 ;

Shi'is of, in census, 90 ;

in 1857 Revolt, 280

Almas 'Ali Khan, 62 , 225 , 257

Amethavi, Amir 'Ali, 245 -49

Amherst, Lord, 260

'Amili, al-Hurr al-, 21 -22

Aminu'd-Dawlah, Imdad Husayn Khan, 204 , 206 , 267

Amir Khan, Nawab, 235

Amjad 'Ali Shah: supports Usuli clerics, 195 -98;

closes taverns, brothels, 197 -98;

pays religious taxes on government revenues, 200 -202;

establislhes Shi'i seminary, 204 -9;

described as "the just king," 210 ;

called upon to appoint Shi'i judges, 210 ;

establishes Shi'i judicial system, 211 -213;

discriminates against Sunnis and Hindus, 243 ;

relations with British, 266 -67

Amroha, 79 , 137

Amrohavi, Sayyid 'Ali .Husayn, 137

Amrohavi, Sayyid Muhammad 'Ibadat, 137

Amrohavi, Sayyid Muhammad Siyadat, 206

Ansari, Murtaza, 214 -15

Arab Shi'is, 16 , 19 , 20

Ara'ishoalas , 87

Arjomand, Said Amir, 3

Artisans: Sayyids, 79 ;

and Shi'ism, 85 -89;

Hindu, adopt Islam, 87 ;

and Friday

Artisans (Contd )

prayers, 134 ;

heterodoxy of, 134 -35, 168 ;

role in 1857 Revolt, 273

Asadabadi, Sayyid Jamalu'd-Din "Afghani," 264 n

Asad 'Ali, Mir, 168

Asafu'd-Dawlah: and Tafazzul Husayn Khan Kashmiri, 53 ;

religious policy, 57 -59;

interviews S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi, 65 ;

building program in Lucknow, 94 -95;

observances of Muharram by, 102 ;

and Friday prayers, 139 -33;

remits money to Iraq, 139 ;

judiciary under, 140 ;

builds cathedral mosque, 143 ;

endows Sufi convents, 147 ;

and Akhbarism, 163 ;

bestows lands tax-free, 179 ;

rewards Nasirabad's Shi'is, 235 ;

jointly invades Ramput with British, 252

Asasal-usul , 160 -65

Ashraf , 71 -85

'Ashura'. See Muharram rites

Astarabadi, Mihdi, 185 , 187

Astarabadi, Muhammad Amin, 21 , 62 , 64

Awadh: social history of, 7 ;

climate in eighteenth century, 38 ;

geographical position of, 38 ;

population growth in eighteenth century, 38 ;

post-Mughal successor state, 38 , 40 -50;

invasion of, by Bangash forces, 46 ;

restrictions on military imposed, 48 ;

decentralization and Shi'i scholarship in, 50 ;

envoy to Calcutta of, 53 ;

Shi'i population's composition in, 69 -91;

drought in, 94 ;

syncretism in, 115 -17;

spread of Usuli ideas in, 138 ;

semiautonomy from Mughals of, 173 ;

relations of, with East India Company, 252 -54, 260 -62;

British annexation of, 270 -72;

Revolt ("Mutiny") in, 272 -281

Awrangzib, 26 , 81 , 92

Ayodhya, 244 -49

Azamgarh, 90

'Azimabadi, Hasan, 187 -88

'Azimu'llah Khan, 262

B

Babism, 189

Babur, 24

Badshah Begam, 190 , 237

Baghdad, 74

Bahadur Shah, 40 , 77

Bahadur Shah II, 273 , 276

Bahar 'Ali Khan, 57

Bahraich, 77 , 267 -69

Bahrain, 31

Bahrani, Yusuf al-, 31 -32

Bahu Begam, 55 , 56 , 57

Baksar, 55 , 82

Banaras, 50 ;

population growth in eighteenth century in, 38 ;

Hazin in, 51 -52;

Shi'is of, in census, 90 ;

Akhbaris in, 159

Banaras, Raja of, 51 , 52 , 257

Banarasi, Sharafu'd-Din, 159

Bangash, 46 , 65 , 84

Bankori, Sayyid A'zam 'Ali, 156

Bara Banki, 74 , 76 , 90

Barelavi, Husayn 'Ali Khan, 165 -67, 231

Barelavi, Sayyid Ahmad. See Rai-Barelavi, Sayyid Ahmad

Barhah Sayyids, 41 , 40 , 75 -77, 81

Barq, Muhammad Riza, 208

Belehra, 104

Benares. See Banaras

Bengal: ruled by Shi'i nawabs, 38 ;

Shi'i Iranians immigrate into, 29 -30;

Shi'i patronage, 50 ;

Muslim bureaucrats emigrate from, 82 ;

Muharram in, 114 , Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi's movement in, 236 -37;

trade with Awadh, 252 -54;

ulama of, seek to attend British darbar , 258

Bhardasa, 147

Bhatwamau, Raja of, 274

Bhikpuri, Sayyid 'Ali, 181

Bihar, 114

Bihbahan, 32

Bihbahani, Ahmad: opposes drums, 113 ;

Friday prayer leader in Patna, 137 ;

controversies with S. Dildar 'Ali 141 -42;

criticizes ulama of Faizabad, 157

Bihbahani, Muhammad Baqir: early career as Akhbari, 32 ;

Usuli revivalist in Karbala, 33 -34;

taught Indian students, 62 -64;

on Friday prayers, 134 ;

accused of extortion, 149

Bijnor, 90

Bilgram, 46 , 47 , 77

Birhar, 76 , 80

Birjis Qadar, 276 -78

British. See East India Company

Bulandshahr, 90 , 279

Burhanu'l-Mulk, Mir Muhammad Amin Nishapuri: early career, 40 -41;

consolidation of rule over Awadh, 41 -42;

suicide of, 41 ;

betrays Delhi to Nadir Shah, 41 ;

expropriation of Sunni land wants, 42 , 44 ;

bribes Nadir Shah, 45 ;

converts Khwaja Musa Khan, 83

Buyids, 5 , 17 , 210

C

Caesaropapism, 189 -91

Calcutta, 53 , 54 , 202

Caliphs, 96 , 108 , 241 -42. See Tabarra '

Caste, 72 -89, 227 -29

Caulfield, Lt. Col., 261

Cenotaphs, 103 , 111

Census statistics, for Oudh, 71

Chaks, 25

Chardin,Jean, 81

Charismatic authority, 145 -46, 168 -71, 185 -86, 218 -20

Chinhat, 274

Chishtis, 8 , 74 , 89 -90, 129 , 149

Church, 3 , 7 , 123 -27, See also Establishment, formal religious; Sect

Classes. See Stratification, social

Clergy. See Ulama

Closure, social: based on religion, 3 -4;

and caste, 71 -73;

professional, among ulama, 142 -44;

among types of religious leader, 169 -72, 173 -74, 192 -93;

ethnic, between Indian and Iranian ulama, 185 ;

Usuli ulama successful in, 192 -93;

Shi'i, against Hindus, 229 ;

usurpationary, 233 -34;

dual, among Sunnis, 287 -89;

and apartheid, 290

Communalism: in South Asian history, 2 -3;

lacking between eighteenth-century Sunnis and Shi'is, 49 ;

origins of, in Awadh, 92 -93;

and Usulism, 151 ;

and communal identity among Shi'is, 219 -20;

explanations for, 223 -24;

Shi'i, toward Hindus, 227 -29;

Sunni-Shi'i, in Awadh, 234 -44;

and Faizabad temple dispute, 244 -50;

relationship to clerical power and authority, 285 -90;

and apartheid, 290

Consensus (Shi'i jurisprudence), 18 , 160 , 165

Courtesans, 87 -88

Courts of law, 139 -42, 209 -13. See Qazis

Customary law, 139 , 218

D

Dafalis, 88

Dalhousie, Marquess of, 247 , 268 -70

Daryabad, 248

Delhi: eighteenth-century drought in, 38 ;

eighteenth-century population loss in environs of, 38 ;

looted by Nadir Shah's troops, 41 ;

Safdar Jang in, 47 ;

enervated by invasions, 50 ;

Hazin in, 51 ;

notable immigrants to Awadh from, 69 , 82 ,

trade with Allahabad, 77 ;

conquered by British, 255 ;

Revolt against British in, 273 ;

falls to British, 277

Deoghata, 137

Deoghatavi, Sayyid 'Abdu'l-'Ali, 61 , 136 -37, 138

Deoghatavi, Sayyid 'Ali, 137 , 244 , 279

Deoghatavi, Sayyid Muhammad, 137 , 138

Dihlavi, Rashidu'd-Din, 242

Dihlavi, Shah 'Abdu'l-'Aziz, 230 , 232 , 235 , 255

Doab, 46 , 74 , 87 , 90

Domination, legitimate, 145 -46

Durga, 117

Durranis, 38 , 47 , 49

Dyers, 87

E

East India Company (British): jointly attacks Ruhilahs with Shuja'u'd-Dawlah, 48 ;

conflict between, and Shuja'u'd-Dawlah, 47 -46;

role of resident of, in coronation ceremonies, 175 ;

conflict of, with Nasiru'd-Din Haydar, 190 -92, 241 ;

and dispute over Faizabad temple, 244 -49;

relations with Awadh (1764-1830), 252 -54;

Sayyid Dildar 'Ali discourages Shi'is from working for, 256 ;

mujtahids allow Shi'is to work for, 258 ;

and industrial revolution, 260 ;

loans to, by Awadh nawabs, 260 -62;

relations with Amjad 'Ali Shah, 266 -67;

annexes Awadh, 270 -72;

abolishes seminary, 271 ;

Revolt ("Mutiny") against, 272 -81

Emulation (in religious law). See Taqlid

Endowments, religious. See Waqf

Establishment, formal religious: role of state in creating, 3 , 284 -85;

defined, 7 ;

transition to, in Awadh, 123 -27, 142 -44;

material resources in growth of, 218 -20;

and communalism, 229 , 284 -90

Eunuchs, 56 -57, 225 -26

Euphrates River, 62 , 139

F

Faizabad: Shuja'u'd-Dawlah's capital, 48 ;

and Shi'i physicians, 54 -55;

1779 riot,

Faizabad (Contd .)

56 -57;

forsaken by Asafu'd-Dawlah, 59 ;

S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi in, 61 ;

Sayyids in, 74 ;

resumption of land grants in, 80 ;

Mughals in, 82 ;

Shi'is of, in census, 90 ;

competes with Lucknow, 93 ;

Padshah Kashmiri in, 128 ;

Friday prayers in, 136 -37;

Shi'i seminarians in, 138 ;

Hanumangarhi dispute in, 244 -49;

Revolt in, 274

Farangi Mahall: establishment of, 43 -44;

trusted by SafdarJang, 45 ;

conflicts with Shuja'u'd-Dawlah, 49 ;

and S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi, 60 ;

and Awadh judiciary, 139 -40, 209 -13;

moderate relations of, with Shi'is, 231 ;

and Faizabad temple dispute, 248

Farangi-Mahalli, 'Abdu'l-A'la', 231

Farangi-Mahalli, 'Abdul'l-'Ali "Bahru'l-'Ulum," 49 , 60

Farangi-Mahalli, Ghulam Hazrat, 139 , 140

Farangi-Mahalli, Hafizu'llah, 210

Farangi-Mahalli, Hasan, 49 , 53 , 60

Farangi-Mahalli, Haydar, 240

Farangi-Mahalli, Mubin, 98 , 140 , 231

Farangi-Mahalli, Yusuf, 210 , 248

Farrukhabad, 103 , 180 -81, 262 -63

Faruqi, Ahmad, 242

Fath-'Ali Shah, 164 , 181 , 259

Fawa'idal-Madaaiyyah, al- , 62 , 160

Fayazbadi, Muhammad b. 'Ali, 206

G

Gandhi, Mahatma Mohandas K., 289

Ghaziyu'd-Din Haydar: self independent of Mughals, 174 ;

coronation of, 174 -75;

grants crown lands, 179 ;

confirms grants to S. Dildar 'Ali, 180 ;

Sunni-Shi'i rivalry in appointments of, 232 -33;

and Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi's movement, 237 -38;

loam to British East India Company of, 260 -61

Ghufran-ma'ab. See Nasirabadi, Sayyid Dildar 'Ali

Ghulam Husayn, Shah, 244 , 245

Gomti River, 100 , 273

Gonda, 74 .

H

Hadith , 54 , 56 -57

Hafiz Rahmat Khan, 48 , 49 , 60

Hajji, Mirza, 232 -33

Hamdu'llah, Mawlavi, 46 -47

Hanafi law, 14 , 53 , 209

Hardoi, 46 , 74 , 76 -77

Hasan 'Ali, Mir, 257

Hasan Riza Khan: Awadh chief minister, 61 ;

relationship to S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi, 61 , 65 , 127 ;

supports Sufism, 127 ;

and Friday prayers, 128 -29, 149 -51;

remits money to Iraq, 138 ;

patronizes Akhbaris, 159 ;

accused of defaulting on loans, 259 -60

Hatings, Governor-General, 174

Hay'at , 60

Hazin, Muhammad 'Ali Gilani, 51 -52, 53 , 54

Hazrat Mahall, 276 -78

Hierocracy, 144 , 145 -46, 189 -92, 219 -20, 285 -86

Hilli, Hasan ibn al-Mutahhar al-, 62 , 162 , 176

Hinduism: influence on village Muslims, 86 ;

conversion from, to Islam, 87 ;

sectarianism in, 125 ;

persecution of, urged by Sayyid Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi, 226 ;

usages of, attacked by Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi, 236

Hindus: captured, made eunuchs, 57 , 225 ;

receive nawab's patronage, 57 ;

observe Muharram, 115 -17;

shops of, boycotted, 198 ;

encouraged to become Shi'is for alms, favors, 200 ;

relationship with Shi'is, 224 -29;

Nasiru'd-Din Haydar persecutes, 228 ;

landlords among, fight Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi, 238 ;

accosted during Muharram, 240 ;

Amjad 'Ali Shah discriminates against, 243 ;

and dispute over Faizabad Hanumangarhi, 244 -49;

discriminated against in Shi'i courts of law, 268 -69;

merchants among, benefit in nineteenth century, 287 -88

Holy war. See Jihad

Humayun, 24 -25

Husayn, Imam, 4 . See Muharram rites

Husaynabad Imambarah, 261 -62

Hyderabad, Deccan, 38 , 110 , 147 , 160

Hyderabad, Sindh, 62

Hypergamy, 80 , 110

I

Ideology, 12, 127 , 165 , 219

Ihtiyat , 64

Ijma '. See Consensus

Ijtihad , 18 , 51 , 128 , 160 -62, 165 -66, 211

Ilahabadi, Ghulam Husayn Dakani, 53 , 60

Imam 'Ali Khan, Sayyid, 262 .

Imambarah : in Zaydpur, 76 ;

in Tanda, 86 ;

in Lucknow, 95 -98;

in 1826s, 102 -3;

in Jaunpur, 157 ;

in Salon, 157 ;

of Muhammad 'Ali Shah, 195 ;

of Sayyid 'Ali Naqi Nasirabadi, 202 ;

of Javahir 'Ali Khan, 225 -26;

Husaynabad, 261 -62

Imambarah, Great, 94 -98, 103 , 151 , 207 , 280

Imams, 5 , 56 , 100

Indigo, 254 , 262 -63

In-sha'a'llah Khan, Mir, 80

Interest, on loam, 255 , 259 -63

Iranians: in Mughal India, 25 -26, 69 ;

substantial emigration of, 81 ;

in Awrangzib's service, 81 ;

considered Mughal in caste, 81 -82;

competition with Turks, 82 ;

competition with Indians, 137 , 141 -42, 183 -85;

expected to help Indians in 1857, 277

Iraq: conservative Shi'ism in, 20 ;

ruled by Mamluks, 27 , 36 ;

invaded by Nadir Shah, 28 , Shi'i shrine cities in, 30 -31;

S. Dildar 'Ali's sojourn in, 62 -64;

remission of charitable funds to, 138 -39, 195 ;

leader of Shi'i world in, 213 ;

building of canal in, 259 ;

British bombard shrine cities in, 289

Isfshan: Shi'i center, 20 -21;

Afghan siege of, 28 ;

center of rationalism, 29 ;

population decline, 29 ;

and Bihbahani, 32 ;

and Hazin, 51 , 53 , 155

Isfahani, 'Abdu'l-'Azim Husayni, 184

Isma'il Safavi, Shah, 19

J

Ja'is, 77

Jalali Suhravardis, 74 , 89 -90

Jamuna River, 38

Jangali, Mirza, 96 -97

Jarchavi, Ja'far 'Ali, 279

Jarwal, 77

Jat (caste), 71

Jaunpur, 90 , 157 , 182 , 228

Jaunpuri, Mufti Sayyid Mubarak, 157

Jaunpuri, Muhammad 'Askari, 128 , 159

Jaunpuri, Sayyid Gulshan 'Ali, 257

Jaunpuri, Sayyid Muhammad Hashim, 257

Jaunpuri, Zakir 'Ali, 257

Javad 'Ali, Mirza, 138

Javahir 'Ali Khan, 56 -57, 136 , 225

Jaza'iri, Ni'matu'llah, 22

Jews, 28

Jihad (holy war), 5 , 246 , 272 , 280

Johnson, Benton, 3 , 123

Judiciary. See Courts of law; Qazis

K

Kakori, 47 , 139

Karaki, 'Ali al-, 19 -20

Karamu'llah Khan, 53

Karbala: Imam Husayn slain at, 4 ;

conquered by Ottomans, 20 ;

al-Bahrani in, 31 ;

Bihbahani in, 33 -34;

S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi, in, 64 ;

money remitted to, 139 , 195 ;

S. Kazim Rashti in, 186 ;

Awadh scholars study at, 208 ;

sacked by Ottomans, 215

Kashmir: Shi ism in, 25 ;

Durrani conquest of 38 ;

governed by Safdar Jang, 45 ;

provides Shi'i troops to Awadh, 45 ;

notable emigrants from, 69 , 262 ;

ulama emigrants from, 128 , 159 , 182 , 263 ;

Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi in, 238

Kashmiri, Abu'l-Hasan, 114

Kashmiri, Hakim Mihdi 'Ali Khan, 182 , 257 , 262 -63

Kashmiri, Mihdi Qummi, 181

Kashmiri, Mirza Sadiq 'Ali, 182

Kashmiri, Muhammad 'Ali "Padshah," 128 , 136

Kashmiri, Muhammad Muqim, 159

Kashmiri, Muhammad Riza, 158

Kashmiri, Sayyid Najaf 'Ali, 157

Kashmiri, Tafazzul Husayn Khan, 52 -54, 60 , 139

Kataria, 76

Kayasthas, 116

Kazim 'Ali, Mirza, 138

Kazimayn, 64

Keranavi, Imdad 'Ali, 182

Khabar al-ahad , 64 .

Khalil, Mirza, 62

Kharaj (land tax), 20

Khayru'llah, Shah, 127 , 149

Khilafat, 289

Khudabakhsh, Mir, 232 -33

Khums , 79 , 166 , 198 -204

Khurasan, 64 -65

Khutbah (sermon), 50 , 176

Khuzistan, 22 , 32

Kinrut, 76

Kinturi, Sayyid Ghulam Husayn, 207 , 281

Kinturi, Sayyid Hamid Husayn. 207

Kinturi, Sayyid I'jaz Husayn, 270 , 279 , 281

Kinturi, Sayyid Muhammad Quli: student of Sayyid Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi, 138 ;

treatise on Shi'i court system, 210 -11, urges that Shi'is treat Hindus as ritually impure, 227 ;

defends public cursing of Caliphs, 231 ;

in Meerut when Rai-Barelavi is expelled, 236 ;

employment with British, 257 -58

L

Lahore: qazi of, Shi'i, 25 ;

Muharram observances in, 25 -26;

Hazin in, 51 ;

Tafazzul Husayn Khan in, 52 ;

Shi'i courtesans in, 88 ;

conquered by British, 266 -67

Lakhnavi, Sayyid Murtaza, 160

Laureston, Jean Law de, 48 -49

Low, John, 191 , 266

Lucknow: population growth in eighteenth century, in, 38 ;

Bangash conquest of, 46 ;

Tafazzul Husayn Khan Kashmiri in, 53 ;

made capital by Asafu'd-Dawlah, 59 ;

Shi'i ulama in, 61 ;

S. Dildar 'Ali Nasirabadi's return to, 65 ;

Sayyids in, 74 ;

Mughals in, 82 ;

textile center, 93 ;

nawabi transformation of, 93 -98;

popular ion of, 94 ;

mufti of, 210 ;

Hindu-Shi'i riot in, 228 ;

Rai-Barelavi in, 237 ;

Muslim vigilante groups in, 245 ;

Revolt in, 273 -81

Luristani, Sayyid Ahmad Qattal, 76

M

Madad-i ma'ash (land revenues), 42 , 75

Madariyyah, 89

Madru'd-Dawlah, 83

Madrasah. See Seminary

Madrasi, Ghulam Nabiyu'llah Ahmad Khan, 188 -89

Mahajans, 235

Mahmudabad, Raja of, 82 , 103 -4, 274 , 289

Majlis (mourning session), 105 -10

Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir, 27 -28, 175 , 188

Majlisi, Muhammad Taqi, 26 , 64

Maliku'l-'Ulama', 46

Mamluks, 27 , 30 -31, 36 , 225

Mamun Khan, 'Ali Muhammad, 276 -78

Manikpur, 147

Man Singh, Raja, 245 , 274

Marathas, 38 ;

ally with Safdar Jang, 47 ;

defeated by Shuja'u'd-Dawlah, 48 , and Shah 'Alam II, 133 ;

Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi fights, 235

Marriage, temporary, 88

Marthiyyah , 97 , 108

Mashhad, 21 -22, 64

Mawdudi, Shah 'Ali Akbar, 127 , 129 , 149 -51

Mazandarani, Muhammad Sa'id "Ashraf,"26

Meerut, 208 , 236 , 273

Mewaris, 240 -41

Middle East, 59

Mihdi 'Ali Khan, .Hakim, 182 , 257 , 262

Millenarianism, 100 -101, 238 , 265

Mir, Mir Taqi, 97 -98, 147

Mohani, Sayyid Kamalu'd-Din, 202

Monism. See Wahdat al-wujud

Moradabad, 90

Moradabadi, Mufti Sa'du'llah, 210 , 248

Mosques, 76 , 86 , 205 , 280

Mu'afi , 136

Mu'alij Khan, Hakim Muhammad, 55 -57

Mubarak Mahall, 181

Muftis , 162 , 209 -13

Mughal rulers, 13 -14;

promoted Sunnism, 14 , relation to Shi'ism, 24 -28, depreciation of silver currency of, 37 ;

peasant revolts as cause for decline of, 37 ;

effects of decentralization on, 37 -38, Awadh becomes independent of, 174 -77

Mughals (caste), 71 , 81 -83

Muhaddiths , 5 , 17

Muhammad, Prophet, 4

Muhammadabadi, Sayyid Ahmad 'Ali, 182 , 206

Muhammad 'Ali Shah: placed on throne by British, 195 ;

remits money to shrine cities, 195 ;

illegally acquires laud, 216 ;

loan of, to East India Company, 261 , endows Husaynabad Imambarah, 261 -62

Muhammad Husayn Khan 267 -69

Muhammad Shah, 45 , 50 , 51

Muhammad Zaki Khan, Mirza, 167

Muharram rites: Lahore observance of, 25 -26;

in Delhi, 83 ;

Sunni Shaykhs' approach to, 83 ;

Pathan observance of, 84 ;

Naqshbandi opposition to, 84 ;

in Sunni villages, 88 ;

in Lucknow, 101 -15;

women's observance of, 108 -9;

among non-Shi'is, 115 -17;

forbidden by Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi, 236 ;

Sunni-Shi'i violence during, 240 -42, 248 ;

and communalism under British, 288

Mu'izzu'd-Din Khan, 45 -46

Mujtahids. See Ijtihad ; Ulama, Shi'i; Usulis

Multan, 51

Munawwaru'd-Dawlah, Ahmad 'Ali Khan, 206

Munir, Mawlavi Muhammad, 56

Musa, Khan, Khwaja, 83

Musavi, Sayyid Muhammad Baqir, 156

Mut'ah (temporary marriage), 88

Mu'tamadu'd-Dawlah, Agha Mir: grants patronage to Akhbaris, 165 ;

at Ghaziyu'd-Din Haydar's coronation, 175 ;

dismissed and reinstated as chief minister, 232 -33;

and Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi, 237 ;

allows ritual cursing of Caliphs in bazaar, 240 ;

and Hakim Mihdi 'ali Khan Kashmiri, 262

Muzaffarnagar, 77 , 90 , 182

Mysticism, See Sufis

N

Nadir Shah, 28 , 32 , 36 , 41 , 45

Najaf: al-Qatifi in, 20 , Mulla 'Abdu'l-Majid from, 56 ;

Usulism in, 62 -64;

money remitted to, 138 -39, 195 ;

leader of Shi'i world in, 213 ;

building of canal to, 259

Najafi, Muhammad Hasan, 205 , 213 -14

Najafi, Sayyid Muhammad an-, 168

Nanpara. Raja of, 104

Naqqals , 87

Naqshbandis, 8 , 84 , 89 , 226 , 230 -38

Nasirabad, Birhar, 76

Nasirabad, Rai Bareli, 60 , 77 , 137 , 234 -37, 235 -37

Nasirabadi, Sayyid 'Abdu'l-Husayn, 278

Nasirabadi, Sayyid 'Ali, 186 -87

Nasirabadi, Sayyid 'Ali Akbar, 264 , 281

Nasirabadi, Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad Taju'l-'Ulama', 264 , 278

Nasirabadi, Sayyid 'Ali Naqi Zubdatu'l-'Ulama', 200 -202, 207

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Bandah Husayn, 188 , 207

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Dildar 'Ali: and Tafazzul Husayn Khan Kashmiri, 53 ;

early studies in India. 60 -62, in Iraq, 62 -65;

family origins. 77 ;

builds imambarah , 96 ;

opposes drums, 113 ;

and Hasan Riza Khan, 127 ;

and Friday prayers. 128 -36. 149 -51;

constructs mosque, 137 , students of, 138 ;

advises resort to Shi'i judges, 140 ;

controversies with Aqa Ahmad Bihbahani, 141 -42;

refuses judgeship, 142 ;

and polemics against Sufis, 149 -59;

justifies cooperation with nawabs, 155 ;

and polemics with Akhbarism, 159 -65;

dreams Twelfth. Imam adopts son Muhammad, 177 -78;

receives mu'afi villages and stipend, 179 -80;

praised by Shaykh Muhammad Hasan an-Najafi, 214 ;

distinguishes Shi'is from Hindus, 224 -25;

urges persecution of Hinduism, 226 ;

urges public cursing of Caliphs, 231 ;

bestows legal status of Muslim on Sunnis, 232 ;

distinguishes between pure and impure Sunnis, 232 ;

and Rai Bareli riot, 237 ;

views of British, 255 -58;

forbids Shi'is from taking interest on loans to Christians, 259

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Hadi, 211

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Husayn: and laborers, 168 -69;

bestows ijazah for leading Friday prayers, 182 ;

polemics of, against Shaykhism, 187 -88;

administers state zakat money, 200 ;

helps indigent cleric, 202 ;

laments opposition of notables, 203 ;

Shah bestows Sayyid funds on, 203 ;

proposes seminary, 204 ;

jointly heads supreme appeals court, 211 ;

major judicial opinions of, unchanging, 214 ;

criticizes notables as corrupt, 215 ;

on teaching infidel children, 227 ;

criticizes Caliphs, 231

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Muhammad: on non-Shi'i Sayyids, 81 ;

and Muharram, 107 ;

polemics of, with Sufis, 157 ;

polemics of, with Akhbaris, 166 -67;

role in Ghaziyu'd-Din Haydar's coronation ceremonies, 175 -77;

claims to be adopted son of Twelfth Imam, 177 -78;

mu'afi villages owned by, 180 , receives bequest from Vilayati Begam, 180 -81;

conflict of, with Nasiru'd-Din Haydar, 191 -92;

Amjad 'Ali Shah devoted to, 197 ;

orders taverns, brothels dosed, 197 -98;

heads excise tax department, 198 ;

urges boycott of Hindu goods, 198 ;

and zakat and khums , 199 -200;

Shah bestows Sayyid funds on, 203 ;

proposes seminary, 204 ;

jointly heads supreme appeals court, 211 ;

praised by Shaykh Muhammad Hasan an-Najafi, 214 ;

refuses noble titles, 215 ;

criticizes moral conduct of Awadh shahs, 216 ;

forbids Muslim mob action against Hindus, 228 ;

insists on public cursing of caliphs, 242 ;

polemics of, with Sunnis, 242 -43;

and

Nasirabadi: (Contd .)

Faizabad temple dispute, 244 -49;

allows taking of interest on loans to non-Shi'is, 263 ;

debate of, with Joseph Wolff, 265 ;

supports Aminu'd-Dawlah for chief minister, 267 ;

and trial of Muhammad Husayn Khan, nazim of Bahraich, 268 -69;

and divination for shah, 270 , pecuniary distress of, after British annexation, 271 ;

avoids Christian law courts, 272 ;

Bahadur Shah II declares his adoption of Shi'ism to, 276 ;

possible role of, in Birjis Qadar's coronation, 277 -78 n;

refuses. to call for jihad during 1857 Revolt. 279 -80;

rewarded by British, 281

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Muhammad Baqir Munsifu'd-Dawlah, 211 , 267 n, 278

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Muhammad Taqi, 205 -6, 278

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Murtaza, 211

Nasirabadi, Sayyid Yad 'Ali, 138

Nasiriyyah Library, 8

Nasiru'd-Din, Sayyid, 76

Nasiru'd-Din Haydar: at father's coronation, 175 ;

bestows patronage on Keranavi, 182 ;

caesaropapist, 189 -90, 192 -93;

innovates in Shi'i ritual, 190 -91;

claims to represent Twelfth Imam, 192 ;

supports Sufis, 192 ;

persecutes Hindus, 228 ;

persccutes Sunnis during Muharram, 240 -42

Nasiru'd-Din Shah, 276

Nauganavi, Sayyid Muharram 'Ali. 208

Nauganoh, 208

Naunahravi, Sayyid Najaf 'Ali, 183

Ni'matu'llahis, 147 -48, 155

Niraqi, Muhammad Mihdi, 34 n

Nishapuri, Sayyid Sharafu'd-D'in, 76

Nishapuri, Sayyid Sulayman, 76

Nishapuris, 45 , 56

Nizami method, 43 -44

Nizam Shahs, 23

North-Western Provinces, 71 , 90

Nurbakhshiyyah, 25

O

Omanis, 31

Ottomans: conquests of, 13 -14, promoted Sunnism, 14 ;

decentralization of. 27 ;

Nadir Shah defeated by, 28 ;

European defeats of, 36 ;

effects of firearms and artillery on, 36 -37;

sack Karbala, 215

Oudh, 71 , 90 . See also Awadh

Outram, 245 , 247 -48

P

Pakistan, 289

Panah 'Ali, Sayyid, 62

Pantheism, 147 , 154 . See Wahdat al-wujud

Parkin, Frank, 3

Passion plays, 114

Pathans, 71 , 79 , 83 -84

Patna, 137 , 182

Patronage, 178 -83

Pirpur, 76

Pollution, ritual. See Purity, ritual

Pukhtuns, 45 -46, 83

Punjab, 38 , 238 , 266 -67, 289

Purity, ritual, 87 , 227 -28, 232 , 255 -56

Q

Qadiris, 8 , 74 , 89

Qa'imu'd-Din, Muhammad 'Ali, 207 , 216

Qajars, 5 , 6 , 28 , 137

Qasabahs : defined, 75 ;

Sayyid or Shaykh headmen of, 78 ;

Shaykhs dwell in, 83 ;

Pathans in, 84 ;

Muslim landlords employ Hindus in, 86 -87;

Usuli ulama from, 182 , 208 ;

Naqshbandi Sufism in, 234 ;

economic decline of, 234 -35;

Amethavi's movement and, 246 -49;

decline of, and Muslim communalism, 287 -288

Qatifi, Ibrahim al-, 20

Qazis , 139 -141, 204 -9

Qazvini, Sayyid Ibrahim, 186

Qiyas , 18 , 60 -61

Qizilbash, 28 , 45 , 82

Qumm, 21

Qummi, Muhammad Tahir, 21

Qutb-Shahis, 5 , 22 -23, 210

Qutbu'd-Din Muhammad Khan, 45

R

Radi, ash-Sharif ar-, 148

Rai-Barelavi, Sayyid Ahmad, 233 -38

Rai Bareli, 8 , 60 , 233 -38

Rajasthan, 62

Rajputs, 45 , 57

Ramput, 252

Rashti, Sayyid Kazim, 186 -88

Rationalist authority, 145 -46, 169 -71, 189

Rawzah-khvan , 97

Rickerrs, Mordaunt, 176 , 241 , 260 -61

Riza, Imam, 74

Riza Khan 'Ali-Jah Bahadur, 208

Ruhihilahs, 45 -46, 48 , 49 , 60 , 65 , 133

Ruling classes: role of, in spreading Shi'ism, 34 -35;

and formal religious establishment, 126 ;

called tyrannical, 155 ;

Shi'i, sought cachet of Hidden Imam, 177 ;

ulama form subordinate part of, 183

Rumi Darvazah, 94

Rustamnagar, 99 -100, 111

S

Sa'adat 'Ali Khan: and tutor, 53 ;

put into power by East India Company, 54 ;

cedes half of Awadh, 71 ;

confiscates revenue-free holdings, 76 ;

and Sayyids, 80 ;

marries daughter of Madaru'd-Dawlah, 83 ;

and shrine to Hazrat 'Abbas, 99 ;

observance of Muharram by, 102 ;

appoints Sunni judges, 140 ;

mistakes date of Holy Day, 141 -42;

despotic rule of, supported by S. Dildar 'Ali, 155 ;

bestows stipends instead of land, 179 ;

tomb of, 205 ;

hires Shi'i administrators, 256 -57;

and case of heirs of Hajji Karbala'i Tihrani vs. heirs of Hasan Riza Khan, 259 -58

Sabzavari, Sayyid Najmu'd-Din, 77

Sadiq, Imam, Ja'far as-: legal reasoning of, 16

Safavids: Shi'i state, 5 ;

conquests of, 13 -14;

Afghan defeat of, 27 ;

Shi'ism promoted by, 14 , 22 ;

Usulism accepted by, 19 ;

held up as example to Awadh shahs, 210

Safdar Jang, 45 -47, 51 -52, 82

Saharanpur, 236

Sakm-i sadat , 80

Sa'idu'd-Dawlah, 267

Salamu'llah Khan, 53

Salon, 42 , 147 , 236

Samanpur, 76

Sami', Mawlavi, 154 -56, 224 -25, 230

Sandila, 46 , 77 , 80 , 139

Sasani, Abu'l-Qasim, 182

Sawda, Rafi'u'd-Din, 97

Sayyids, 71 , 73 -81, 199 -200, 202 -3, 231

Sect, variety of meanings, 3 ;

defined, 7 ;

and Shi'ism in eighteenth-century North India, 123 -27, 142 -44;

and Indian Akhbarism, 178 ;

transition from, to formal establishment, 213 , 284 -85

Seminary (madrasah ), 182 , 204 -9, 217 , 272 , 289

Sermon, Friday. See Khutbah

Shahjahanpur, 49 , 60

Shahji, 158

Shahristani, Muhammad Mihdi, 34 n

Sharafu'd-Dawlah, 267 , 277

Shaykhism, 185 -89

Shaykhs (caste), 71 , 77 -78, 83 , 231

Shaykhzadahs, 41 , 45 , 46

Shi'is, Imami or Twelver: riot against Farangi-Mahall, 49 ;

receive stipends from Asafu'd-Dawlah, 57 -58;

social origins of, 69 -91;

undercounted in census, 86 ;

distribution in Awadh, 90 ;

folk practices of, 99 -101;

women of, forbidden to marry Sunnis, 232 ;

and Faizabad temple dispute, 244 -49;

mujtahids forbid, from working for British, 256 ;

mujtahids allow, to work for British, 258 ;

and the taking of interest on loans, 259 -63;

during the 1857 Revolt, 272 -81

Shi'ism, Imami or Twelver: early history, 4 -5, 16 -19;

theocracy in, 5 ;

popular-class support for, 34 -35;

sling-class support for, 34 -35;

Sayyids often sympathetic to, 74 -81;

influence among artisans, 85 -89;

Friday prayers in, 127 -37;

zakat and khums in, 199 -200

Shiraz, 31 , 32

Shuja'u'd-Dawlah: reign of, 47 -50;

supports Shi'i rioters, 49 ;

and Tafazzul Husayn Khan Kashmiri, 53 ;

and Shi'i physicians, 54 -55;

tums against Qizilbash, 82 ;

strives to keep EIC out of Awadh, 252

Shustar, 22

Shustari, Nuru'llah, 25

Shustari, Sayyid Muhammad 'Abbas, 206 -7, 211 -13, 243 , 270

Sialkot, 53

Sihala, 43 , 248

Sindh, 62

Sitapur, 82 , 274

Sleeman, W. H., 202 -3, 242 , 267 -69

State building, 1 -2, 46 -50, 142 -44, 171 -72, 289

Status groups, 72 -73, 79 , 183 , 216 -17

Stratification, social: relative importance of horizontal and vertical, 3 -4;

remains important during community rites, 117 -18;

significance of, in religious leadership denied, 154 ;

and differing religious ideologies, 158 , 169 -72;

secondary variable

Stratification: (Contd .)

in defining church and sect, 219 -20;

based on religious community, 233 -34;

and Sayyid Ahmad Rai-Barelavi's movement, 234 -38;

and Faizabad temple dispute, 248 -50;

and 1857 Revolt, 273 -81;

and the study of Awadh Shi'ism, 285

Subhan 'Ali Khan, 158 , 165 , 231 , 256 -57

Sufis: persecuted by Safavid ulama, 21 ;

favored by eighteenth-century Awadh nobility, 127 ;

and Shi'ism, 89 -90;

and Friday prayer issue, 129 - 36, 148 -51;

lands endowed for, by Asafu'd-Dawlha, 147 ;

and Shi'ism in Lucknow, 147 -48;

and polemics with Usulism, 152 -59;

cursed and ostracized by Usulis, 156 -59;

levy contributions on bazaar, 158

Sulayman Shah, 21

Sultan Husayn, Shah, 27 -28

Sultanu'l-'Ulama'. See Nasirabadi, Sayyid Muhammad

Sunnis: Safavid persecution of, 28 ;

Burhanu'l-Mulk's expropriation of, 42 ;

insecurity of, under Shuja'u'd-Dawlah, 48 -50;

receive stipends from Asafu'd-Dawlah, 57 ;

observance of Muharram, 115 ;

violence between, and Shi'is, 115 ;

attacked in Shi'i sermons, 156 ;

former, turned Shi'is avoid cursing ancestors, 157 ;

poor, embrace Shi'ism for alms, 200 ;

exclusion of, from being qazis urged, 210 ;

polemics of, with Shi'is, 229 -33;

militant movements among, 234 -38, 244 -49;

communal barriers between, and Shi'is, 238 -44;

and Muharram rites, 240 ;

reaction of, to British conquest of Delhi, 255 ;

militants among, practice dual closure toward Shi'is and Hindus, 287 ;

desire for separate state among, 287 -90

Suz-khvani , 107

Syllogism. See Qiyas

Syncretism, 115 -17, 224 , 236

T

Ta'alluqdars , 75 , 103 -4, 266 , 274

Tabarra ', 108 , 240 -42

Tabataba'i, Sayyid 'Ali, 34 , 62 , 134 , 138 , 163 -64

Tabataba'i, Sayyid Muhammad Mihdi, 34 , 64

Tafdil , 231 , 236

Tahsin 'Ali Khan, 226

Tahsin 'Ali Mosque, 205

Tahmasp I, 19

Tahmasp II, 28

Taj, Sayyid, 75 -76

Taju'd-Din Husayn Khan, 158 , 165 , 256 -57

Tanda, 85 -86

Taqiyyah (pious dissimulation): forbidden under Safavids, 20 ;

controversy over, in Awadh, 141 -42;

led to forbidding music, 154 ;

forbidden in post-1819 Awadh, 242

Taqlid (emulation), 18 , 162

Taxes, religious, See Kharaj ; Khums ; Zakat

Tehran, 32 , 64 , 164

Tihrani, Hajji Karbala'-i Muhammad, 139 , 259

Tikaitganj, 94

Tiloi, Raja of (Mohan Singh), 41 Traditional authority, 145 -46. 159 -67, 169 -71

Turanians, 47

Turner, Bryan, 3 , 126

Twelfth Imam, 5 , 17 , 100 , 192

U

Ulama, Shi'i (Indian): subordinate to physicians in Faizabad, 55 ;

attracted to Lucknow, 59 ;

scholarship inhibited under Mughals, 59 ;

in Najaf and Karbala, 62 -64;

forbid flagellation, 108 ;

allow flagellation, 114 ;

relations with Sa'adat 'Ali, 140 -42;

bureaucratization of, 142 -44;

and professional closure, 144 ;

legitimate Awadh monarchy in Khutbahs , 176 -77;

sources of patronage for, 178 -83;

controversy among, over drinking and gambling, 182 -83;

and zakat and khums , 198 -204;

become high notables, rentiers, 202 -4;

and seminary, 204 -9;

intermarry with high notables, 206 , 209 ;

maintain distinct style of life, 216 ;

collaborate with state, 216 -17;

intolerant of Hinduism, 224 -29;

attitude to Sunnism, 229 -49;

forbid taking of interest on loans, 258 -59;

allow taking of interest on loans, 263 ;

reject modern science, 264 ;

role of, in 1857 Revolt, 278 -81;

support Shi'i state, 283 -84

Ulama, Shi'i (Iranian): scriptural authority of, 5 -6;

social role of, 5 -6;

ideology of, 6 ;

opposition to Iranian state, 6 , 18 , 21 ;

state-employed, 18 , 21 ;

distrusted by laity,

21 ;

persecute Sufis, 21 ;

displaced by Afghan conquest of Iran, 29 ;

expropriation of, 29 ;

response to Safavid fall, 29 ;

emigration to Awadh, 141 -42, 183 -85

Urdu language, 24 , 97 , 107 , 110 , 187 , 288

'Urf. See Customary law

Usulis: proxies for Imams, 5 -6, 18 ;

early rationalists, 17 -18;

emulation of, by laymen required, 18 -19;

dominant in shrine cities in 1779, 64 ;

promote Friday prayers in Awadh, 127 -37;

S. Dildar 'Ali's students become, 138 ;

polemics of, with Sufism, 152 -59;

curse and ostracize Sufis, 156 -59;

polemics of, with Akhbarism, 159 -69;

incite mob against Mirza Muhammad Akbarabadi, 164 ;

polemics of, with Shaykhism, 185 -89;

polemics of, with Sunnism, 229 -49;

and communalism, 286 -90

'Uyuz, Mulla, 52

V

Vajid 'Ali Shah: criticized by British for paying zakat , 202 ;

ceases paying zakat , 203 ;

less proclerical than father, 203 ;

usurps slave-girl, 216 ;

circumvents inheritance 'law, 216 ;

estrangement from ulama, 217 ;

stops payment for seminary, 217 ;

forces conversion to Shi'ism of munshis , 243 ;

and Faizabad temple dispute, 244 -49;

and trial of Muhammad Husayn Khan, nazim of Bahraich, 268 -69;

deposed by British, 270 ;

interred in Calcutta, 276

Valiyu'llah, Shah, 226

Vilayati Begam, 181

W

Wahdatal-wujud , 147 , 149 , 152 , 154 , 156 , 235

Wakils , 17

Waqf (endowment), 96 , 147 , 202 , 207

Water-carriers, 87

Weavers, 85 , 254

Weber, Max, 3 , 72 , 123 , 145 -46, 189

Wellesley, Governor-General, 253

Wilson, Bryan, 3 , 124

WolffJoseph, 265

Z

Zakat , 198 -204

Zamindars , 75 , 78 , 137 , 182

Zand, Karim Khan, 28

Zands, 28 , 34 , 37

Zangipuri, Sayyid 'Ata' Husayn, 50

Zangipuri, Sayyid Hasan Riza, 181

Zayd b. 'Ali, 56 -57, 74

Zaydpur, 76 , 248

Zuhuru'llah, Mawlavi, 140 , 242